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PRINCETON,     N.     J. 

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Divisw7i..  1j.vJ2L3..^  1 

Section    .,»    L./.Q.                                                  i 

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Nuviber ... 

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NEW   TESTAMENT    STUDY. 


ESSENTIALS 


OF 


NEW    TESTAMENT     STUDY 


INTENDED    AS    A 

Companion  to  tfje  l^ctD  €e^tamcnt, 

AND    EMBRACING 

AN  INTRODUCTORY  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  ;  A  RESUMfi 
AND  HARMONY  OP  GOSPEL  HISTORY;  TABLES  OF  WEIGHT,  MEASURE, 
AND  CHRONOLOGY;  A  DICTIONARY  OF  HARD  WORDS  AND  PHRASES; 
AN  EXPLANATION  OF  OBSOLETE  AND  ARCHAIC  WORDS  ;  A  BIOGRA- 
PHICAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY  ;  AND  A  TABLE  OF  OLD 
TESTAMENT    QUOTATIONS  : 

TOGETHER     WITH    MAPS    AND    PLANS,    ETC.. 


WILLIAM  EDENSOE^^LITTLEWOOD,  M.A. 

VICAR     OP     ST.     JAMES'S,     BATH  ; 
FORMERLY      HEAD      MASTER      OF      HIPPERIlOLME      GRAMMAR      SCHOOL,      HALIFAX. 


A.   D.    F.    RANDOLPH     AND     CO. 

NEW   YORK. 

1872. 


*  As  concerning  all  I  have  translated  or  otherwise  written, 
I  beseech  all  men  to  read  it  for  that  purpose  I  wrote  it,  even  to 
bring  them  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Scripture.  And  as  far  as  the 
Scripture  appriU'eth  it,  so  far  to  allow  it ;  and  if  in  any  place  the 
Word  of  God  disallow  it,  there  to  refuse  it.' 

William  Tyndale,  153-4. 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION    I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

A.  The  Greek  Text  of  the  New  Testament 

B.  The  English  Authorised  Version     . 

C.  The  order  of  the  Books  of  the  Xew  Testament 

D.  The  origin  of  the  first  three  Gospels 

E.  Introductions  to  each  book  of  the  New  Testament 

St.  Matthew  and  his  writing's 

St.  Mark 

St.  Luke  „ 

St.  John 

St.  Paul 

Epistle  of  St.  James 

St.  Peter  and  his  writings 

Epistle  of  St.  Jude     . 


PAGE 

1 

4 
5 
6 


12 
17 
27 
43 
44 
52 


SECTION    IL 

SKETCH   OF   THE    GOSPEL   HISTORY. 
CHAPTER 

I.  From  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  b.c.  5,  to  his  being  found  in  the 

Temple,  March,  a.d.  9 54 

II.  From  the  Baptism  to  the  imnamed  feast  at  Jerusalem  .         .        61 

III.  The  Galilean  ministry,  from  the  appearance  of  Jesus  at  Nazareth 

to  the  feeding  of  the  5,000 67 

IV.  The   Galilfean   ministry,  from  our  Lord's  departure  to  Syro- 

Phoenicia  to  his  departure  for  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  .        .  80 
V.  From  our  Lord's  departure  for  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  to  the 

end  of  the  Feast  of  Dedication ^6 

VI.  From  the  commencement  of  the  final  journey  to  Jerusalem  to 

Thursday,  14th  Nisan,  A.n.  30 92 

VII.  From  the  Last  Supper  to  the  Ascension  of  Jesu.<  Christ      .  98 


Vlil  CONTENTS. 

SECTION    III. 

TABLES. 

PA(1E 

1.  Chronological  Summary  of  (lospel  History ]J8 

2.  Chronology  of  the  Acts 127 

3.  Tables  of  Lf-ngth 128 

„        Liquid  Measure 128 

,,         Dry  Measure 129 

,,.         Weight 129 

„         Money 129 

„        Greek  and  Roman  Money 130 

Other  Measures 130 

Table  of  Time 130 


SECTION    IV. 

DICTIONARY    OF   DIFFICULTIES. 

1.  Words  and  phrases  requiring  explanation,  but  not  being  proper 

names 132 

2.  Obsolete  and  Archaic  Words  used  in  the  Authorised  Yersion  .       261 


SECTION     V. 

DICTIONARY   OK   BIOGRAPHY   AND   GEOGRAPHY  ....         273 


Appendix    I.  List  of  Passages  from  the  Old  Testament,  quoted  in  the 

New  Testament 515 

Appendix  II.  On  reading  and  writing  Greek  and  Hebrew  .         .        .       538 


LIST   OF   MAPS   AND   PLANS. 

Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ to  face  1 

Map  Illustrating  the  Travels  of  St.  ]'.. ill      ....            „  27 

Ancient  Jerusalem „  376 

The  Sea  of  Galilee 79 

The  Kidron  Valley 376 


ESSENTIALS 

OF 

NEW     TESTAMENT     STUDY. 


SECTION     I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 


A.    The  Greek  Text  of  the  Xew  Testament. 

1.  The  Textus  Receptus,  oi'  Received  Text. — Our  Authorised 
English  Version  of  the  New  Testament  was  made  from  a  Greek  text 
prepared  originally  by  Erasmus,  and  revised  by  Robert  Stephens,  a 
Parisian  printer,  and  Theodore  Beza,  an  eminent  French  Calvinist. 
Erasmus  published  his  first  edition  in  1516,  and  his  fifth  edition, 
with  which  Stephens'  is  almost  identical,  in  1537.  Theodore  Beza's 
first  edition  was  published  in  1565. 

In  his  first  edition  Erasmus  only  used  such  MSS.  as  he  found 
at  Basle,  where  he  was  then  residing.  In  his  fourth  edition  he 
availed  himself  of  what  is  known  as  the  Comi^kdensian  Polyglot 
(so  called  from  Alcala,  or  Complutum,  in  Spain,  where  it  was 
printed,  under  the  direction  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  in  1514,  although 
not  published  until  1522).  From  what  MSS.  the  Complutensian 
Polyglot  was  formed  is  not  known.  Theodore  Beza  used  also  a 
MS.  known  as  the  Codex  Bezce,  now  in  the  Cambridge  University 
Library.  It  contains  the  four  Gospels  and  Acts  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  and  is  generally  supposed  to  be  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  century. 
He  also  used  the  Codex  Claromontanus,  an  uncial  MS.  of  the  sixth 
century,  containing  the  Pauline  Epistles  in  Greek  and  Latin.  This 
MS.  is  now  in  the  National  Library  at  Paris. 

Our  Received  Text  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  principally 

B 


2  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

lormed  from  the  Codex  Bez^e,  the  Codex  Claromontanus,  and  the 
unknown  MSS.  used  by  Erasmus  and  the  editors  of  the  Com- 
plutensian  Polyglot. 

The  corrections  which  the  possession  of  more  trustworthy  MSS. 
and  the  diligence  of  subsequent  editors  require  to  be  made  in  the 
Textus  Receptus  are,  as  might  be  expected,  very  numerous.  But  it 
is  only  in  comparatively  few  places  that  they  really  affect  the  sense 
of  a  passage,  or  the  doctrine  deducible  therefrom.  A  few  of  the 
important  passages  thus  needing  correction  are — 

John  V.  4,       should  be  .   |;ro&a&^/  omitted. 

John  viii.  3-11      „  .    probably  omitted. 

Acts  viii.  37         „  .    omitted. 

Acts  XX.  28,  may  be  .  '  the  church  of  the  Lord/  and  not 
'  the  church  of  God,'  but  the  pre- 
ponderance favours  the  latter. 

1  Tim.  iii.  16       ,,  .  '  of  godliness,  who  was  manifest,'  and 

not  '  of  godliness :  God  was  mani- 
fest' 

1  John  V.  7,  8,  should  be  '  For  there  are  three  that  bear  record 
[in  heaven,  the  Father,  the  Word, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost:  and  these 
three  are  one.  And  there  are  three 
that  bear  witness  in  earth,]  the 
spirit  and  the  water  and  the  blood : 
and  these  three  agree  in  one.'  Omit 
the  icoi'ds  in  brackets. 

The  canonical  character  of  the  passage  Mark  xvi.  9-20,  which 
has  been  much  disputed,  has  been  lately  ably  demonstrated  by 
Mr.  Burgon.  Whether  it  was  written  by  St.  Mark  is  doubtful. 
Neither  the  Vatican  nor  Sinaitic  MSS.  contain  it. 

2.  Principal  Sxistingr  Original  mss. — Four  MSS.  may  now 
be  chiefly  relied  wn  for  the  formation  of  an  accurate  text. 

(1)  The  Sinaitic  Codex,  indicated  by  (^sj),  was  discovered  by 
Tischendorf  at  the  Convent  of  St.  Catherine,  on  Mount  Sinai,  in 
1844,  and  was  obtained  for  the  Emperor  of  Russia  in  1859.  It  is 
an  uncial  MS.  (i.e.  written  in  capital  letters)  in  four  columns  to  a 
page,  and  contains  both  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the  latter  per- 
fect, as  well  as  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  part  of  '  The  Shepherd ' 
of  Hermas.  Tischendorf  considers  that  it  is  one  of  fifty  copies  of 
the  Scriptures  which  the  Emperor  Constantine  directed  to  be  made 


THE   GREEK   TEXT   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT.        3 

in  331  for  Byzantium.  It  has  since  been  published,  and  the  Au- 
thorised Enjilish  Version,  with  corrections  made  by  its  assistance, 
has  been  published  at  a  low  rate  by  Tauchnitz  of  Leipsic.  The 
MS.  itself  is  at  St.  Petersburgh. 

(2)  The  Vatican  Codex  (B)  contains  the  Old  Testament  (want- 
ing a  large  portion  of  Genesis  and  the  Psalms),  and  the  New  Tes- 
tament (deficient  by  Heb.  x.  14-end,  Timothy,  Titus,  Philemon,  and 
Rev.)  with  the  Epistle  cf  Clement  to  the  Coiinthians.  It  is  uncial, 
written  on  vellum,  three  columns  to  a  page,  and  is  regarded  as  of 
about  the  same  age  as  the  Sinaitic  Codex.  An  edition  of  it  was 
published  by  Cardinal  Mai  in  1858,  but  this  is  considered  un- 
reliable.    This  MS.  is  in  the  Vatican  library  at  Eome. 

(3).  The  Alexandrine  Codex  (A)  is  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
having  been  sent  as  a  present  to  Charles  I.  in  1628  by  Cyrillus 
Lucaris,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  It  contains  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  and  the  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians. 
It  is  uncial,  written  on  parchment,  with  two  columns  to  a  page. 
Matt.  i.  1-xxv.  6,  John  vi.  50-vii.  52,  and  2  Cor.  iv.  13-xii.  6,  are 
wanting  in  it.  It  is  generally  considered  to  have  been  written  in 
Egypt  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  It  has  been  published 
in  facsimile,  N.  T.  1736,  0.  T.  1819. 

(4)  The  Codex  Ephrcemi  (C)  is  preserved  in  the  National  Library 
at  Paris.  This  MS.  is  what  is  called  a  palimpsest,  i.e.  a  manuscript 
which  has  been  used  twice  over  ;  the  earlier  writing  having  either 
faded  or  been  removed  so  as  to  permit  a  second  use  of  the  vellum 
or  parchment.  The  second  writing  in  this  case  is  in  cursive  or 
small  letters,  and  contains  the  works  of  Ephrem  the  Syrian.  Under- 
neath this  cursive  writing  is  found  an  uncial  writing,  containing 
about  two-thirds  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  This  MS.  was 
probably  written  at  Alexandria,  in  the  fifth  century,  and  is  regarded 
as  of  very  high  critical  value.  It  was  published  by  Tischendorf  in 
1843. 

Besides  these  four  principal  MSS.,  others  may  be  named,  with 
the  letters  by  which  they  are  generally  indicated. 

Probable  Date. 
Codex  Bezse  (D)         .         .         .         .  Latter  end  of  the  fifth 

century. 
Codex  Dublinensis  (Z)        .         .         .  A    palimpsest,     of    the 

sixth  century. 
Codex  Purpureus  or  Cottonianus  (I)  .  A  fragment,  of  the  sixth 

century. 


ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY, 


B.    The  English  Attthokised  Version. 

During  the  latter  part  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  two  rival 
English  bibles  existed.  The  former  of  these,  which  Mr.  Westcott 
describes  as  at  that  time  '  the  household  bible  of  the  English-speak- 
ing nations,'  ^  is  commonly  known  as  the  Genevan  Bible.  It  ap- 
peared at  Geneva  in  1557,  with  an  introductory  epistle  by  Calvin, 
and  was  the  work  of  the  Protestant  English  exiles  who  resided 
there,  amongst  whom  Calvin's  son-in-law,  W.  Whittingham,  was 
conspicuous.  It  was  divided  into  verses'^  and  sections,  and  was 
rendered  more  attractive  by  a  marginal  commentary.  The  bible 
read  in  the  churches,  however,  was  not  the  Genevan  Bible,  but 
a  bible  known  as  The  Bishops'  Bible.  This  version  was  com- 
menced in  1563,  and  concluded  in  1568,  under  the  guidance  of 
Archbishop  Parker.  There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  persons 
by  whom  the  revision  was  actually  effected,  but  eight  of  the  re- 
visers who  can  be  identified  were  bishops,  and  from  them  the  book 
derives  its  name.  This  bible  was  founded  on  the  Great  Bible,  set 
forth  by  Archbishop  Cranmer  in  1540,  which  was  the  work  of 
Miles  Coverdale,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Exeter.  Bishop  Cover- 
dale's  translation  was  originally  made  'out  of  Dutch  (German) 
and  Latin,'  but  had  been  compared  with  the  original  languages. 
But  previous  to  the  work  of  Coverdale,  William  Tyndale  had 
translated  into  English  the  New  Testament,  and  portions  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  had  published  a  revised  edition  of  his  New 
Testament  (the  first  volume  of  Holy  Scripture  printed  in  England) 
in  1536,  under  the  patronage  of  Anne  Boleyn.  John  de  Wyecliffe, 
also,  so  early  as  1384,  had  issued  an  English  Bible  in  MS.,  trans- 
lated from  the  Latin  Vulgate. 

The  superior  popularity  of  the  Genevan  Bible  over  the  Bishops' 
Bible  was  one  important  cause  of  our  present  Authorised  Version. 
The  mistakes  and  shortcomings  of  the  Bishops'  Bible  were  naturally 
much  noticed,  and  accordingly  the  subject  of  a  new  translation  was 
considered  at  the  Hampton  Court  Conference,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  James  I.,  in  1604.  By  July  of  the  same  year  the 
king  had  matured  his  scheme  for  a  revision,  and  had  selected  fifty- 
four  persons  to  whom  to  entrust  a  new  translation.  But  difficulties 
arose,  and  the  work  was  not  seriously  undertaken  until  1607.     In 

^  History  of  the  English  Bible,  p.  121. 

'  Division  into  verses  first  appeared  in  Stephens'  Greek  Testament  of  1551.  The 
division  into  chapters  was  made  by  Cardinal  Hngo  in  the  thirteenth  century. 


THE  ENGLISH   AUTHORISED   VERSION.  5 

that  year  forty-seven  translators  (divided  into  six  companies,  two 
of  wliicli  met  at  Westminster,  two  at  Cambridge,  and  two  at  Oxford) 
commenced  the  revision.  The  Scriptures  were  thus  divided  among 
the  companies :  1,  Gen.-2  Kings.  2.  1  Chron.-Eccl.  3.  Isaiah- 
Malachi.  4.  The  Apocrypha.  5.  Four  Gospels  and  Apocalypse. 
6.  Romans-Jude.  A  code  of  instructions  was  drawn  up  for  their 
guidance,  among  the  provisions  of  which  the  following  may  be 
noted  : — 

1.  The  Bishops'  Bible  to  be  followed,  and  as  little  altered  as 

necessary. 
3.  The  old  ecclesiastical  words  to  be  kept — viz.  the  word  church 

not  to  be  translated  congregation^  &c. 
6.  No  marginal  notes  to  be  affixed,  but  only  for  the  explanation 

of  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  words. 
9.  Any  book  having  been  finished  by  one  company,  to  be  sent 

to  the  rest  for  consideration. 

The  work,  according  to  the  preface,  occupied  ^  twice  seven  times 
seventy-two  days  and  more '  (about  two  years  and  nine  months), 
and  appeared  from  the  press  of  E,.  Barker  in  1611.  It  is  the  Bible 
now  read  as  The  Authorised  Version  (A.  V.). 

While  these  words  are  being  written,  a  new  Revision  of  the 
English  Bible  is  being  undertaken  by  two  companies  of  learned 
and  pious  men,  appointed  by  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury,  but 
also  approved  of  by  the  Convocation  of  York. 

C.    The  Order  of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament. 

The  present  order  of  the  books  is  very  ancient,  but  is  not  the 
order  of  the  principal  MSS.     These  are — 

Vatican,  Alexandrine,  and  Uphrcemi.  Shiaitic. 

1.  Gospels.  1.  Gospels. 

2.  Acts.  2.  Pauline  Epistles  with  Heb. 

3.  Catholic  Epistles.  following  2  Thess. 

4.  Pauline  Epistles  with  Heb.  3.  Acts, 

between    2   Thess.   and        4.  Catholic  Epistles. 
1  Tim.  5.  Apocalypse. 

5.  Apocalypse. 

The  chronological  order  in  which  the  books  were  written  is  more 
difficult  to  determine,  and  is  treated  of  under  each  book. 


6  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

I).    The  Origin  of  the  First  Three  Gospels. 

The  second  chapter  of  Mr.  Westcott's  ^  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Gospels'  is  devoted  to  showing  that  the  three  first  Gospels 
arose  from  a  common  oral  source.  '■  This  oral  Gospel/  according 
to  the  same  learned  writer,  '  as  far  as  it  can  be  traced  in  the  Acts 
and  Epistles,  centered  in  the  crowning  facts  of  the  Passion  and 
the  Resurrection,  while  the  earlier  ministry  of  the  Lord  was  re- 
garded chiefly  in  relation  to  its  final  issue.'  Dean  Alford  had 
already  anticipated  this  view.  He  says  (Prolegomena,  i.  3),  'I 
believe  that  the  Apostles,  in  virtue  not  merely  of  their  having 
been  eye  and  ear  witnesses  of  the  Evangelic  history,  but  especially 
of  their  oifiee,  gave  to  the  various  churches  their  testimony  in  a 
narrative  of  facts  ....  This  common  substratum  of  Apostolic 
teaching — never  formally  adopted  by  all,  but  subject  to  all  the 
varieties  of  diction  and  arrangement,  addition  and  omission,  inci- 
dent to  transmission  through  many  individual  minds,  and  into 
many  different  localities — I  believe  to  have  been  the  original 
source  of  the  common  part  of  our  three  Gospels.' 

jE".     iNTRODrCTIONS    TO   EACH  BoOK   OF    THE   NeW   TESTAMENT. 
ST.    MATTHEW   AND   HIS   WRITINGS. 

1.  St.  Matthew's  Iiife. — Of  St.  Matthew  (?.Ta-0a7oc,  but 
better  M  «f^.3ra(oc,  Matthmts)  himself  very  little  is  known.  He  was 
a  publican,  or  collector  of  taxes,  at  Capernaum  in  Galilee,  and 
was  probably  of  good  means,  as  he  made  a  feast  for  our  Lord,  at 
whicb  many  persons  were  present.  He  was  employed  in  the 
duties  of  his  office  when  our  Lord  called  him,  and  is  recorded  to 
have  at  once  '  left  all  and  followed  him '  (Matt.  ix.  9, 10  ;  Mark  ii. 
14,  15 ;  Luke  v.  27-29).  Up  to  the  time  of  his  call  he  was  named 
Levi  the  son  of  Alphseus,  and  the  name  Matthew  (  =  Theodore  = 
the  gift  of  God  ?)  appears  to  have  been  a  surname,  as  Peter  was. 
From  the  name  of  his  father,  which  was  the  same  as  that  of 
James  the  Less,  he  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  the  brother  of 
James,  but  the  names  of  James  and  Matthew  nowhere  appear  in 
"uch  conjunction  as  to  lend  any  support  to  this  supposition.  When 
our  Lord  appointed  an  apostolate,  Matthew  became  one  of  the 
Twelve,  and  his  name  appears  regularly  in  the  lists  with  that  of 
Thomas.  But  nothing  whatever  is  recorded  of  him  as  distin- 
guished from  the  other  Apostles.  Eusebius  states  that  he  preached 
fifteen  years  in  .Tudsea,  and  then,  having  delivered  his  Gospel  to 


ST.   MATTHEW  AND   HIS   WKITINGS.  7 

his  Jervish  converts,  went  to  other  nations.  Clemens  of  Alex- 
andria states  that  he  was  of  the  ascetic  school ;  and  many  other 
traditions  are  handed  down  respecting  him,  but  nothing  is  cer- 
tainly known  of  his  after  history. 

2.  St.  Matthew's  Gospel. — Language.  The  universal  tradi- 
tion of  the  early  Church  declares  that  Hebrew  or  Syro-Chaldaic 
(i.e.  the  vernacular  of  Palestine  in  our  Lord's  time)  was  the  origi- 
nal language  of  this  Gospel,  but  by  whom  or  when  it  was  trans- 
lated into  Greek  is  entirely  undetermined.  Alford,  who  takes 
this  view,  supports  it  with  the  authority  of  eighteen  eminent 
modern  critics ;  Archbishop  Thomson,  on  the  other  hand,  pro- 
duces as  many  for  an  opposite  opinion,  that  the  original  language 
was  Greek.     His  own  arguments  in  the  main  amount  to  three : 

(1)  That  the  quotations  from  the  0.  T.,  which,  when  occurring 
in  the  narrative,  are  taken  from  the  Hebrew  text,  and  when  occur- 
ring in  the  discourses  or  conversations  are  taken  from  the  Septua- 
gint,  are  dealt  with  in  too  free  a  manner  for  a  mere  translator ; 

(2)  That  there  was  certainly  a  heretical '  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews,'  ^ 
which  was  probably  mistaken  for  the  original  of  St.  Matthew's 
Gospel ;  (3)  That  the  original  Hebrew  Gospel  has  never  been 
seen  by  anyone  who  speaks  of  it. 

Date  and  Place  of  Writing.  From  xxvii.  8  ('  that  field  was 
called  The  field  of  Blood  tmto  this  dag  '),  and  xxviii.  15  ('  this 
saying  is  commonly  reported  among  the  Jews  unto  this  dag '),  it 
appears  that  some  time  elapsed  between  the  death  of  our  Lord 
(a.d.  30)  and  the  publication  of  this  Gospel,  On  the  other  hand, 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem  (a.d.  70)  had  not  taken  place. 
Early  testimony  varies.  Irenaeus  says  that  the  Gospel  was 
written  while  Peter  and  Paul  were  preaching  at  Rome  (a.d.  GI- 
GS ?)  ;  Eusebius  (as  above)  and  Nicephorus,  fifteen  years  after 
the  Ascension,  i.e.  A.D.  45 ;  others  in  a.d.  38,  and  others  at  the 
time  of  the  stoning  of  Stephen  (a.d.  3G  ?).  But  it  is  universally 
agreed  that  it  was  the  earliest  of  the  Gospels,  and  the  absence  of 
explanatory  clauses  as  to  Jewish  usages  indicates  that  it  was  com- 
posed for  the  use  of  Jews,  if  not  actually  in  Palestine  itself. 

Design.  The  primary  design  of  St.  Matthew  is  to  exhibit  Jesus 
as  the  Jewish  Messiah.  To  this  end  he  commences  his  Gospel,  in 
Jewish  fashion,  by  tracing  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  through 
David  to  Abraham,  continually  points  to  the  fulfilment  of  pro- 

'  In  Westcott's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels,  App.  D,  the  remaining  frag- 
ments of  this  Gospel,  as  found  in  Jerome's  translation,  are  given  at  length.  In  the 
Bame  place  fragments  of  other  apocrjrphal  gospels  are  exhibited. 


8  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY 

phecy,  and  uses  the  phrase  '  kingdom  of  heaven  ' — a  phrase  current 
amongst  Rabbinical  writers  to  designate  the  kingdom  of  Messiah. 
At  the  same  time,  St.  Matthew  is  careful  to  show  that  the  bless- 
ings of  Messiah  are  to  be  extended  to  all  the  world  (viii.  11,  12  ; 
xxi.  43  ;  xxviii.  19). 

Principal  Peculiarities. 

1.  Great  fulness  in  relating  our  Lord's  discourses.     See  especially 

v.-vii.,  x.-xiii.,  xxi.-xxv. 

2.  Reference  to  the  prophets,  generally  with  the  phrase,  '  That  it 

might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  of  the  Lord  by  the 
prophet.' 

3.  The   phrase  •'  kingdom  of   heaven '  occurs  thirty-  one  times, 

and  is  not  used  at  all  by  the  other  evangelists.  The  expres- 
sion ^kingdom  of  God'  is  also  found  (vi.  33;  xii.  28;  xix. 
24;  xxi.  31). 

4.  Jerusalem  called  '  the  holy  city  '  (iv.  5  ;  xxvii.  63). 

o.  auvTfXaa  rov  ciIojvoq  (A.  V.  '  the  end  of  the  world '),  five  times ; 
in  the  rest  of  New  Testament  only  once  (Heb.  ix.  26). 

6.  '  Father  in  heaven  '  or  '  heavenly  Father,'  twenty-two  times. 

7.  Ta^oQ  (A.V. '  sepulchre '),  six  times,  but  also  found  in  Rom.  iii. 

13  ('  their  throat  is  an  open  sepulchre  ').  Other  Evangel- 
ists use  fiV7]iAt7ov,  which  is  also  foimd  in  Matthew. 

8.  The  Greek  equivalent  for  '  Jerusalem '  in  Matt,  and  Mark  is 

always  'IipoauXvfia,  except  in  Matt,  xxiii.  37  and  Mark  xi.  1. 

9.  Words  or  short  phrases  peculiar  to  Matthew  are — 

diariliiv,  to  doubt,  xiv.  31 ;  xxviii.  17. 

KaTaTTovriZ^frOat,  to  he  ovenvhelmed  with  the  sea  (A.V.  '  to 

sink '),  xiv.  30 ;  xviii.  6. 
fiaXaicia,  disease,  iv.  23;  ix.  35  ;  x.  1. 
fieraipnv,  to  depart,  xiii.  53  ;  xix.  1. 
oiKiuKoc,  of  his  own  household,  x.  25,  36. 
bvap,  a  dream,  six  times. 
TTot:!!'       or  ioavep,  to  do  as,  six  times. 
pairiZeiv,  to  smite,  v.  39 ;  xxvi.  67. 
aeXrjvid^eaOaif  to  be  lunatick,  iv.  24 ;  xvii.  15. 
av/jfSovXiov  XcifJiSdvau',  to  take  counsel,  five  times.  Mark  twice 

(iii.  6  ;  xv.  1)  uses  ovij[3ouXiov  -n-oieiv  =  to  take  counsel,  and 

in  Acts  XXV.  12  the  assessors  of  Festus  are  called  avfx(3. 
avvaiptiv  Xoyov,  to    take    account,   reckon,   xviii.    23,   24 ; 

XXV.  19. 
•ppdX^uv,  to  declare,  xiii.  36 ;  xv.  15. 


ST.   ]VL\TTHEW  AND  HIS  WRITINGS.  9 

10.  Relations  peculiar  to  Matthew  are — 

The  Wise  Men  from  the  East      .         .     ii.  1-12 
Healing  ofTwo  Blind  Men  and  a  Demoniac  ix.  27—34 
Parables  of  the  Wheat  and  Tares         .     xiii.  24-30,36-43 
„        the  Treasure,  Pearl,  and  Net  .     xiii.  44-52 
,,        Labourers  in  the  Vineyard     .     xx.  1-16 
„        Two  Sons      ....     xxi.  28-32 
„        Ten  Virgins  ....     xxv.  1-13 
Miraculous  Payment  of  Tribute   .         .     xvii.  24-27 

Death  of  Judas xxvii.  3-10 

The  guard  at  the  sepulchre  .     xxvii.  62-66  ;  xxviii.  11-15 
On  the  mountain  in  Galilee  .         .     xxviii.  16-20 

Discourses  .        xi.  20-30-  xviii.  15-35 ;  xxv.  31-46 

11.  Omissions — 

The  Circumcision. 

The  Presentation  in  the  Temple. 

The  Ascension. 

ST.  mare:  and  his  writings. 

1.  St.  Mark's  liife. — St.  Mark  (Mapfcoc,  Marcus)  was  'sister's 
son '  {avfipioi:,  which  rather  means  Jii^st  cousin)  to  Barnabas,  and 
author,  according  to  universal  tradition,  of  the  second  Gospel. 
From  Acts  xii.  12,  we  find  that  his  mother's  name  was  Mary,  and 
that  she  resided  at  Jerusalem,  at  a  house  frequented  by  the  dis- 
ciples. The  name  '  Mark '  is  also  here  explained  to  be  merely  a 
surname,  the  evangelist's  Hebrew  name  being  John.  With  Bar- 
nabas and  Saul,  he  appears  to  have  left  Jerusalem  for  Antioch, 
and  to  have  accompanied  the  two  apostles  as  their  '•  minister ' 
i^vTnjpsTijg:),  on  their  first  missionary  journey,  as  far  as  Perga  in 
Pamphylia,  where  he  left  them,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem  (Acts 
xii.  25- xiii.  13).  During  this  journey  he  visited  Seleucia  and 
Salamis  in  Cyprus,  and  at  Paphos  witnessed  the  miraculous  blind- 
ness inflicted  upon  Elymas  the  sorcerer,  and  the  conversion  of 
Sergius  Paulus,  the  '  deputy  '  or  proconsul  (dvOvTra-oc).  He  was 
again  at  Antioch  when  Barnabas  and  Paul  pi-oposed  a  second  mis- 
sionary journey,  and  was  the  cause  of  Barnabas  relinquishing  his 
intention  of  going  with  l^aul.  Barnabas  had  determined  to  take 
Mark  with  him,  but  Paul  objected  to  him  as  having  left  them  at 
Perga;  and  the  '  contention  (-n-apoKva^ioc)  was  so  sharp  '  ^  that  the 

'  John  "Wesley,  in  one  of  his  eermons,  shows  that  this  Trapolvtr/xb?  iyevero  simply 


10  ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

apostles  parted,  and  Mark  went  with  Barnabas  to  Cyprus.  Not- 
withstanding this,  Mark  appears  to  have  been  with  Paul  at  Borne, 
being  commended  by  him  (Col.  iv.  10)  from  that  place  to  the 
church  at  Colossfe,  and  being  styled  in  Philem.  24  his  'fellow- 
worker.'  In  2  Tim.  iv.  11  the  same  apostle  writes  from  Rome, 
and  desires  that  Timothy  would  bring  Mark,  seeing  that  he  was 
'  profitable  for  the  ministry '  (cOYpz/oTcc  tic  5iaicovlav  =  iQ,iher  'his 
services  are  profitable  unto  me').  Lastly,  Mark  appears  with 
Peter  at  Babylon  (1  Pet.  v.  13),  and  is  there  called  his  '  son.' 
From  this  it  is  generally  supposed  that  Mark's  conversion  was  due 
to  Peter  (cf.  1  Tim.  i.  2  ;  2  Tim.  i.  2),  and  universal  tradition 
makes  Mark  to  have  derived  his  knowledge  of  the  Gospel  history 
from  Peter,  and  to  have  been  that  apostle's  companion  at  Rome  (?). 
It  is  further  stated  that  he  founded  the  church  at  Alexandria,  and 
was  there  martyred. 

2.  St.  3Slark's  G-ospel. — Language.  Several  Roman  Catholic 
writers  assert  that  St.  Mark  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Latin,  but  no 
support  can  be  derived  for  such  a  statement  either  from  ancient 
MSS.  or  from  tradition,  which  universally  declares  the  original 
language  of  this  Gospel  to  have  been  Greek. 

Date  and  Place  of  Writing.  Probably  between  a.d.  64  and  70, 
and  out  of  Palestine,  as  the  book  abounds  with  explanations  of 
Jewish  rites  and  usages. 

Object.  This  is  implied  in  i.  11  to  be  the  setting  forth  of  Jesus 
as  tlie  Son  of  God,  and  the  writer  is  therefore  led  to  dwell  especi- 
ally on  the  events  of  our  Lord's  ofiicial  life.  Very  few  discourses 
are  related ;  and  that  Gentile  Christians  were  expected  to  be  the 
principal  readers  is  evident  from,  (1)  the  omission  of  genealogies; 
(2)  an  absence  of  0.  T.  quotations ;  (3)  appending  of  interpreta- 
tions to  Hebrew  terms  (v.  41;  vii.  11,  34),  and  explanations  to  the 
mention  of  Jewish  customs  (vii.  3,  4) ;  (4)  no  mention  of  the 
Jewish  law. 

Soitrcc.  Papias  says,  on  the  authority  of  the  elder  John,  '  Mark 
having  become  Peter's  interpreter,  wrote  accurately  all  that  he 
(Peter)  mentioned  ;  though  he  did  not  [record]  in  order  that  which 
was  either  said  or  done  by  Christ.  For  he  neither  heard  the  Lord 
nor  followed  Him ;  but  subsequently,  as  I  said,  [attached  himself 
to]  Peter,  who  used  to  frame  his  teaching  to  meet  the  wants  [of 
his  hearers],  but  not  as  maldng  a  connected  narrative  of  the  Lord's 

means  '  there  was  a  coiitrovorsj%'  and  that  althongh  Barnabas  may  have  been  in  the 
wrong,  there  is  no  necessity  for  supposing  that  St.  Paul  lost  his  temper,  especially  as 
the  brethren  afterwards  '  commended  bim  to  the  grace  of  God.' 


ST.   MARK  AND   HIS   WETTINGS.  11 

discourses  (or,  oracles  ?).  So  Mark  committed  no  error,  as  he 
wrote  down  some  particulars  as  he  narrated  them  ;  for  he  took 
heed  to  one  thing,  to  omit  nothing  of  things  he  heard,  or  to  make 
no  false  statement  in  [his  account  of]  them.'  ^  This  statement  is 
repeated  by  many  other  early  writers,  and  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark 
may  therefore  be  virtually  regarded  as  the  Gospel  of  St.  Peter. 

Trhwipal  Pccndiarities. 

1.  Minute  detail  in  relation  of  incidents,  so  that  the  Gospel  has 

been  called  'a  series  of  perfect  pictures.'  These  minute 
details  extend  to  our  Lord's  look,  feeling  (iii.  5,  34 ;  v.  32  ; 
tL  6;  X.  21,  23;  xi.  11),  and  words  (Boanerges,  iii.  17; 
Talitha  ciimi,  V.  41;  Korban,  vii.  11;  Ephphatha,  vii.  34; 
Abba,  xiv.  36)  ;  to  particulars  of  persons  (i.  29,  36 ;  ii.  23  ; 
iii.  6,  22 ;  vii.  26  ;  xi.  1,  21 ;  xiii.  3 ;  xiv.  65 ;  xv.  7,  21 ; 
xvi.  7)  ;  number  (v.  13 ;  vi.  7,  40 ;  xiv.  30)  ;  time  (i.  35  ; 
ii.  1 ;  iv.  35 ;  vi.  2 ;  xi.  1 1 ;  xiv.  68  ;  xv.  25)  ;  and  place 
(ii.  13 ;  V.  20 ;  vii.  31 ;  xii.  41  ;  xiii.  3  :  xiv.  68 ;  xv.  39 ; 
xvi.  5).  This  Gospel  also  frequently  adopts  the  present  for 
the  historic  tenses. 

2.  Latin  words  abound,  and   St.  Mark  alone  uses  mracovXazMp  = 

speculator,  an  executioner,  or  rather,  one  of  the  body-guard 
(vi,  27)  ;  KfvrvpiMv  =  centurio,  a  centurion  (xv.  39,  44, 45)  :  and 
l'i(TTi]c  =  sextarius,  a  pot  (vii.  4,  8). 

3.  Peculiar  words  are — 

oKctkoi;,  du7nb,  vii.  37 ;  ix.  17,  25. 

UQa/xISfiaeai,  to  be  greatly  amazed,  ix.  1  o  ;  xiv.  33  ;  xvi.  5, 6. 
l^d-iva,  suddenly,  ix.  8. 

iinnvvTpkxnv,  to  come  7'mi7ting  together,  ix.  25. 
IvnXtiv,  to  wra/7,  xv.  46. 

f.vayKa.\iZ,tnQai,  to  take  up  in  the  arms,  ix.  36 ;  x.  16. 
Hvpii^Hv,  to  anoint,  xiv.  8. 
vovvtxi^e,  discreetly,  xii.  34. 
Trpofifpifivav,  to  take  thought  hefoi-ehand,  xiii.  11. 
irpooKupakcxwv,  a  pillow,  iv.  38. 
■7rpo(nropivt<T9ai,  to  come  to,  x.  35. 
oKioXril,  a  worm,  ix.  44,  46,  48. 
ariXlSnr,  to  shine,  ix.  3. 
•  oTotjSacj  ^  branch,  xi.  8. 
ovv'-\il3fU',  to  throng,  v.  24,  31. 

'  Westcott" s  tranalatinn,  Introduction,  kc,  chap.  iii. 


12  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

■KaihoQtv,  from  a  child,  ix.  21. 

(tfjvpviUoidai,  to  he  minyled  Vjith  myrrh,  xv.  23. 

4.  Peculiar  relations  are — 

Parable  of  the  Seed  growing  secretly      .         .     iv.  26-29 
Healing  of  a  Blind  Man          ....    viii.  22-26 
Discourse ix.  49,  50 

5.  Omissions — 

Birth  and  all  incidents  until  Baptism. 

ST.    LTTKE   AND    HIS   WRITINGS. 

1.  Iiife  of  St.  Iiuke. — Luke  [AovKrao,  Lucas']  was  the  friend 
and  companion  of  Paul.  From  the  sudden  use  of  the  first  pers.  plur. 
in  Acts  xvi.  10,  it  is  concluded  that  the  writer  of  the  hook,  univer- 
sally agreed  to  he  Luke,  joined  Paul  at  Troas,  journeyed  with  him 
to  Philippi  during  his  second  missionori/  journey,  and  with  him 
became  acquainted  with  Lydia,  the  seller  of  purple,  '  whose  heart 
the  Lord  opened.'  Here  also  he  must  have  witnessed  the  expul- 
sion of  the  evil  spirits  from  the  damsel  '  possessed  with  a  spirit 
of  divination ;'  and  the  minuteness  of  detail  which  characterises 
the  history  of  the  conversion  of  the  jailor  at  Philippi  likewise 
betokens  the  knowledge  of  an  eye-witness.  At  Philippi  Luke  is 
lost  sight  of  (Acts  xvi.  19),  and  does  not  re-appear  until  Paul's  third 
missionary  journey,  y^hen  he  apparently  rejoins  him  at  Philippi 
(Acts  XX.  6),  and  goes  with  him  to  Jerusalem,  witnessing  in  his 
course  the  revival  of  Eutychus,  becoming  a  hearer  of  Paul's  vale- 
dictory discourse  to  the  elders  of  Ephesus,  and  being  one  of  those 
who,  having  been  warned  by  Agabus  of  Paul's  impending  fate  at 
Jerusalem,  implored  him  with  tears  to  desist  from  his  enterprise. 
The  submission  of  Paul  to  the  ceremonial  law  in  the  matter  of 
shaving  the  heads  of  certain  devotees  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  arrest 
of  the  same  apostle,  are  also  described  as  by  an  eye-witness. 
Whether  Luke  went  down  with  Paul  to  Csesarea  or  not  is  not 
clear,  but  from  Acts  xxvii,  1  and  the  remainder  of  the  Acts,  it 
becomes  evident  that  the  evangelist  joined  the  apostle  on  his 
journey  to  Rome,  sharing  all  his  perils  by  sea  and  land,  and,  with 
a  peculiar  modesty,  never  once  mentioning  his  personal  danger. 
From  Col.  iv.  14  ('  Luke,  the  beloved  physician,  and  Demas  greet 
you'),  and  from  Philem,  24  (where  A.  V.  translates  'Lucas'), 
the  continuance  of  Luke  with  Paul  at  Rome  is  to  be  inferred ;  and 
from  2  Tim.  iv.  11  (•  only  Luke  is  with  me '),  his  companionship 
with  that  apostle  is  further  shown. 


ST.   LUKE  AND   HIS  WRITINGS.  13 

Nothing  further  than  this  can  be  ascertained  from  the  Xew 
Testament  with  regard  to  Luke.  But  it  has  been  suggested  that 
he  was  '  the  brother  whose  praise  is  in  the  Gospel  throughout  all 
the  churches '  (2  Cor.  viii.  18) ;  the  chief  reason  for  this  opinion 
being  that  2  Cor.  was  written  from  Philippi  '  by  Titus  and  Lucas.' 
Tradition  further  states  that  he  was  born  at  Antioch,  became  the 
author  of  the  Gospel  bearing  his  name,  and  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  died  a  martyr  before  the  end  of  the  first  century. 
That  he  followed  the  calling  of  a  physician  is  evident  from  Col.  iv. 
14 ;  and  it  is  also  to  be  inferred  from  a  comparison  of  the  same 
text  with  Col.  iv.  11  that  he  was  not  a  Jew. 

2.  Gospel  of  St  Ziuke. — Language.  That  the  original  lan- 
guage of  this  Gospel  was  Greek  has  never  been  questioned. 

Date  and  Place  of  Writmg.  From  Acts  i.  1,  in  which  the 
Gospel  is  called  the  '  former  treatise/  it  is  evident  that  the  Gospel 
of  Luke  was  published  before  the  Acts.  Now,  from  Acts  xxviii.  30, 
we  learn  that  this  book  must  have  been  written  after  St.  Paul  had 
been  two  years  at  Rome,  and  no  doubt  before  he  had  been  brought 
before  Nero,  as  it  is  otherwise  inconceivable  that  such  a  fact  would 
not  be  noticed.  This  gives  a.d.  63  as  the  publication  of  the  Acts, 
and  if  the  expression  '  former '  indicates  some  time  previous,  then 
it  may  well  be  that  the  Gospel  was  written  when  St.  Luke  was 
with  St.  Paul  during  his  two  years'  detention  at  Cassarea,  when 
there  was  much  leisure  for  such  a  work,  and  when  the  oppor- 
tunities for  diligent  enquiry  and  collection  of  information  in  Pales- 
tine itself  were  very  great.    Thus  the  date  may  be  from  a.d.  50-63. 

Sources.  In  the  first  verses  of  his  Gospel,  St.  Luke  implies  that 
he  was  not,  at  any  rate  'from  the  first,'  an  eye-witness  of  the 
Gospel  facts,  but  that  he  '  had  perfect  understanding  of  all  things 
from  the  very  first.' ^  It  does  not  follow  from  this  that  St.  Luke 
had  not  been  an  eye-witness  of  any  of  the  events  which  he  records, 
but  how  far  his  personal  knowledge  extended  cannot  be  ascertained. 
Ireneeus  says  that  '  Luke,  the  follower  of  Paul,  set  down  in  a  book 
the  Gospel  which  he  (Paul)  used  to  preach '  (Adv.  Hcer.  iii.  1.  1), 
and  calls  Luke  '  inseparable  from  Paul,  and  his  fellow-workman 
{co-operarius)  in  the  Gospel  .  .  .  who  always  preached  with  Paul 
.  .  .  and  with  him  evangelised  (evangeUzavit),  and  has  been 
believed  to  relate  the  Gospel   to    us '   {Adv.   Hcer.   iii.    14.   1)."^ 

'  Tlapi^KoXovBiqKori.  o.uu>9ev  iraa-Lv  aKpi^iog.  A.  Y.  as  aboTC  ;  but  many  think  that 
the  real  meaning  of  this  phrase  is,  that  -t.  Luke  had  '  carefully  traced  the  progress  of 
all  things  from  the  first.' 

-  Given  in  Mr.  Westcott's  Introduction,  note  in  chap.  iii. 


14  ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Tertullian,  Jerome,  Origen,  and  others  repeat  the  same  tradition, 
and  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  refertinces  made  by  Paul  to  '  my 
gospel '  (Rom.  ii.  IG — cf.  Luke  viii.  17,  xvii.  22-37;  Kom.  xvi.  25 — 
cf,  Luke  xxi.  18,  19  ;  2  Tim.  ii.  8)  are  to  this  Gospel.  The  words  of 
i.  1-3  are  regarded  by  some  as  contradicting  this  supposition,  but 
it  does  not  appear  that  they  exclude  the  notion  that  Luke,  while 
availing  himself  of  many  previous  relations  and  making  diligent 
personal  enquiry,  wrote  mainly  under  the  influence  of  St.  Paul, 
who  was  favoured  with  a  special  revelation  from  the  Lord  Himself 
(1  Cor.  xi.  23 ;  Gal.  ii.  2 ;  Eph.  iii.  3). 

Design.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  was  written  primarily  for  the 
instruction  of  one  Theophilus,  and  for  the  confirmation  of  his  faith 
in  the  doctrines  and  facts  of  the  Gospel ;  but  the  tracing  of  the 
genealogy  of  our  Lord  back  to  Adam,  and  the  absence  of  any 
special  reference  ti)  either  Jewish  feelings  or  Gentile  ignorance 
of  Jewish  ways,  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  intended  for  universal 
use.  This  view  of  the  universality  of  the  Gospel  seems  also  to 
accord  with  the  offer  of  salvation  to  all,  so  clearly  made  in  the 
'  later  treatise '  of  the  same  author. 

Peculiarities. 

1.  Strict  chronological  arrangement.     It  should  be  stated,  how- 

ever, that  while  this  view  is  taken  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel  by 
very  many  commentators,  it  is  by  no  means  unchallenged. 

2.  Words  peculiar  to  the  Gospel — 

ounrpaynaTtveiv,  to  gain  by  trading,  xix.  15,  and  many  other 

words  compounded  with  cid  and  tTri. 
iiTovwc,  vehementlg,  xxiii.  10,  but  others  read  euroi^LOf;,  as 

in  Acts  xviii.  28. 
TTTotloOai,  to  be  terrified,  xxi.  9. 
(rvKot,avTuVf  to  accuse  falsely .,  iii.  14;  xix.  8. 
Gvvii,ai,  to  be  gathered  together,  viii.  4. 
avvTvyx"-vtiv,  to  come  at,  viii.  19. 
TtXt(y(popiiv,  to  bring  fruit  to  perfection,  viii.  14. 
rpavfiu,  a  ivound,  x.  34, 

v-Koxui\)iivy  to  withdraw  oneself,  v.  16  ;  ix.  10. 
(pCKovHicia,  a  strife,  xxii.  24 
Xptio(p£iXiTt]r,  a  debtor,  vii.  41 ;  xvi.  5. 

3.  Words  peculiar  to  the  Gospel  and  Acts — 

cia-opelv,   to  be  ^;e;y/e.rei/;  ix.  7;  xxiv.   4;    Acts  ii.   12  j 
V.  24  :  X.  17. 


ST.   LUKE  AND  HIS  WKITINGS.  15 

ciiaTCLvai,  to  be   parted  from,  xxii.   59 ;    xxiv.  51 ;    Acts 

xxvii.  28. 
ciiaxvpi^taOat,  to  confidently  a^rm,  xxii.  59  ;  Acts  xii.  15. 
cioctvuvf  to  go  through,  viii.  1 ;  Acts  xvii.   1,  and  many 

other  words  compounded  with  cia. 
ivf-Sptvuv,  to  lay  wait,  xi.  54;  Acts  xxiii.  21. 
»/  k^c,  the  day  after,  vii.  11 ;   ix.  37 ;  Acts  xxi.  1 ;  xxv. 

17 ;  xxvii.  18. 
i7ri(3i(3dZuv,  to  set  on,  x.  34- ;  xix.  35  ;  Acts  xxiii.  24. 
tTTixnpeiu,  to  take  in  hand,  i.  1 ;    Acts  ix.  29 ;  xix.  13,  and 

many  other  words  compounded  with  k-n-i. 
ev\al3r](:,  devout,  ii.  25  ;  Acts  ii.  5  ;  viii.  2. 
tcpopdv,  to  look  upon,  i.  25 ;  Acts  iv.  29. 
OanlSog,  attiazetnent,  iv.  36 ;  v.  9  ;  Acts  iii.  10. 
'iaaic;,  a  cure,  xiii.  32  ;  Acts  iv.  22,  30. 
KuOfKi'ic,  in  order,  i.  3 ;  viii.  1 ;  Acts  iii.  24  ;  xi.  4 ;  xviii.  23. 
KaUoTi,  because,  i.  7  ;  xix.  9  ;  Acts  ii.  24,  45 ;  iv.  35. 
KaraKXeiHi^,  to  shut  up,  iii.  20  ;  Acts  xxvi.  10. 
KUTaKokovQCiv,  to  follow  after,  xxiii.  55;  Acts  xvi.  17. 
K\daiQ  Tot)  dprov,  breaking  of  bread,  xxiv.  35  ;  Acts  ii.  42. 
fieyaXua,  great  things,  i.  49 ;  Acts  ii.  11. 
odwuG^ai,  to  be  in  sorroio,  ii.  48 ;  xvi.  24, 25  ;  Acts  xx.  38. 
vfiiXdv,   to   talk   together,   xxiv.    14,    15 ;     Acts   xx.    11 ; 

xxiv.  26. 
6x>^t~i(T9ai,  to  be  vexed  (i.e.  with  evil  spirits),  vi.  18 ;  Acts 

V.  16. 
TTpojSaXXitv,  to  shoot  forth,  xxi.  30;  Acts  xix.  33. 
r.poaooKia,  looking  after,  xxi.  26 ;  Acts  xii.  11. 
avfilSuWtii^,  to  make  war,  ponder,  ii.  19 ;  xiv.  31 ;    Acts 

iv.  15 ;  xvii.  18 ;  xviii.  27 ;  xx.  14. 
cvfiirXrtpovv,  to  Jill,  viii.  23  ;  ix.  51 ;  Acts  ii,  1. 
avvapTrai;,uv,  to  catch,  viii.  29  ;  Acts  vi.  12 ;  xix.  29 ;  xxvii. 

15. 
GWiiBpoiliw,  to  gather  together,   xxiv.   33;    Acts  xii.  12; 

xix.  25. 
GvvHvai,  to  be  with,  ix.  18;  Acts  xxii.  11. 
Tpavixari'CtLv,  to  wound,  XX.  12 ;  Acts  xix.  16. 

4,  Relations  peculiar  to  St.  Luke's  Gospel  are — 

Preface,  Annunciations  of  the  Baptist's  birth,  and  of  the 
Saviour's  birth.  Visit  of  Mary  to  Elizabeth,  Birth  of 
John  the  Baptist,  i.  1-80. 


16  ESSENTIALS   OF   NP.W  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

The  Shepherds,  Circumcision,  and  Presentation,  ii.  8-38. 
Jesus  in  the  Temple  at  twelve  Years  old,  ii.  40-52. 
Second  Vi.-it  to  the  Synagogue  at  Nazareth,  iv.  16-30. 
Raising  of  the  Widow's  Son  at  Nain,  vii.  11-17. 
Anointing  by  the  Woman  who  was  a  Sinner,  vii.  36-50. 
The  Disciples  ask  for  fire  from  Heaven,  ix.  52-56. 
Mission  of  the  Seventy,  x.  1-24. 
Parables  of  the  Good  Samaritan,  x.  25-37. 

„  the  Lost  Sheep,  Piece  of  Money,  Prodigal  Son, 

Unjust  Steward,  Rich  Man   and   Lazarus, 
XV,  xvi. 
„  Unjust  Judge    and    Pharisee   and   Publican, 

xviii.  1-14. 
The  Ten  Talents  (?),  xix.  11-28. 
Martha  and  Mary,  x.  38-42. 

Discourses  which  may  or  may  not  be  parallel  with  some 
related   by   Matthew    and  Mark,   and    including    the 
second  and  third  lots  of  the  above  parables,  and  the 
miracles  of  a  woman  healed  on  the  Sabbath  day,  a  man 
with  a  dropsy  healed,   and  ten  lepers   healed,  xi.  1- 
xviii.  14. 
Interview  with  Zacchaeus,  xix.  1-10. 
Our  Lord  sent  to  Herod,  xxiii.  4-11. 
The  Penitent  Thief,  xxiii.  40-43. 
3."  Acts  of  tlie  ikpostles. — Date  and  Place  of   Writing.     As 
stated  above,  we  learn  from  xxviii.  30  that  this  book  could  not  have 
been  published  before  Paul  had  been  two  years  at  Rome,  or  before 
he  was  brought  before  Nero.  This  fixes  the  date  at  a.d.  63 ;  and  the 
same  circumstances,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  St.  Luke  was  at  the 
time  a  companion  with  St.  Paul,  who  could  not  leave  Rome,  settles 
Rome  as  the  place  of  writing.     This  of  coarse  presumes  that,  in 
accordance  with  universal  tradition,  and  the  arguments  suggested 
from  internal  evidence   (see   Life  of  St.  Luke),  the  author  was 
St.  Luke.     The   names   of  Timothy   and  Silas   have   been   also 
suggested,  and  some  endeavour  to  show  that  Luke  and  Silas  were 
identical.     An  elaborate  confutation  of  this  opinion  is  found  in 
Alford's  Test.  (Prolegomena  to  Acts  i.  1). 

Sources.  Luke  being  admitted  to  be  the  companion  of  Paul,  at 
any  rate  from  Paul's  voyage  to  Philippi  (but  see  xiv.  22),  there 
can  be  no  difficulty  in  perceiving  that  the  latter  portion  of  the 
history  is  narrated  either  from  personal  knowledge,  or  from  the 
direct  relations  of  those  engaged.      With  regard  to  the  earlier 


ST.  LUKE  AND  HIS  WRITINGS.  17 

portions  of  the  book,  it  has  been  suggested,  (1)  that  much  inforraa- 
tion  about  the  choice  and  acts  of  the  Seven,  in  vi.,  and  the  acts  of 
Philip  the  Evangelist,  in  viii.,  may  have  been  obtained  from  Phii'p 
himself,  who  dwelt  at  Ca3sarea  (xxi.  8) ;  (2)  that  the  circum- 
stances attending  Stephen's  trial  and  the  conversion  of  Saul  may 
well  have  been  derived  directly  from  St.  Paul  himself;  (3)  that 
the  careful  detail  of  xii.,  descending  even  to  the  name  of  the  door- 
keeper, could  only  have  been  obtained  from  persons  actually  pre- 
sent at  the  events  narrated  ;  (4)  that  St.  Luke  had  access  to 
written  documents  (xv.  23-29 ;  xxiii.  26-30),  and  to  careful  re- 
ports of  speeches,  possibly  revised  in  some  cases  by  the  speakers 
themselves. 

Design.  No  further  design  appears  to  have  animated  the  author 
of  the  Acts  than  to  present  a  plain  and  unbiassed  record  of  the 
facts  which  he  narrates.  But,  being  guided  by  the  Spirit,  the 
author  has  clearly  been  led  to  record — 

1.  The  fulfilment  of  the  promise  of  the  Father  in  the  outpouring 

of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

2.  The  offer  of  salvation  to  the  Gentiles  through  faith  in  Jesus. 

3.  The  establishment  and  discipline  of  the  Christian  Church. 

4.  The  labours  and  perils  undergone  by  the  first  evangelists,  and 

especially  by  St.  Paul. 

ST.    JOHN"   AKD   HIS   WEITrXGS. 

1.  Iiife  of  St.  Jolan,— The  apostle  and  evangelist  St.  John 
('Iwavrjyc,  Joannes)  was  the  son  of  Zebedee  (Matt.  iv.  21)  and 
Salome  (Matt,  xxvii.  56,  compared  with  Mark  xv.  40),  and  brother 
of  James.  Nothing  is  known  of  Zebedee,  except  that  he  made  no 
objection  to  his  sous  following  Jesus,  that  he  was  engaged  in  the 
fishing  business  upon  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  that  he  is  supposed 
to  have  died  during  the  first  year  of  our  Lord's  ministry.  Salome 
appears  on  several  occasions  (see  Salome').  Some  few  circumstances 
are  recorded  which  show  that  St.  John's  social  rank  was  above  the 
lowest.  Thus,  his  father  employed  '  hired  servants '  in  his  busi- 
ness (Mark  i.  20)  ;  his  mother  is  mentioned  among  the  women 
who  ministered  to  Jesus  of  their  substance,  and  bought  sweet  spices 
for  his  anointing  (Mark  xvi.  1,  compared  with  Luke  viii.  3 ;  xxiii. 
55)  ;  and  to  him  our  Lord  on  the  cross  entrusted  his  own  mother 
Mary,  whom  John  forthwith  took  away  to  his  own  home  {dq  ra  'iha, 
John  xix.  27). 

In  his  Gospel  St.  John  never  names  himself :  and  hence,  .conf^ider- 

c 


18  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

ing  tlie  extreme  particularity  of  the  narrative  in  i.  35-42,  which 
forbids  the  notion  of  the  writer's  ignorance  of  the  name  of  the 
disciple  whose  name  he  suppresses,  and  considering  also  that  Peter 
and  John  appear  continually  together,  it  has  heen  generally  con- 
jectured that  the  unnamed  one  of  the  two  disciples  in  i.  37  was 
John  himself.  If  this  was  the  case,  John,  as  well  as  Andrew  and 
Peter,  was  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  references  to  him  at 
the  beginning  of  John's  Gospel  may  naturally  be  expected.  An 
intimacy  with  our  Lord  thus  early  acquired  also  explains  iii.-iv., 
in  which  the  interview  with  Nicodemus  at  Jerusalem  and  with  the 
woman  at  Sychar  are  related. 

After  this  preliminary  introduction  to  Jesus,  the  sons  of  Zebedee 
appear  to  have  returned  for  awhile  to  their  usual  occupation  of 
fishermen  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  in  which  they  were  partners  with 
Simon  Peter  (Luke  v.  10).  Thus  they  were  found  by  our  Lord, 
mending  their  nets  (Matt.  iv.  21  ;  Mark  i.  29),  and  on  this  occa- 
sion received  a  call  to  follow  Him.  Further  on,  having  had  a 
miraculous  draught  of  fishes  vouchsafed  them,  they  'forsook  all 
and  followed'  Jesus  (Luke  v.  1-11). 

Henceforward  John  appears  as  a  constant  companion  of  our 
Lord,  and  singled  out  by  Him  for  such  peculiar  afiection,  as  to  be 
entitled  '  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved '  (oj/  jyy/Tra  in  xiii.  23 ; 
xix.  26  ;  xxi.  7,  20;  but  ov  icpiXsi  in  xx.  2).  He  became  one  of  the 
Twelve,  always  appearing  in  the  lists  in  company  with  James,  and 
being  surnamed  together  with  him  Boanerges,  i.e.  the  Sons  of 
Thunder,  perhaps  on  account  of  the  zeal  and  fervency  of  their  dis- 
position (jMark  iii.  17).  In  company  with  James  and  Peter,  he 
witnessed  the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter  (Mark  v.  37),  the  Trans- 
figuration (Matt.  xvii.  1),  the  Agony  in  the  Garden  (Matt.  xxvi. 
37  ;  Mark  xiv.  33).  He  leaned  upon  the  bosom  of  our  Lord  at  the 
Last  Supper  (John  xiii.  23),  and  received  information  as  to  the 
betrayer ;  and  although  he  fied  with  the  others  when  Jesus  was 
arrested,  he  followed  with  Peter  afar  off,  and  by  his  personal 
acquaintance  with  the  high-priest,  both  entered  the  high-priest's 
palace  himself  and  obtained  admission  for  Peter  (John  xviii.  15, 
16).  Here  he  was  a  witness  of  the  insults  inflicted  on  our  Lord,  in 
whose  company  he  seems  to  have  continued,  as  we  find  him  at  the 
cross,  and  there  entrusted  with  the  care  of  our  Lord's  mother  (John 
xix.  26,  27).  On  the  resurrection  morning  John  again  appears,  in 
company  with  Peter  and  Mary  Magdalen,  going  to  the  sepulchre. 
Outrunning  Peter,  he  is  first  at  the  sepulchre,  yet  enters  not  in 
first  (John  xx.  2-8).     Here  we  are  told  that  the  truth  of  our 


ST.  JOHN  AND  HIS  WRITINGS.  19 

Lord's  resurrection  first  revealed  itself  to  him,  as  lie  '  saw  and  be- 
lieved.' 

With  the  other  disciples  John,  no  doubt,  witnessed  the  '  other 
signs '  which  Jesus,  after  his  resurrection,  did  in  their  presence ;  and 
the  relations  of  the  two  interviews  with  the  Eleven,  at  the  latter  of 
which  Thomas  acknowledged  Jesus  as  his  '•  Lord  and  God,'  bear  sin- 
gular impress  of  having  been  written  by  an  eye-witness  (xx.  19-29). 
Li  John  xxi.,  he  again  appears  at  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  having  returned 
to  his  old  employment  with  Peter,  J  ames  his  brother,  and  others. 
Here  he  is  the  first  to  recognise  his  master  on  the  shore,  and  in  the 
interview  which  followed,  our  Lord  says  to  Peter  of  him,  '  If  I  will 
that  he  tarry  till  I  come,  what  is  that  to  thee  ?'  This  passage  has 
been  variously  interpreted,  many  regarding  it  as  a  prophecy  that 
the  life  of  John  should  endure  until  the  capture  of  Jerusalem. 

The  occasions  on  which  John  is  especially  mentioned  after  this 
are  very  few.  We  find  him  associated  with  Peter  in  the  cure  of 
the  Lame  Man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Temple,  and  the  sub- 
sequent persecution  (Acts  iii.  1-iv.  31),  and  as  a  deputation  from 
the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  to  Samaria,  laying  their  hands  on  the 
disciples  there  who  had  believed  through  the  preaching  of  Philip 
the  Evangelist  (Acts  viii.  14-25).  When  St.  Paul  first  visited 
Jerusalem  after  his  conversion,  John  was  not  there,  for  St.  Paul 
himself  says  of  this  visit,  '  I  abode  with  Peter  fifteen  days.  But 
other  of  the  apostles  saw  I  none,  save  James  the  Lord's  brother ' 
(Gal.  i.  19).  It  does  not  appear  from  the  Acts  whether  he  was 
there  or  not  on  Paul's  second  visit  (Acts  xi.  29,  30 ;  xii.  25),  nor 
whether  he  was  there  on  the  third  visit  (Acts  xv.  2-30)  ;  but  if  the 
visit  mentioned  in  Gal.  ii.  be  the  same  as  that  recorded  in  Acts  xv. 
2-30  (which  seems  highly  probable),  then  he  was  there  at  that 
time  (Gal.  ii.  9). 

No  further  information  respecting  St.  John  is  derivable  from  the 
New  Testament,  except  that  when  the  Eevelation  was  commenced, 
he  was  in  Patmos.  But  the  universal  tradition  is  that  he  resided 
for  many  years  at  Ephesus,  and  there  died  at  an  advanced  age, 
being  carried,  when  very  old,  into  the  Christian  assemblies,  and 
there  repeating  his  characteristic  saying,  '  Little  children,  love  one 
another.'  Other  traditions  also  state  that  he  was  brought  before 
Domitian  at  Eome,  and  thrown  alive  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil, 
from  which  being  miraculously  preserved,  he  was  exiled  to  Patmos 
until  the  accession  of  Nerva,  when  he  returned  to  Ephesus. 

2.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Jobn.— Dai^e  and  Place  of  Writing 
The  statement  of  Irena^us  is,  that  this  Gospel  was  written  at 

c2 


20  ESSE^'TIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Ephesus,  whicli  falls  in  witli  the  general  tradition  as  to  tlie 
apostle's  later  life.  Patmos  lias  also  been  named  by  two  early 
anonymous  writers,  but  has  no  argument  in  its  favour,  and  Rev.  i.  2, 
•where  the  writer  is  stated  to  have  borne  '  record  of  the  Word  of 
God/  seems  to  point  to  a  date  for  the  Gospel  earlier  than  the 
apostle's  residence  in  that  island.  The  internal  evidence  of  date 
is  very  slight.  Some  have  thought  that  the  death  of  Peter  must 
have  taken  place,  or  xxi.  19  could  not  have  been  written ;  but  this 
is  plainly  to  deny  our  Saviour  all  prophetic  power.  The  expres- 
sion in  V.  2  f '  there  is  by  the  sheep  market  a  pool ')  is  also  con- 
sidered to  indicate  that  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  had  not  taken  place ; 
but  the  argument,  if  worth  anything,  may  be  balanced  by  xi.  18, 
where  it  is  said  that '  Bethany  was  nigh  unto  Jerusalem.'  But  pre- 
suming that  St.  John  did  not  come  into  Asia  until  the  final  de- 
parture of  Paul,  and  that  he  lived  to  between  eighty  or  ninety 
years  of  age,  the  date  of  his  Gospel  may  be  placed  between  60  and 

80  A.D. 

Object.  This  Gospel  is  evidently  written  for  the  fuller  instruc- 
tion of  Christian  readers;  hence  the  early  life  of  our  Loi-d  is 
entirely  passed  over,  and  the  history  commences  with  the  Baptism. 
Incidents  of  special  interest  as  regards  the  teaching  of  our  Lord, 
and  to  which  the  synoptics  do  not  even  allude,  are  introduced,  and 
nearly  one  half  of  the  Gospel  is  occupied  with  a  report  of  the 
Passion.  In  this  Gospel  also  appears  the  doctrine  of  the  Eternal 
Logos  or  Word  of  God,  and  many  passages  occur,  which  are  obviously 
directed  against  the  early  Gnostic  and  Corinthian  heresies. 

The  source  of  information  is  intimated  in  several  places  by  the 
writer  to  be  eye-witness  (i.  14 :  xiii.  23 ;  xviii.  15 ;  xix.  26, 
35 ;  XX.  2),  and  even  where  this  is  not  expressly  suggested, 
minute  marks  of  such  accuracy  as  is  derived  from  eye-witness 
occur.  It  is  a  matter  of  discussion  among  modern  critics  whether 
the  traditional  statement  that  St.  John's  Gospel  is  to  be  regarded 
as  supplementary  to  the  other  Gospels  is  a  correct  one.  It  cer- 
tainly appears  that  even  if  there  were  no  very  strict  intention  to 
fill  up  blanks  in  the  other  Gospels,  some  consideration  has  been 
paid  to  this  point.  How  far  a  supplementary  character  may 
really  be  attributed  to  it  may  be  seen  from  the  next  paragraph. 

Peeidiarities. — 1.  Peculiarities  of  Diction. 

Mr.  Westcott  (Introd.  to  Stndy  of  Gospels,  chap,  v.)  says,  '  The 
amount  of  words  peculiar  to  St.  John  is  very  large.  In  the  Gospel 
I  have  counted  sixty-five,  and  there  are  possibly  more.   In  the  main, 


ST.   JOHN  AND   HIS  WEITINGS.  21 

these  spring  out  of  the  peculiar  details  of  his  narrative :  e.g. 

dvTXelVf  dtroovvdycjyocj  yXojonoKCfiovj  KXijixa^  aickXoc,  rirXoc,  vcpia,  ;|/w- 
fiiov.  Some  of  these  are  characteristic :  yLSv/ioc,  'R^pdiaTi,  dpviov^ 
aKt}vovv.  Many  words  occur  with  remarkable  frequency  in  St. 
John,  as  ovv,  'iva,  ixev-oi,  iSt,  ovttw,  TrujTOTt,  iyw,  i/J-oc,  and  their 
usage  is  full  of  meaning.  The  absence  of  some  words  is  equally 
worthy  of  notice,  as,  for  instance,  cvvafxtc,  ^wdpaic,  t-^ririiidv, 
evayysXiov  (and   derivatives),  iropatSoXt),  TrapayysXXiw,  Triartc,  aocpiu, 

cocpog.'  Besides  these,  ]Mi'.  Westcott  calls  attention  to  the  words 
6  Xoyog  (the  Word),  /}  ^w//  (the  Life),  6  icoaixog  (the  World),  rb  (pcZg 
(the  Light),  6  (ncSrog  (the  Darkness),  and  says,  *  There  are  many 
other  (words)  which  illustrate  in  a  remarkable  way  the  spirit  of  his 
Gospel.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned,  (1)  in  Gospel,  Epistles, 
and  Apoc,    /uaprvpia,    fjiapTvptlv,  ovopa,    -^ivioffKw,   6   7rarV/p  j    (2)   in 

Gospel  and  Apoc,  Kpiaig,  tcpivnv,  omiHov,  Trid^tip ;  (3)  in  Gospel 

and  Epistles,  ajxap-ia,  dyaTrdv,  dydirt],  OtdffOui,  tpoj-dv^  TrpoliaTa, 
TTKTrevw  tig  ;  (4)  Gospel  only,  ipyor,  rd  ipya,  adpt,  Trapoifiia,  dfii/v 
dfii'ivj 

2.  Relations  peculiar  to  SL  John's  Gospel. 

The  Word i.  1-5 

Andrew,  Simon,  Philip,  and  Nathanael        .         .  i.  35-51 

The  Change  of  Water  into  Wine  at  Cana    .         .  ii,  1-11 
Passover  at  Jerusalem  at  First  Cleansing  of  the 

Temple ii.  12-25 

Nicodemus iii.  1-21 

The  Disciples  of  John  inquire  of  him  respecting 

Jesus iii.  22-36 

The  Woman  of  Samaria iv.  1-42 

IJealing  of  a  Nobleman's  Son  at  Capernaum         .  iv.  46-54 

Feast  (of  Purim  ?)  at  Jerusalem  .         .         .         .  v.  1 

Miracle  at  the  Pool  of  Bethesda  .         •         .         .  y.  2-47 

Discourse  on  the  Bread  of  Life    .         .         .         .  ^-i.  22-65 

Feast  of  Tabernacles  at  Jerusalem        .         .         .  vii.  11-53 

Woman  taken  in  Adultery viii.  1-11 

Discourses  with  the  Pharisees      ....  viii.  12-59 

Healing  of  a  Man  born  blind        .         .         .         .  ix.  1-41 

The  Good  Shepherd x.  1-21 

Feast  of  Dedication,  and  beyond  Jordan       .         .  x.  22-42 

Raising  of  Lazarus       ......  xi.  1-53 

Jesus  retires  to  Ephraim xi.  54-57 

Greeks  visit  Jesus,  a  Voice  from  Heaven      .         .  xii,  20-50 


22  ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Wasliing  of  the  Disciples' feet     ....  xiii.  1-17 

Last  Discourses xiv.  1-xvii.  26 

The  Mother  of  Jesus  delivered  to  John         .        .  xix.  25-27 

Our  Lord's  Side  pierced xix.  31-37 

Jesus  at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  after  his  Resurrec- 
tion        xxi.  1-23 

Omissioyis — 
All  incidents  preceding  the  Baptism. 
Greater  portion  of  Galilaean  Ministry. 
The  Institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  Ascension. 

3.  Tlie  Epistles  of  St.  Jobn. — Date  and  Place  of  Writdng. 
Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  these,  but  from  the  expression,  fre- 
quently repeated,  'little  children,' it  is  conjectured  that  the  epis- 
tles were  written  late  in  the  apostle's  life,  and  from  their  presump- 
tion of  a  knowledge  of  the  Gospel  facts,  and  the  doctrine  of  the 
Eternal  Logos  (1,  i.  1,  5 ;  iv.  2),  that  they  were  written  later  than 
the  Gospel.  Ephesus  is  the  traditional  place  of  writing.  The 
genuineness  of  the  First  Epistle  has  been  acknowledged  from 
the  earliest  antiquity,  and  Eusebius  says  of  it, '  John's  First  Epistle 
and  Gospel  are  acknowledged  without  question  by  those  of  the 
present  day  as  well  as  by  the  ancients '  (H.  E.  3.  24).  And 
Origen  speaks  of  the  First  Epistle  as  undoubtedly  genuine,  and 
'  probably  the  Second  and  Third,  though  all  do  not  recognise  the 
latter  two.'  The  substitution  of  the  term  '  elder '  for  the  writer's 
name  also  agrees  with  the  apostle's  practice  in  his  Gospel. 

To  ivho7n  addressed. — The  First  Epistle  has  no  inscription,  but 
Augustine  says  that  it  was  addressed  to  the  Parthian  Christians. 
If  by  the  Parthians  were  meant  Christians  living  beyond  the 
river  Euphrates,  then  some  key  is  afforded  to  the  expression  in 
1  Pet.  V.  13,  '  The  church  at  Babylon  saluteth  you.'  The  epistle 
in  which  this  occurs  being  inscribed  to  the  Christians  in  Asia 
Minor,  some  have  regarded  the  Epistles  of  St.  John  as  return 
epistles.  The  inscription  of  the  Second  Epistle  is  pressed  into 
their  service  by  the  maintainers  of  this  hypothesis.  In  their  view 
the  '  elect  lady '  (icvpia,  2  John  1, 5)  is  considered  to  signify  the 
Church.  But  it  is  only  fair  to  observe  that  the  Greek  word 
icvpi.tK))  (  =  church),  upon  the  similarity  between  which  and  Kvpia  the 
argument  turns,  is  not  used  in  this  sense  in  the  New  Testament 
(see  1  Cor.  xi.  20 ;  Rev.  i.  10,  the  only  places  where  it  occurs). 

4.  The  Z^evelation  or  Apocalypse. — Authoi'sJiip  and  Authen- 


ST.   JOHN  AND   HIS  WRITINGS.  23 

tidUj.  The  author  calls  himself  John  (i.  1,  4,  9;  xxii.  8),  a 
name  which  no  doubt  would  be  only  assumed  at  such  an  early- 
date  by  one  person — viz.  the  Apostle  John.  This  John  is  further 
described  as,  (1)  a  servant  of  Christ  (i.  1),  (2)  who  bare  record  of 
the  Word  of  God,  and  of  the  testimony  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  all 
things  which  he  saw  (i.  2,  with  which  cf.  John  xix,  35  ;  xxi.  24, 
and  1  John  i.  2),  (3)  who  was  a  companion  in  tribulation,  and  in 
the  isle  of  Patmos  (i.  9),  to  which  tradition  states  that  the  apostle 
was  banished,  (4)  and  who  authoritatively  addresses  seven  prin- 
cipal churches  of  Asia,  which  in  any  one  but  an  apostle  might  be 
considered  a  great  presumption.  The  authenticity  of  the  book  is 
further  testified  to  by  Justin  Martyr,  who  held  a  controversy 
with  Trypho,  a  learned  Jew,  at  Ephesus,  about  thirty-five  or 
forty  years  after  John's  death,  and  who  says  that  ^  the  Eevelation 
had  been  given  to  John,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  of  Christ.'  The 
Muratorian  fragment,  a.d.  170,  attributes  the  Apocalypse  to  the 
Apostle  John.  Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis  about  a.d.  171,  wrote 
treatises  on  the  book,  and  Theophilus  of  Antioch  (about  a.d.  180) 
and  Apollonius  (end  of  second  century)  are  also  declared  by  Euse- 
bius  to  quote  testimonies  from  it.  Irenaeus,  a  hearer  of  Polycarp, 
the  disciple  of  John,  also  frequently  quotes  the  book  as  the  work 
of  the  Apostle  John,  and  an  unbroken  catena  of  authors  of  later  date 
fully  endorses  the  ordinary  opinion  as  to  its  authorship.  Attempts 
have  been  made  at  various  times  to  discredit  the  title  of  this  book 
to  be  accounted  a  portion  of  the  inspired  Scriptures.  The  sixtieth 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (middle  of  fourth  century)  thus 
excluded  it  from  public  reading.  But  Bishop  Wordsworth 
suggests  that  the  rebukes  addressed  to  the  Laodicean  Church 
were  the  true  cause  of  this.  The  Alogi  heretics,  Caius  the  Roman 
presbyter,  Eusebius,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Dionysius  of  Alex- 
andria (a.d.  240),  and  others,  also  rejected  it;  but  this  is  evidently 
on  account  of  the  millennial  doctrines  contained  in  it,  which  they 
conceived  to  be  of  a  carnal  nature,  and  akin  to  Cerinthian  heresy. 
On  the  other  hand,  all  primitive  tradition  is  in  favour  of  its  scrip- 
tural nature :  Papias,  a  hearer  of  John  and  associate  of  Polycarp, 
the  Epistle  of  the  Churches  of  Lyons  and  Vienne  to  the  Churches 
of  Asia  and  Phrygia,  Cyprian,  Athanasius,  and  others,  admit  its 
inspiration. 

Date  and  Place  of  Writing.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the 
statement  of  Irenaeus,  who  says,  '  It  (the  Revelation)  was  seen  not 
very  long  ago,  but  almost  in  our  own  generation,  at  the  close  of 
Domitiau's  reign.'     This  would  give  the  date  of  a.d.  90-97,  and 


24  ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

accords  with  tlie  tradition  already  mentioned,  that  after  his  exile 
at  Patmos,  the  apostle  returned  to  Ephesus,  and  there  died  at  an 
advanced  age.     The  place  of  writing  was  probably  Ephesus  itself. 

From  certain  passages  (i.  1  \  ii.  9 ;  iii.  9 ;  vi.  12,  16 ;  xi.  1)  it 
has  been  inferred  by  some  that  this  book  was  written  before  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  the  reign  of  Galba,  the  sixth  Roman  em- 
peror (a.d.  68,  69),  the  one  that  'is'  of  the  seven  kings  mentioned 
in  xvii.  10.  This  identifies  Nero,  the  fifth  emperor,  with  the  Beast, 
and  the  number  of  the  Beast  (666)  is  certainly  discoverable  in  his 
name.  But  this  opinion  has  met  with  few  supporters,  and  entirely 
fails  as  an  adequate  interpretation  of  the  prophecy. 

Language.  The  following  coincidences  between  the  language  of 
the  Apocalypse  and  the  other  writings  of  St.  John  have  been 
pointed  out  by  Dean  Alford : — 

1.  The  title,  '  Word  of  God,'  applied  to  our  Lord  (xix.  13,  com- 

pared with  John  i.  1  j  1  John  i.  1). 

2.  The  phrase  *  he  that  overcometh '  (li.  7, 11,  17,  25 ;  iii.  5,  12, 

21 ;  xii.  11 ;  xv.  2  j  xvii.  14 ;  xxi.  7  j  compare  John  xvi.  33  ; 
1  Johnii.  13,  14  j  iv.  4j  v.  4,  5). 

3.  The  use  of  the  word  a\^Qlvdq  ( =  true)  as  opposed  to  that 

which  is  shadowy  or  unreal.  This  word,  found  in  St.  Luke 
once,  and  in  St.  Paul  four  times,  is  found  eight  times  in 
St.  John's  Gospel  (i.  9;  iv.  23,  37;  vi.  32  j  vii.  28;  xv, 
1 ;  xvii.  3 ;  xix.  35),  four  times  in  1  John  (ii.  8 ;  v.  20, 
three  times),  and  ten  times  in  Rev.  (iii.  7,  14;  vi.  10; 
XV.  3  ;  xvi.  7 ;  xix.  2,  9,  11 ;  xxi.  5  ;  xxii.  6). 

4.  The  word  dpviov  (  =  a  lamb,  A.  V.,  but  lit.  a  lambkin)  used 

only  in  Rev.  (v.  6,  8,  12,  13 ;  vi.  1,  16 ;  vii.  9,  10,  14,  17 ; 
xii.  11 ;  xiii.  8,  11 ;  xiv.  1,  4 ;  xv.  3  ;  xvii.  14 ;  xix.  7,  9  ; 
xxi.  9,  14,  22,  23 ;  xxii.  1,  3),  and  in  St.  John's  Gospel 
(xxi.  15). 

5.  The  expression,  '  the  testimony  '  (Rev.  i.  2,  9  ;  vi.  9 ;  xi.  7 ; 

xii.  11,  17 ;  xix.  10 ;  compared  with  John  i.  7,  19 ;  iii.  11 ; 
viii.  13,  14,  &c.). 

6.  The  assertion  of  the  same  thing  positively  and  negatively 

(ii.  2,  3,  8,  13;  iii.  8,  17,  18;  compared  with  John  i.  3,  5, 

7,20;  1  John  ii.  27,  28). 
Contents  and  Interpretation.  The  first  three  chapters  having 
been  occupied  with  an  introduction  (i.  1-3),  a  salutation  (i.  4-8), 
and  messages  from  the  Lord  Jesus  to  the  seven  churches  of  the 
proconsular  province  of  Asia,  viz.,  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamos, 
Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and  Laodicea  (fully  described  in 


V. 

VI.- 

-vn. 

viii.  1-5 

viii.  6-13 

ix. 

1-12 

ix. 

13-xi. 

xi. 

15-19 

xii 

ST.   JOHN  AND  HIS  WEITINGS.  25 

Sect.  5),  the  remainder  of  the  book  is  occupied  with  the  follow- 
ing prophetic  visions : — 

The  throne  of  God  in  heaven  is  seen,  with 

twenty-four  elders  and  four  living  creatures 

about  it iv. 

A  sealed  scroll,  having  seven  seals,  is  opened 

by  a  Lamb  as  it  had  been  slain   . 
The  first  six  seals  are  opened  .... 
The  seventh  seal  is  opened,  to  the  sound  of 

seven  trumpets 

Sounding  of  the  first  four  trumpets 

Sounding  of  the  fifth  trumpet 

Sounding  of  the  sixth  trumpet        .         .        .     ix.  13-xi.  14 

Sounding  of  the  seventh  trumpet    . 

A  vision  of  a  woman  persecuted  by  a  dragon 

Vision  of  two  wild  beasts,  the  dragon's  agents, 

exercising  great  power  and  dominion.     Tha 

second  beast  has  the  '  number  of  a  man,  and 

his  number  is  666  ' xiii. 

The  Lamb,  and  144,000  followers,  are  seen  on 

Mount  Zion xiv.  1-5 

Three  angels  make  prophetic  announcements  .     xiv.  6-13 
A  harvest  of  ripe  grain  and  the  wine-press  of 

God's  wrath xiv.  14-iiO 

Seven  last  plagues,  upon — the  land — the  sea — 

the  rivers  and  fountains  of  waters — the  sun 

— the  throne  of  the  beast — Euphrates — and 

into  the  air xv.,  xvi.- 

The  mystical  Babylon,  attired  as  a  harlot,  and 

seated  on  a  wild  beast,  carries  on  war  against 

the  Lamb  and  his  followers,  and  is  destroyed 

Songs  in  heaven 

Coming  forth  of  the  Word  of  God  to  victory, 

and  destruction  of  the  beast  and  the  false 

prophet 

Binding  of  Satan  for  1000  years 

Unbinding  of  Satan,  his  war  against  heaven, 

and  destruction 

The  Last  Judgment 

Vision  of  the  New  Jerusalem  and  the  hap- 
piness of  its  inhabitants       .... 
Coucludino'  admonitions  and  invitations  .        « 


XVll 

.,  xviu. 

xix. 

1-10 

xix. 

11-21 

XX. 

1-6. 

XX. 

7-10 

XX. 

11-15 

xxi, 

,  1-xxii. 

5 

xxii 

L.  6-21 

26  ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Four  principal  methods  of  interpretation  of  these  visions  pre- 
vail :  1.  The  CMUastic,  which  prevailed  to  the  age  of  Constantine, 
when  the  visions  were  regarded  as  embodying  general  Christian 
truths  with  respect  to  the  second  coming,  Antichrist,  the  Millen- 
nium, and  the  Day  of  Judgment,  2.  The  Preterist,  which  regards 
the  visions  as  emblematic  representations  of  events  long  since  past. 
3.  The  Futurist,  which  considers  that  events  yet  to  come  and  no 
others  are  signified.  4.  The  Historical  or  Continuous,  which  regards 
the  visions  as  descriptive  of  the  entire  history  of  Christ's  Church. 
In  this  view,  which  is  at  present  the  popular  one,  and  which  is 
supported  by  Mr.  Elliot,  Bishop  Wordsworth,  Dean  Alford, 
Hengstenberg,  and  other  eminent  expositors,  the  visions  are  re- 
garded as  divisible  into  two  grand  series,  parallel  to  each  other,  so 
that  the  events  related  under  the  seven  seals  correspond  to  those 
related  under  the  seven  trumpets. 

Various  links  also  exist  between  the  visions  and^  (1)  the  discourse 
of  our  Lord  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  (Matt.  xxiv.  4-31 ;  Luke  xxi. 
8-28),  (2)  certain  prophetic  visions,  recorded  in  Daniel,  e.g.  of 
the  beast  that  blasphemes  against  God  (Dan.  vii. ;  Eev.  xiii.),  the 
ten  horns  who  are  ten  kings  (Dan.  vii. ;  Rev.  xvii.),  the  1260  days 
(Rev.  xii.  6 ;  Dan.  vii.  25,  '  time,  times,  and  the  dividing  of  time ' 
=  3^  years  of  days  =  42  months  of  30  days  =  1260  days). 

Mystical  numbers  frequently  occur  in  this  book,  and  some  re- 
marks on  these  may  be  conveniently  made  in  this  place : — 1. 
Twelve,  the  number  of  the  Church.  Thus,  twelve  is  the  number 
of  the  Jewish  tribes,  and  the  Apostles ;  the  New  Jerusalem  has 
twelve  gates,  twelve  angels,  twelve  foundations,  and  twelve  times 
twelve  cubits  in  its  wall  (xxi.  12,  14,  16,  17)  ;  the  heavenly 
elders  are  twice  twelve  (iv.  4) ;  of  each  of  the  twelve  tribes  are 
sealed  twelve  thousand  (vii.  4-8);  and  twelve  times  twelve  thousand 
is  the  number  of  the  followers  of  the  Lamb  (xiv.  1,  3).  2.  Ten, 
the  number  of  the  world.  Thus,  the  persecution  of  Smyrna  is  to 
endure  ten  days  (ii.  10),  the  red  dragon,  and  the  first  beast,  and  the 
scarlet  beast,  have  each  ten  horns  (xii.  3 ;  xiii.  1 ;  xvii.  3,  7,  12, 
16).  3.  Seven,  the  number  of  completeness,  and  most  frequently 
occurring  in  the  book.  Thus  we  find  seven  churches,  represented 
by  seven  candlesticks,  and  their  angels  by  seven  stars  (i.  4, 12, 16, 
20)  ;  seven  lamps  of  fire  before  the  throne,  representing  the  seven 
spirits  of  God  (iv.  5)  ;  seven  seals  (v.  1),  seven  trumpets  (viii.  2), 
seven  thunders  (x.  4),  seven  last  plagues  (xv.  1),  seven  heads  of 
the  beast  (xii.  3 ;  xiii.  1 ;  xvii.  3),  seven  vials  (xv.,  xvi).  4.  Six, 
the  number  of  preparation.     See  the  sixth  seal  (vi.  12-1 7),  the 


l.^i^\^,^ 


ST.  PAUL  AND  HIS   WEITINGS.  27 

sixth  trumpet  (ix.  14-21),  the  sixth  vial  (xvi.  12-16).  5.  Four, 
the  number  of  world-wide  extension.  So  we  find  four  living  crea- 
tures (iv.  6),  four  angels,  standing  on  the  four  corners  of  the  earth, 
holding  the  four  winds  of  the  earth  (vii.  1).  6.  Three  and  a  half, 
or  '  a  time  and  times  and  half  a  time'  (xii.  14;  cf.  Dan.  vii.  25). 
Some  commentators  regard  this  as  designating  opposition  to  the 
perfect  number,  seven. 

With  regard  to  the  number  of  the  beast,  666  (xiii.  18),  in- 
numerable conjectures  have  been  made,  amongst  the  most  promi- 
nent of  which  are  the  explanation  of  Irenaeus,  who  considers  this 
number  to  be  contained  in  the  Greek  letters  of.Lateinos  (X  =  30, 
a  =  l,  T  =  300,  £  =  5,  I  =  10,  V  =  50,  0  =  70,  (7  =  200),  and  the  opinion 
which  regards  it  as  the  incarnation  of  the  world-power,  represented 
usually  by  six. 

ST.    PAUL   AND   HIS   WRITTKGS. 

1.  liife  of  St.  Paul. — An  adequate  biography  of  this  great 
apostle  is  far  beyond  the  purposes  of  this  work,  and  already  exists 
in  the  exhaustive  and  most  valuable  work  of  Conybeare  and 
Howson.  Here  only  a  rapid  enumeration  of  the  chief  particulars 
of  St.  Paul's  life  can  be  attempted.  He  himself  informs  us  of  his 
birth  at  Tarsus,  a  city  of  Cilicia,  a  province  on  the  south  coast  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  inhabitants  of  this  city  were  entitled  to  the 
Roman  citizenship.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  conjectural,  but 
may  be  assumed  to  be  about  B.C.  2.  The  vernacular  of  Tarsus 
was  Greek,  and  this  was,  therefore,  St.  Paul's  native  language, 
but  he  appears  to  have  been  also  familiarly  acquainted  with  the 
Aramaic,  or  ordinary  Hebrew  of  Palestine  (Acts  xxi.  40).  Of  his 
mother  nothing  is  known ;  but  he  declares  himself  to  be '  a  Hebrew 
of  the  Hebrews,'  and  that  his  father  was  a  Pharisee  (Acts  xxiii.  6). 
His  sister  and  sister's  son  are  mentioned  (Acts  xxiii.  16),  and  his 
kinsmen,  Andronicus,  Julia,  Herodion,  Lucius,  Sosipater,  and 
Jason  are  refei-red  to  (Rom.  xvi.  7,  11,  21).  Circumcised  the 
eighth  day,  he  received  the  name  of  Saul,  and  as  he  increased  in 
age,  was  brought  up  to  the  trade  of  tent-making,  probably  of  that 
material  of  goats'-hair  cloth,  sold  under  the  name  of  Cilicium. 
At  about  the  age  of  thirteen,  if  the  usual  custom  in  the  educa- 
tion of  Scribes  was  followed,  he  was  sent  to  Jerusalem,  and  there 
became  a  scholar  of  Gamaliel,  a  famous  Hebrew  doctor  of  the  law, 
of  the  school  of  Hillel,  the  upholder  of  tradition.  This  Gamaliel 
was  Hillel's  grandson,  and  son  of  Simeon,  who  is  supposed  by  some 
to  have  been  that  Simeon  who  took  the  infant  Jesus  into  his  arms. 


2S  ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

He  was  unquestionably  the  samo  with  the  Gamaliel  who  pleaded 
in  the  Sanhedrim  for  Peter  and  the  apostles  (Acts  v.  34-40)  ;  and 
his  learning  was  so  eminent  that  he  is  one  of  the  seven  who  alone 
among-  the  Jewish  doctors  have  been  honoured  with  the  title  of 
Rabban  (see  Rabhi,  in  Section  4).  He  was  a  Pharisee,  probably 
one  of  the  best  of  his  class,  and  died  a  Jew  in  A.  D.  60. 

Saul  was  probably  25  or  26  years  of  age  when  our  Lord's  ministry 
commenced,  and,  as  he  exhibits  no  personal  knowledge  of  it  in  his 
writings,  it  is  inconceivable  that  he  could  have  been  in  Palestine 
during  its  continuance.  He  may  or  may  not  have  returned  to 
Tarsus,  but  nothing  can  certainly  be  stated  of  his  career  until  his 
appearance  at  the  trial  and  martyrdom  of  Stephen  (a.d.  36?). 
Previously  to  this,  however,  it  is  mentioned  that  persons  belonging 
to  foreign  synagogues,  amongst  which  the  Cilician  is  enumerated, 
disputed  with  Stephen  (Acts  vi.  9,  10),  and  Saul  may  well  have 
been  of  this  number.  At  the  trial  of  Stephen  he  was  present,  con- 
senting to  his  death  (Acts  viii.  1 ;  xxii.  20),  and  kept  the  clothes 
of  those  who  slew  him  (Acts  vii.  58;  xxii.  20). 

Whether  the  apostle  was  at  this  time  a  member  of  the  San- 
hedrim or  not  is  uncertain,  but  he  speaks  of  himself  as  voting  for 
the  death  of  Christians  (Acts  xxvi.  10),  as  binding  men  and 
women  and  committing  them  to  prison  (Acts  xxii.  4),  as  punishing 
them  in  every  synagogue,  and  endeavouring  to  make  them  blas- 
pheme (Acts  xxvi.  11).  Having  thus  become  a  prominent  per- 
secutor of  the  Christians,  he  was  sent  with  letters  from  the  high- 
priest  to  Damascus,  to  arrest  any  Christians  who  might  be  found 
there,  and  bring  them  to  Jerusalem  for  punishment.  But  on  the 
road  near  Damascus  a  sudden  end  was  put  to  this  expedition.  A 
bright  light  shone  from  heaven  around  the  cavalcade,  and  the 
Lord  Jesus  revealed  Himself,  speaking  from  heaven,  and  saying, 
'  Saul,  Saul,  why  persecutest  thou  me  ?'  As  a  further  confirma- 
tion of  the  vision,  Saul  was  struck  blind,  and  directed  to  go  into 
Damascus,  where  he  should  be  told  what  to  do.  This  promise  was 
fulfilled  by  means  of  Ananias,  a  devout  disciple,  who,  being  directed 
of  the  Spirit,  sought  out  the  apostle,  laid  his  hands  upon  him  and 
healed  him  of  his  blindness,  and  then,  commanding  him  to  be 
baptized,  declared  unto  him  the  will  of  God  that  he  should  be  an 
apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  A  full  account  of  this  is  given  in  Acts  ix. 
1-19,  and  the  circumstances  are  continually  referred  to  by  St. 
Paul  himself  (1  Cor.  ix.  1 ;  xv.  8 ;  Gal.  i.  1). 

Thus  miraculously  converted,  Saul  retired  into  Arabia,  perhaps 
not  far  from  Damascus.  Thence  he  returned  to  Damascus,  but  being 


ST.  PAUL  AND   HIS  WEITINGS.  29 

threatened  with  a  conspiracy  to  kill  him,  escaped  in  a  basket  let 
down  from  the  wall,  and  went  to  Jerusalem  (Gal.  i.  18).  These 
events  appear  to  have  occupied  three  years;  and  not  until  this 
period  had  elapsed  did  he  make  the  acquaintance  of  the  Apostles  at 
Jerusalem.  The  feeling  of  these  last  was  at  first  one  of  gTeat 
doubt  and  distrust,  but  Barnabas  came  forward,  '  took  him,'  in- 
troduced him  to  the  Apostles,  and  having  related  to  them  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  conversion  and  subsequent  conduct,  gained  for 
him  their  friendship  and  countenance  (Acts  ix.  26-28 ;  Gal.  ii.  9). 
But  persecution  again  arose,  excited  by  his  zeal  and  success,  and 
by  the  special  direction  of  a  vision  of  the  Lord  Himself,  Saul  left 
Jerusalem  and  returned  home  to  Tarsus  (Acts  ix.  30). 

From  Tarsus  the  apostle,  after  passing:  through  the  '  regions  of 
Syria  and  Cilicia  '  (Gal.  i.  21),  went  to  Antioch,  accompanied  by 
Barnabas  (Acts  xi.  25,  26),  and  continued  a  year  in  communion 
with  the  Christian  Church  formed  there.  At  the  end  of  this 
period  a  famine  arose  in  Judaea,  and  Saul  and  Barnabas,  having 
been  judged  by  the  Church  at  Antioch  fit  persons  for  their  pur- 
pose, were  sent  with  a  contribution  for  the  relief  of  the  poorer 
brethren  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xi.  29).  During  Saul's  stay  at  Jeru- 
salem, James  the  brother  of  John  was  slain,  Peter  imprisoned  but 
miraculously  delivered,  and  Herod  Agrippa  I.  died.  The  last  fact 
enables  dates  to  be  fixed  for  many  of  the  events  recorded  in  the 
Acts.  It  occurred  in  a.d.  44,  and,  reckoning  backwards  from  this, 
the  date  of  the  conversion  may  be  assumed  as  about  a.d.  39  or  40. 
From  Jerusalem  Saul  and  Barnabas  returned  to  Antioch,  taking 
with  them  John  Mark,  the  nephew  of  Barnabas ;  and  the  entire 
remainder  of  the  book  of  Acts,  from  xii.  25,  in  which  this  event 
is  related,  is  occupied  with  a  relation  of  his  journeys  and  adven- 
tures. Subjoined  is  a  short  outline  of  these,  but  details  may  best 
be  learned  from  the  Book  of  Acts. 

\st  Missionary  Jmimey,  in   company  with  Barnabas   and   Mark, 
A.D.  48,  49.     Acts  xiii.  1-xiv.  IS. 

Places  visited.  Events. 

Antioch    .         .         .     Starting-point. 
Seleucia,  the  port  of    Port  of  embarkation. 

Antioch 
Cyprus : 

Salamis         .         .     Preaching  in  the  synagogues. 
Paphos .         .         .     The    deputy   Sergius    Paulus    converted, 
after  which   conversion   Saul   is  alwavs 


ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


Places  visited. 


Perga  in  Pamphylig 
Antioch  in  Pisidia 


Iconium 
Lystra 


Derbe 

Lystra 

Iconium   . 

Antioch  in  Pisidia 

Perga 

Attalia 

Antioch    . 


Events. 
called  Paul.     Blindness  miraculously  in- 
flicted upon   Barjesus,   or   Elymas,  the 
sorcerer. 

John  Mark  returns  to  Jerusalem. 

Successful  preaching  in  the  synagogue,  first 
to  Jews,  and  then  to  Gentiles.  Per- 
secution compels  the  departure  of  the 
apostles. 

Preaching  and  persecution. 

A  cripple  being  healed,  the  people  desire 
to  worship  Paul  and  Barnabas,  who  will 
not  sufier  it.  By  persuasion  of  Jews,  the 
people  stone  Paul,  and  leave  him  for 
dead. 

Preaching. 

Confirmation  and  exhortation  of  disciples. 

Preaching. 

Port  of  embarkation. 

Returning-point. 


After  this  Paul  visited  Jerusalem  for  the  third  time,  as  a  depu- 
tation on  the  subject  of  the  circumcision  and  ceremonial  obliga- 
tions of  Gentile  Christians,  and  took  a  share  in  the  decision  of  the 
apostles,  elders,  and  whole  church,  to  lay  upon  such  Christians 
only  the  necessity  of  abstaining  from  things  offered  to  idols,  blood, 
things  strangled,  and  fornication  (Act  xv, ;  Gal,  ii.  9,  ?).  Barnabas 
accompanied  Paul  to  Jerusalem,  and  Judas  and  Silas,  together 
with  Barnabas,  returned  Math  him  to  Antioch. 

After  a  short  space  of  time,  accompanied  by  Barnabas,  the 
apostle  again  set  forth,  but  soon  parted  from  his  companions,  as  he 
desired  to  take  with  them  Mark,  to  whom  Paul  objected,  on  the 
ground  of  his  departing  from  Pamphylia  (Acts  xiii.  13).  Barnabas 
therefore  proceeded  with  Mark  to  Cyprus,  while  Paul,  returning 
to  Antioch,  chose  Silas,  and  then  proceeded  on  his 


'2nd  Missionary  Journey,  A.D.  51-54.     Acts  xv.  4I-xviii.  22. 

Places  visited.  Events. 

Syria  and  Cilicia       .     Confirming  the  churches. 
Derbe  and  Lystra      .     Timdtheus    is    circumcised,     although    a 
Greek,  and  becomes  companion  of  Paul. 


ST.  PAUL  AND  HIS  WKITINGS. 


31 


Places  visited. 

Phrygia  and  Galatia 

Troas 

Samothracia 
Neapolis 
Philippi    . 


Amphipolis 

Apollonia 

Thessalonica 

Berea 


Events. 

Delivering  the  decrees  of  the  apostles  and 

elders  at  Jerusalem. 
A  vision  of  a  man  of  Macedonia. 


Lydia  is  converted  ;  a  certain  damsel  pos- 
sessed with  an  evil  spirit  is  healed.  Paul 
and  Silas  are  beaten  and  put  into  prison, 
but  miraculously  liberated,  and  their 
jailor  converted. 


Preaching. 


Jason  protects  Paul  and  Silas. 
Persecution. 
Preaching.  The  Jews  of  this  city  search 
the  Scriptures.  Persecution  arising, 
Silas  and  Timotheus  remain,  but  Paul 
proceeds  to 
Athens     .  .     Paul  addresses  the  court  of  Areopagus  on 

the  doctrine  of  the  Resurrection. 
Corinth    .        .  Aquila     and    Priscilla    are    encountered. 

1  and  2  Thessalonians  written  here. 

Here  Paul  continues  a  year  and  six 
months  (Acts  xviii.  11),  probably  from 
autumn  of  a.d.  52  to  spring  of  a.d.  54. 

Gallio  the  deputy  refuses  to  take  cog- 
nisance of  the  disputes  between  Jews 
and  Christians. 
Paul  shaves  his  head,  and,  taking  with  him 

Priscilla  and  Aquila,  sails  to 
Preaching  in  the  synagogues. 

Saluting  the  Church. 
.     Returning-point. 
spending  '  some  time '  in  Antioch  the  apostle  set  forth 


Cenchrea,  one  of  the 
ports  of  Corinth 

Ephesus   . 

Csesarea 

Jerusalem 

Antioch    . 
After 

on  his 


Acts  xviii.  2.3-xxi. 
Events. 


16. 


'^rd  Missionary  Journey,  a.d.  6^6^. 

Places  visited. 

Antioch    .         .        .     Departure-point. 

Phrygia  and  Galatia      Strengthening  the  disciples. 

Ephesus  .         .        .     Certain  disciples,  only  baptized  unto  John's 


32 


ESSENTL\LS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


Places  visited. 


Macedonia 
Greece  (Corinth) 

Philippi    . 


Troas 

Assos 

Mitylene 

Chios 

Sam  OS 

Trogylliiim 

Miletus     . 

Coos 
Rhodes 
Patara 
Tyre 

Ptolemais 
Csesarea    . 

Jerusalem 


Events. 
"baptism,  are  re-baptized  into  the  name  of 
the  Lord  Jesus.  Paul  resides  here,  in- 
cluding a  passing  visit  to  Corinth,  for 
three  years,  and  has  large  success.  At 
length  the  craftsmen  of  the  city,  fearful 
for  their  business  of  making  idolatrous 
shrines,  create  an  uproar,  which  is  with 
difficulty  appeased.  This  causes  the 
retirement  of  Paul. 

1  Corinthians  written  here. 

2  Corinthians  written  here. 

Here  Paul  resides  three  months,  and  ivrites 
Galatians  and  Romans. 

Sopater  of  Berea,  Aristarchus  and  Secun- 
dus.  Gains  of  Derbe,  Timotheus,  Tychi- 
cus  and  Trophimus,  are  companions  of 
Paul,  and  going  before  await  him  at 

Eutychus  revived. 


The  elders  of  Ephesus  meet  Paul,  and  are 
addressed  by  him. 


Disciples  vainly  endeavour  to  persuade 
Paul  not  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem. 

Brethren  saluted. 

Philip  the  Evangelist  entertains  Paul. 
Agabus  prophesies  his  imprisonment. 

Arrival-point. 


This  journey  was  probably  completed  in  the  summer  of  a.d.  58. 
On  his  arrival  the  apostle  found  a  Judaizing  party  arrayed  against 
him,  and,  in  order  to  satisfy  their  scruples,  paid  the  cost  of  purify- 
ing four  men  who  had  a  vow,  and  entered  with  them  into  the 
Temple.  The  result  of  this  was  that  a  great  tumult  was  raised 
by  certain  Jews  of  Asia,  on  the  false  ground  that  the  apostle  had 
brought  Greeks  into  the  Temple.     Paul's  life  being  in  danger,  the 


ST.   PAUL  AND   HIS  WRITINGS.  33 

Roman  captain  of  the  guard  in  Fort  Antonia,  named  Claudius 
Lysias,  interfered,  rescued  him,  and  permitted  him  to  address  the 
people.  The  apostle  accordingly  commenced  a  recital  of  the  cir- 
cumstances attending  his  life  and  conversion ;  but  on  his  coming 
to  that  part  of  the  history  in  which  his  being  sent  to  the  Gentiles 
was  mentioned,  so  great  a  tumult  was  again  raised,  that  Claudius 
Lysias  withdrew  him  into  the  castle,  and  would  have  examined 
him  by  scourging,  had  he  not  discovered  him  to  be  a  Eoman 
citizen,  which  conferred  immunity  from  such  punishment.  Being 
further  informed  by  Paul's  sister's  son  of  a  plot  to  kill  Paul  on 
the  following  day,  the  captain  then  sent  Paul  for  safety  by  night 
to  Caesarea,  sending  with  him  a  letter  of  explanation  to  the  Go- 
vernor Felix,  whose  official  residence  was  there. 

Here  the  apostle  was  kept  for  tive  days  in  the  prjetorium  of 
Herod,  and  was  then  confronted  before  Felix  with  his  .Jewish 
accusers  from  Jerusalem,  who  were  represented  by  an  advocate 
named  Tertullus.  The  accusation  against  the  apostle  was  that  he 
was  a  seditious  and  profane  person,  whom  they  were  about  to 
pimish  according  to  the  Jewish  law,  when  Claudius  Lysias  rescued 
him.  Paul's  answer  to  this  charge  was  so  clear  that  Felix  ad- 
journed the  trial,  ostensibly  until  Lysias  himself  should  come 
down,  and  gave  Paul  in  charge  to  a  centurion,  with  liberty  to  see 
his  friends.  After  this,  in  company  with  his  wife  Drusilla,  he 
often  heard  him  concerning  '  the  faith  in  Christ,'  and  showed  some 
signs  of  contrition  and  incipient  faith;  but,  hoping  for  a  heavy 
bribe,  he  kept  him  still  mider  arrest ;  and  at  length,  after  two  years, 
handed  him  over  as  a  prisoner  to  his  successor  Porcius  Festus, 

Porcius  Festus  most  probably  replaced  Felix  as  procurator  of 
Judaea  in  a.d.  60  (see  an  elaborate  discussion  in  Conybeare  and 
Howson,  vol.  ii.  App.  2,  note  c),  and  had  only  arrived  in  Palestine 
thirteen  days  when  he  had  Paul  brought  before  him.  The  result 
of  this  appearance  was,  that  the  apostle,  exercising  his  rights  as 
a  Roman  citizen,  appealed  to  Caesar — i.e.,  the  Imperial  Court  at 
Ptome  (Acts  xxv.  11,  12).  This  act  of  the  prisoner  at  once  removed 
him  from  the  authority  of  the  procurator's  court,  and  he  was, 
therefore,  recommitted  to  custody  until  some  favourable  oppor- 
tunity should  occur  for  his  transmission  to  Rome.  During  the 
interval  of  waiting,  '  King  Agrippa '  IL,  King  of  Chalcis,  and 
Bernice,  his  sister,  came  on  a  complimentary  visit  to  Festus,  to 
congratulate  him  on  his  appointment.  This  prince  was  familiarly 
accj^uaiuted  with  the  Jewish  law,  and  was,  moreover,  at  this  time 
superintendent  of  the  Temple,  with  the  power  of  appointing  the 

D 


34  ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

liigli-priest.  Festus,  therefore,  took  the  opportunity  of  further 
consulting  him  about  Paul,  and  he  having  expressed  a  wish  to  see 
the  prisoner,  a  day  was  fixed  for  an  audience.  Accordingly  Paul, 
being  brought  before  the  procurator  and  his  visitors,  was  per- 
mitted to  address  them,  and  delivered  the  speech  contained  in 
Acts  xxvi.  With  what  power  he  spoke  may  be  judged  from  the 
remark  of  Agrippa  at  the  conclusion — '  Almost  thou  persuadest 
me  to  be  a  Christian.'  ^ 

It  was  probably  about  August  of  a.d.  60  when  Paul  was  finally 
sent  to  Rome.  He  embarked  in  a  ship  of  Adramyttium,  under  the 
charge  of  Julius,  a  centurion  of  the  Augustan  cohort,  and  having 
touched  at  Sidon,  passed  by  Cyprus,  over  the  sea  of  Cilicia  and 
Pamphylia,  to  Myra.  Here  they  exchanged  into  a  corn-ship, 
sailing  from  Alexandria  into  Italy,  and  passing  to  the  south  of 
Crete,  encountered  a  fearful  tempest,  which  drove  them  entirely 
out  of  their  course,  and  at  last  wrecked  them  on  the  coasts  of 
Melita.  Some  have  identified  this  Melita  with  an  island  about 
half  way  up  the  Adriatic,  but  it  is  now  generally  conceded  that 
the  British  island  of  Malta  is  intended.  At  Malta  the  winter  had 
now  to  be  passed,  but  the  governor  of  the  island,  whose  father  had 
been  healed  by  Paul,  favoured  the  apostle,  and  the  inhabitants 
generally  showed  much  kindness  both  to  him  and  to  his  companions. 
Three  months  thus  passed  away,  the  spring  arrived,  and  in  another 
ship  of  Alexandria,  named  '  Castor  and  Pollux,'  the  centurion  was 
enabled  to  quit  the  island  with  his  charge.  After  touching  at 
Syracuse  (where  they  stayed  three  days)  and  Rhegium,  they 
came  to  Puteoli,  then  'the  Liverpool  of  Italy.'  Between  this 
town  and  Rome  ran  a  road,  which  joined  the  Appian  road  at 
Capua,  and  after  seven  dsijs'  stay  with  disciples  whom  the  apostle 
found  at  Puteoli,  the  cavalcade  again  set  forth  for  Rome.  At 
Appii  Forum,  about  forty-five  miles  from  Rome,  a  first  party  of 
Christians  met  them ;  at  Three  Taverns,  ten  miles  nearer  Rome, 
another  party  was  encountered.  At  length  arrived  at  Rome,  the 
centurion  handed  over  his  charge  to  Burrus,  the  Praetorian  Prefect, 
for  safe  custody  until  his  cause  should  be  heard.  Possibly  in- 
fluenced by  Julius,  Burrus  permitted  Paul  to  find  his  own  quarters, 
under  the  charge  of  a  soldier,  and  Conybeare  and  Howson  suggest 
that  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  then  probably  at  Rome,  became  his  en- 
tertainers. Here,  in  a  few  days,  the  apostle  invited  a  conference  of 
the  Jews  of  Rome,  and  to  them  explained  both  the  causes  of  his 

^  But  some  translate,  '  Thou  thinkest  to  make  me  a  Christian  with  little  persua- 
sion.' 


ST.   PAUL  AND   HIS   WEITINGS.  35 

own  arrest  and  the  general  truths  of  the  Gospel.  As  a  result, 
*  some  believed  the  things  which  were  spoken,  and  some  believed 
not/  and  Paul  announced  that  '  the  salvation  of  God  is  sent  unto 
the  Gentiles,  and  that  they  will  hear  it.' 

The  direct  history  contained  in  the  New  Testament  now  closes, 
leaving  the  apostle  with  the  statement  that  '  he  dwelt  two  years 
in  his  own  hired  house,  and  received  all  that  came  unto  him, 
preaching  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  teaching  the  things  which 
concern  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  with  all  confidence,  no  man 
forbidding  him  '  (Acts  xxviii.  31).  His  further  history  has  to  be 
gathered  indirectly  from  the  epistles.  It  being  therefore  under- 
stood that  much  is  conjectural,  we  may  assume  that,  if  the  arrival 
at  Rome  took  place  in  August  a.d.  61,  the  trial  of  the  apostle  was 
not  completed  until  at  least  the  beginning  of  63.  During  this 
period,  in  all  probability,  the  Epistles  to  Philemon,  Culossians, 
Ephesians,  and  Philippians  were  written,  and  many  converts  made, 
among  whom  were  even  members  of  the  Imperial  household 
(Phil.  iv.  22).  In  the  spring  of  63  it  is  generally  believed  that 
the  trial  was  ended  by  a  verdict  of  acquittal.  This  is  testified 
to  by  Clement,  Bishop  of  Rome  (Phil.  iv.  3),  the  Muratorian 
canon,  Eusebius,  Chrysostom,  and  Jerome,  by  whom  it  is  declared 
that  St.  Paul  afterwards  preached  in  the  West,  subsequently  came 
to  Rome  a  second  time,  and  was  finally  martyred  under  Nero. 
With  this  agree  St.  Paul's  declared  intentions  of  journeying  to 
Spain  (Rom.  xv.  24),  and  the  testimony  of  the  Pastoral  epistles, 
to  the  effect  that,  after  his  first  imprisonment,  he  was  travelling  in 
Ephesus  (1  Tim.  i.  3),  Crete  (Tit.  i.  o),  Macedonia  (1  Tim.  i.  3), 
Miletus  (2  Tim.  iv.  20),  and  Nicopolis  (Tit.  iii.  12),  and  after- 
wards was  again  imprisoned  at  Rome  (2  Tim.  i.  16,  17).  The 
consideration  of  these  and  other  facts  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  martyrdom  took  place  in  the  last  year  of  Nero,  and  that  the 
interval  was  thus  employed  : — 

A.D.  63.  Spring      .     Acquittal.      Journey  to    Macedonia    (Phil. 
ii.  24)  and  Asia  Minor  (Philem.  22). 

64  ;         .     .Tourney  to  Spain. 

65  .         .     In  Spain. 

66  .         .     From  Spain  to  Asia  Minor  (1  Tim.  i.  3). 

{  .     1    Timothy  2critten  from  Macedonia.      Titiis 

67  -j  written  from  Ephesus. 
( W  nter    .     At  Nicopolis. 

^Q  (Spring     .     In  prison  at  Rome.     2  Timothy  written. 
\  Summer .     Martvi'dom. 
d2 


36 


ESSENTIALS   OE   NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY, 


The  traditional  spot  of  tlie  martyrdom  is  at  Trefontane,  on  the 
Ostian  road,  some  miles  from  Rome.  As  a  Roman  citizen,  the 
apostle  would  suffer  death  by  decapitation. 

2.  The  Pauline  Epistles. — Style  and  Order,  The  peculiar 
style  of  St.  Paul's  epistles  is  obvious  at  a  glance.  They  are  the 
arguments  of  a  man  who,  taught  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  '  reasons  out 
of  the  Scriptures.'  They  are  also  eminently  parenthetical,  and  in 
some  cases  the  writer  breaks  off  completely  from  the  grammatical 
connection,  and  never  resumes  it.  The  ordinary  arrangement,  as 
has  been  already  shown,  is  not  chronological.  Chronologically 
arranged,  they  may  stand  thus  : — 

Name.  Place  whence  Written.  Probable  Date. 


1.  a.  1  Thessalonians 

2.  /3.  2  Thessalonians 

.  Corinth 

52-53,  during  second 
missionary  journey. 

3.  y.  1  Corinthians 

Ephesus           \ 

4.  L  2  Corinthians   . 

Macedonia 

5.  f.   Galatians 

Corinth,       or 

57-58,     during     third 

Ephesus 

missionary  journey. 

6.  ^.  Romans    . 

Corinth 

7.  T],  Colossians 

' 

8.  9.  Philemon 

9.  I.    Ephesians  (?) 

[•Rome 

62,  during  first  im- 
prisonment. 

10.  K,  Philippians 

11.  X.  1  Timothy 

Macedonia  (?) 

67 

12.  fi.  Titus 

Ephesus 

67 

13.  V.  2  Timothy 

Rome     . 

68,  during  second  im- 
prisonment, and  just 
before  martyrdom. 

14.  H'  Hebrews  . 

Uncertain 

Uilcertaiu 

a.  (3.  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians. 

For  an  account  of  Thessalonica,  now  Saloniki,  a  large  and 
wealthy  city  of  Macedonia,  see  Section  5.  In  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey,  when  driven  from  Philippi,  the  apostle  preached 
both  to  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  there  for  three  successive  Sabbath 
days,  but  was  compelled  by  a  tumult  raised  by  unbelieving  Jews 
to  retire  to  Berea  (Acts  xvii.  1-10),  and  thence  to  Athens.  From 
Athens  Paul  sent  messengers  to  fetch  Silas  and  Timotheus  (1  Thess. 
iii.  1,  2  ;  Acts  xvii.  15),  and  they  appear  to  have  joined  him  at 
Corinth  (1  Thess.  iii.  65  Acts  xviii.  5).     Finally,  in  the  super- 


ST.   PAUL  AND   HIS  WEITIXGS.  37 

scription  to  both  epistles,  Paul,  Silvanus  (Silas),  and  Timotbeus 
are  united  as  saluting  the  Thessalonian  Church. 

These  facts  being  taken  into  account,  and  the  further  fact  that 
Silas  was  Paul's  companion  on  this  journey  only  (Acts  xv.  40 ; 
xvi.  19,  25,  29 ;  xvii.  4,  10,  15 ;  xviii.  6),  it  becomes  plain  that 

1  Thessalonians  was  written  from  Corinth,  soon  after  Paul's  arri- 
val there,  during  his  second  mis&ionary  journey.  The  second 
epistle  contains  fewer  marks  of  identification,  but  has  the  same 
superscription,  and  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  written 
shortly  after  the  first. 

With  these  marks  of  time  and  place  the  contents  of  the  first 
epistle  agree.  The  general  tone  is  one  of  devout  congratulation 
for  spiritual  success  at  Thessalonica,  as  evinced  by  the  news  of  the 
obedience,  faith,  and  love  of  the  Thessalonian  Church,  brought  by 
Timotheus  (iii.  6). 

The  second  epistle  treats  of  erroneous  expectations  of  the 
Lord's  immediate  coming,  and  warns  them  that  this  must  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  great  apostacy,  and  the  coming  of  the  Man  of  Sin. 

y.  ^,  Epistles  to  the  Co?'inthia}is. 

A  full  account  of  Corinth  itself  is  to  be  found  in  Section  o. 
The  date  and  place  of  writing  of  the  first  epistle  are  fixed  by 
these  considerations  :  (1)  Apollos  had  been  at  Corinth  and,  with 
Priscilla  and  Aquila,  was  now  at  Ephesus  (i.  12;  iii.  4,  22;  iv. 
6 ;  xvi.  12,  19).  This  coincides  with  Acts  xviii.  26  ;  xix.  1,  de- 
scribing the  second  visit  of  Paul  to  Ephesus  ;  (2)  the  apostle  hopes 
to  go  via  Macedonia  to  Corinth,  and  thence  to  Jerusalem  and  Rome 
(xvi.  5  :  Acts  xix.  21 ;  Rom.  xv.  25-28).  This  agrees  with  Acts  xix., 
descriptive  of  the  Apostle's  second  visit  to  Ephesus  :  (3)  Timothy 
was  sent  to  Corinth  (iv.  17;  xvi.  10).  In  Acts  xix.  22,  Timotheus 
and  Erastus  (a  Corinthian)  are  sent  into  Macedonia,  on  the  road 
to  Corinth,  in  anticipation  of  Paul's  own  joui'ney  to  Achaia. 
Hence  it  is  reasonably  inferred  that  the  epistle  was  written  from 
Ephesus,  about  the  time  of  the  g-reat  tumult  there. 

The  contents  of  the  first  epistle  refer  to  the  importance  of 
abolishing  party  divisions,,  and  reforming  certain  social  abuses. 
The  questions  of  marriage,  idol  sacrifices,  spiritual  gifts,  and  the 
resurrection  are  also  touched  upon. 

In  V.  9  occur  the  words  ^I  wrote  unto  you  in  a  letter  to  keep,' 
&c.  This  probably  refers  to  a  letter  not  preserved.  That 
*  letters '  had  been  written  to  the  Corinthian  Church  appears  from 

2  Cor.  X.  10 ;  '  His  letters,  say  they,  are  weighty  and  powerful.' 


38  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

The  second  epistle  appears  to  have  been  written  from  Macedonia, 
on  the  road  from  Ephesus  to  Corinth,  and  shortly  after  the  first. 
This  appears  from  (1)  ix.  2,  which  shows  he  was  in  Macedonia 
at  the  time  of  writing ;  (2)  the  apostle's  reference  to  the  recent 
troubles  in  Asia,  of  which  Ephesus  was  the  capital  (i.  8) ;  (3) 
his  declaration  that  he  was  now  on  his  way  to  them  for  the  third 
time  (xiii.  1)  ;  (4)  the  references  to  the  collection  for  the  poor 
saints  as  still  going  on  (viii.  6 ;  ix.  2.  Cf.  Acts  xxiv.  17  ;  Horn.  xv. 
26) ;  (5)  the  references  to  the  incestuous  offender  and  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  same  party  disputes. 

From  ii.  12,  13 ;  vii.  6  ;  xii.  18,  it  appears  that  Titus  had  been 
sent  to  Corinth  as  well  as  Timotheus  and  the  brother  whose  praise 
is  in  all  the  churches  (Luke  ?),  and  that  the  apostle,  having  got 
as  far  as  Troas,  on  the  road  from  Ephesus  to  Corinth,  was  bitterly 
disappointed  at  not  meeting  him  on  his  return ;  but  that  after- 
wards, going  forward  into  Macedonia,  he  had  encountered  him, 
and  been  rejoiced  at  the  good  news  of  the  Corinthian  Church.  The 
first  letter  had  produced  some  good  effects,  notwithstanding  the 
stubborn  spirit  of  some,  for  whose  admonition  he  now  dwells  on 
the  sufficiency  of  his  apostolic  authority. 

6.  epistle  to  the  Galatians. 

The  Apostle  Paul  visited  Galatia,  a  central  district  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  two  occasions  (Acts  xvi.  6 ;  xviii.  23),  but  no  particu- 
lars of  these  visits  are  recorded  in  the  Acts.  At  the  first  visit, 
however,  they  had  received  the  Gospel  with  joy  (iv.  14),  whereas 
on  the  second  (if  iv.  16  literally  = '  Am  I  become  your  enemy  by 
speaking  truth  among  you  ?  ')  he  had  not  been  well  received. 
These  indications  of  date  are  evidently  very  doubtful,  nor  does  i.  6. 
('  I  marvel  that  ye  are  so  soon  removed  (or  turning)  from  him  that 
called  you  into  the  grace  of  Christ ')  give  much  assistance,  unless 
the  date  to  which  the  removal  was  subsequent  could  be  ascer- 
tained. But  most  critics  believe,  nevertheless,  that  the  epistle 
was  written  from  Corinth  or  Ephesus,  soon  after  the  second  visit, 
and  possibly  about  the  same  time  as  the  Romans,  its  main  line  of 
argument  being  identical,  and  many  expressions  corresponding 
(compare  Rom.  viii.  15  and  Gal.  iv.  6;  Rom.  vii.  14-25  and  Gal. 
V.  17  ;  Rom.  i.  17  and  Gal.  iii.  11 ;  Rom.  iv.  and  Gal.  iii.). 

The  object  of  the  apostle  in  the  epistle  is  plainly  to  recall  to 
the  memories  of  the  Galatian  Christians  the  great  principles  of 
the  Gospel,  in  the  free  justification  of  the  sinner  by  faith^  and  in 
the  non-essential  character  of  Mosaic  ordinances. 


ST.   PAUL  AND  HIS  WRITINGS.  39 

^.  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

The  date  and  place  of  writing-  of  this  epistle  are  easily  ascer- 
tained by  comparison  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  other 
epistles.  Thus,  the  writer  is  about  to  be  the  bearer  of  a  con- 
tribution of  money  from  the  Christians  of  Macedonia  and  Achaia 
to  the  poor  Jews  at  Jerusalem  (xv.  25,  26).  Gaius,  a  resident  at 
Corinth  and  baptised  by  him  (1  Cor.  i.  14),  is  his  host  (xvi.  23). 
Phoebe,  the  probable  bearer  of  the  letter  (see  subscription),  is  a 
deaconess  of  the  church  at  Cenchrea,  the  eastern  port  of  Corinth 
(xvi.  1).  All  these  points  coincide  with  the  position  of  St.  Paul 
when  on  his  third  missionary  journey,  and  second  residence  in 
Corinth. 

Of  the  origin  of  the  Roman  Church  nothing  is  known,  although 
the  apostle  had  often  desired  to  visit  it  (i.  13).  His  object  in 
writing  an  epistle  appears  to  have  been  to  compensate  for  his  in- 
ability to  pay  a  personal  visit.  The  letter  itself  is  a  profound  and 
lengthy  argument  on  the  great  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith. 
The  writer  shows  that  this  doctrine  underlay  the  choice  of  Abra- 
ham, and  that  it  fulfils  rather  than  annuls  the  Mosaic  law. 

T],  9.   The  Epistles  to  Cohssians  and  Philemon. 

Colossse,  a  city  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Mseander, 
had  not  been  visited  by  St.  Paul  personally,  but  a  church  was 
founded  there  by  Epaphras  (Col.  i.  7).  Errors,  involving  (1)  a 
combination  of  angel-worship  and  asceticism,  (2)  a  self-styled  philo- 
sophy, which  depreciated  Christ,  and  (3)  an  unnecessary  adherence 
to  Jewish  festivals  and  sabbaths,  had  crept  in,  and  the  epistle  is 
written  to  counteract  these.  From  the  expressions  '  bonds  '  (Col. 
iv.  3,  18 ;  Philem.  13),  '  fellow-prisoner  '  (Col,  iv.  10 ;  Philem.  23), 
'  prisoner  '(Philem.  9),  it  appears  that  the  epistle  was  written  in 
prison,  and  from  Philem.  22  (which  epistle  was  sent  at  the  same 
time  as  that  to  the  Colossians)  it  appears  that  the  writer  expected 
shortly  to  come  into  Phrygia.  Further,  Timotheus  was  with  him 
(i.  1).  These  indications  coincide  with  the  position  of  the  apostle 
at  Rome  during  his  first  imprisonment,  and  the  epistle  is  therefore 
generally  attributed  to  that  date  and  place. 

In  iv.  16,  the  '  epistle  from  Laodicsea '  is  directed  to  be  read  in 
the  Colossian  church.  Four  explanations  are  given  of  this : 
(1)  that  it  was  a  letter  from  the  Church  of  Laodic^a  to  Paul, 
forwarded  by  him  to  the  Colossian  Church  j   (2)  that  it  was  the 


40  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

epistle  ordinarily  termed  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians ;  (3)  that  it 
was  an  epistle  of  Paul  to  Laodicsea,  which  the  Colossians  were 
to  obtain  from  thence  ;  (4)  that  it  was  the  epistle  to  Philemon. 

The  bearers  of  the  epistle  to  the  Colossians  were  Tychicus  and 
Onesimus.  This  Onesimus  also  carried  another  letter,  the  epistle 
to  Philemon,  a  member  of  the  Colossian  Church,  He  had  been 
the  slave  of  Philemon,  but  Paul  had  encountered  him  in  Rome, 
been  made  instrumental  to  his  conversion,  and  now  sent  him  back 
to  his  master,  with  tender  entreaties  for  his  pardon, 

I.   The  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. 

For  what  readers  this  epistle  was  intended  has  been  the  subject 
of  very  much  controversy.  The  arguments  for  each  side  may  be 
briefly  stated.  1.  That  it  was  not  intended  for  the  Ephesians  is 
assumed  from  the  fact  that  the  words  '  in  Ephesus  '  are  omitted 
in  the  Vatican  and  Sinaitic  MSS, ;  from  the  absence  of  any 
personal  salutations,  which  in  the  case  of  a  letter  to  so  well-known 
a  church  as  the  Ephesian  seems  remarkable ;  because  the  apostle 
could  not  describe  the  Ephesian  Church  as  exclusively  Gentiles 
(ii.  11 ;  iii.  1 ;  iv.  17),  and  recently  converted  (i.  13 ;  ii.  13  ;  v.  8) ; 
and  because  Marcion  calls  this  the  '  epistle  to  the  Laodicaeans.' 
That  the  epistle  should  have  obtained  its  present  title  is  explicable 
on  the  supposition  that  it  was  an  encyclical  letter,  written  for 
the  consolation  and  exhortation  of  various  Churches,  and  that  a 
copy  in  which  the  words  *'  in  Ephesus '  had  been  inserted  was  the 
first  to  be  published.  2,  To  this  it  is  replied  that  the  words  '  in 
Ephesus  '  occur  in  many  good  MSS, ;  that  personal  salutations  are 
no  proof  of  Paul's  acquaintance  with  a  Church,  and  are  wanting, 
except  in  a  general  form,  in  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Philippians, 
Thessalonians,  Titus,  and  1  Timothy ;  that  the  other  internal 
objections  arise  from  a  misconception  of  the  apostle's  meaning;  and 
that  Marcion  may  have  had  reasons  of  his  own  for  his  nomenclature. 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  obviously  impossible  to  fix 
either  the  date  or  the  place  of  writing  of  this  epistle.  Its  con- 
tents are  also  general,  three  chapters  dwelling  on  redemption  and 
its  results,  and  the  remainder  occupied  with  exhortations  to 
practical  piety. 

K.   The  Epistle  to  the  Philippians. 
Philippi  was  the  first  town  in  Europe  in  which  St.  Paul  preached 
the  Gospel,  and  there  Lydia  and  the  jailor  were  converted.     A  full 
account  of  the  town  is  given  in  Section  5. 


ST.   PAUL  AND  HIS  WRITINGS.  41 

The  occasion  of  the  epistle  appears  to  have  been  the  receipt  of  a 
contribution  to  the  apostle's  necessities  when  undergoing  his  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome — i.e.,  about  a.d.  62  (iv.  10-18 ;  i.  13, 14,16). 
He  was  evidently  expecting  a  speedy  and  favourable  issue  of  his 
appeal  (i.  19-25  ;  ii.  23,  24),  and  had  friends  in  the  Imperial 
household  (iv.  22).  It  has  often  been  remarked  that  no  epistle 
contains  more  of  praise  and  less  of  censure.  Its  contents,  in 
addition  to  the  remembrance  of  the  liberality  of  the  Philippian 
Church,  and  the  notices  of  his  own  condition,  are  of  a  general ' 
hortative  character. 

A.  /i.  i:   The  Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus. 

The  lives  of  Timothy  and  Titus  are  given  at  length  in  Section  5. 
The  epistles  to  them  appear  to  have  been  written  during  the  second 
imprisonment  of  the  apostle,  and  immediately  preceding  his 
martyrdom.  The  objections  to  this  are,  that  Timothy  is  called  a 
young  man  (1  Tim.  iv.  12  :  2  Tim.  ii.  22),  and  that  St.  Paul  at 
Miletus  declared  to  the  Ephesian  elders  that  they  would  see  his 
face  no  more.  But  a  man  of  thirty-five  or  forty  years  might  well 
be  regarded  by  St.  Paul,  especially  with  his  Jewish  ideas,  as 
young,  nor  need  we  suppose  that  in  addressing  the  Ephesian 
elders  Paul  was  necessarily  so  divinely  illuminated  as  to  be  kept 
from  expressing  his  natural  feeling  at  the  time. 

The  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  are  exceedingly  valuable  as 
giving  apostolic  directions  on  several  matters  of  Church  order,  such 
as  {a)  the  proper  times  for  prayer  and  the  proper  persons  to  engage 
in  public  prayer,  (6)  the  position  of  women  in  the  Church,  (c)  the 
choice  and  character  of  bishops  and  deacons,  and  their  wives,  and 
{d)  the  treatment  of  widows.  All  the  epistles  also  abound  in 
animating  personal  exhortations,  and  breathe  a  spirit  of  unflagging 
Christian  constancy. 

I.   The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

*The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  addressed  to  Jewish  converts 
who  were  tempted  to  apostatise  from  Christianity,  and  return  to 
Judaism.  Its  primary  object  was  to  check  this  apostacy,  by  show- 
ing them  the  true  end  and  meaning  of  the  Mosaic  system,  and  its 
symbolical  and  transitory  character.  They  are  taught  to  look 
through  the  shadow  to  the  substance,  through  the  type  to  the 
antitype.  But  the  treatise,  though  first  called  forth  to  meet  the 
needs  of  Hebrew  converts,  was  not  designed  for  their  instruction 


42  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

only.  The  Spirit  of  God  has  chosen  this  occasion  to  enlighten  the 
Universal  Church  concerning  the  design  of  the  ancient  covenant, 
and  the  interpretation  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures.'  ^ 

The  authorship  of  the  epistle  is  still  undecided.  Jerome  declares 
that  even  in  his  time  the  epistle  was  not  certainly  ascribed  to 
St.  Paul,  because  of  the  difference  of  style  and  language,  and  that 
Barnabas,  Luke,  and  Clement  had  severally  been  named  as  the 
author.  Luther  has  also  regarded  Apollos  as  the  writer,  and  has 
been  followed  by  some  able  critics. 

The  advocates  of  a  Pauline  authorship  urge  that  the  general 
plan  is  similar  to  that  of  Paul's  other  writings,  that  the  phraseology 
and  diction  are  Paul's,  and  that  the  doctrinal  statements  of  the 
epistle  are  identical  with  those  of  Paul.  The  opponents  of  a 
Pauline  authorship,  on  the  other  hand,  deny  these  statements ; 
adduce  many  differences  of  phraseology,  especially  pointing  to  a 
difference  in  the  manner  of  making  quotations ;  and  bring  forward 
ii.  3,  where  the  author  saj-s  that  the  word  'was  confirmed  unto  us 
by  those  that  heard  him,'  a  sentiment  which  is  declared  to  be  in- 
compatible (?)  with  the  position  of  Paul. 

The  readers  of  this  epistle  are  termed  Jlebreivs,  and  regarding 
them  several  distinct  statements  are  made.  They  are  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  Mosaic  ritual  and  institutions.  They  had 
been  persecuted  (x.  32,  33),  and  shown  kindness  to  other  be- 
lievers (vi.  10) ;  they  had  not  yet  resisted  unto  blood  (xii.  4)  ; 
their  Church  had  existed  long  enough  to  be  well  instructed  (v.  12). 
Some  of  their  chief  pastors  were  dead  (xiii.  7).  They  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  writer,  and  anxious  for  his  restoration  to  them 
(xiii.  19).  They  took  a  personal  interest  in  Timothy  (xiii.  23). 
They  were  supposed  to  be  acquainted  with  the  Septuagint,  or 
Greek,  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  for  all  the  quotations  are  taken 
from  that  version.  Hence  some  have  thought  it  not  improbable  that 
the  epistle  was  primarily  intended  for  the  Church  at  Alexandria. 

With  regard  to  the  date,  nothing  can  be  settled  further  than 
that  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  must  have  been  standing  at  the 
time  of  writing.  Although  A.  V.  has  not  always  observed  the 
point,  yet  every  reference  to  the  Levitical  ministrations  is  either 
in  the  present  or  present  perfect  forms ;  as,  '  taketh  this  honour,' 
'who  serve  unto  the  example,'  'the  way  into  the  Holiest  of  all 
has  not  yet  been  made  manifest,'  &c. 

*  Conybeare  and  Howson,  chap,  sxviii. 


EPISTLE   OF  ST.   JAMES.  43 


EPISTLE    OF   ST,  JAMES. 


Author.  "Who  was  the  author  of  tlie  Epistle  of  St.  James  is  a 
question  of  some  difficulty.  The  opening  verse  simply  names  him 
as  '  James,  the  servant  of  God,  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.' 
But  the  ordinary  opinion  has  long  been  that  James,  the  brother  of 
the  Lord,  is  the  author.  This  James  appears  in  Gal.  i.  19  ('  other 
of  the  apostles  saw  I  none  save  James,  the  Lord's  brother'),  and  in 
all  probability  in  Gal.  ii.  9 ;  Acts  xii.  17  ;  xv.  13  ;  xxi.  18,  where  he 
appears  as  a  resident  in  Jerusalem,  and  as  one  of  the  chief  disciples 
who,  with  Cephas  and  John,  appeared  '  to  be  pillars '  of  the  Church 
there.  Further,  in  Matt.  xiii.  55 ;  Mark  vi.  3,  we  find  a  James 
enumerated  among  the  brethren  of  the  Lord.  Whether  this  James 
is  identical  or  not  with  James,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  one  of  the 
apostles,  is  much  disputed. 

The  identity  and  history  of  the  various  persons  entitled  James  in 
the  New  Testament  being  discussed  under  '  James '  in  Section  5,  it 
will  only  here  be  necessary  to  refer  to  that  place,  and  to  state  as  a 
general  result  that  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  author 
of  the  epistle  is  the  same  as  that  James  who  presided  at  the 
first  council  of  Jerusalem.  He  formulated  its  decision  respecting 
the  obligation  of  the  Mosaic  law  on  Gentile  converts,  and  was 
evidently  a  man  of  commanding  influence  in  the  early  Church  at 
Jerusalem.  This  James  was  also  known  as  James  the  Just,  He 
long  resided  at  Jerusalem,  and  Hegesippus,  in  Eusebius,  gives  an 
account  of  his  death  there  by  stoning ;  but  Josephus  (Antiq,  20, 
9. 1)  gives  another  account,  in  which  it  is  only  said  that  the  high- 
priest  Ananus,  in  the  interregnum  following  the  death  of  the  pro- 
curator Festus,  illegally  'delivered  him  to  be  stoned  j'  but  whether 
the  sentence  was  carried  out  does  not  appear.  Some  assert,  there- 
fore, that  Hegesippus  is  wrong,  and  that  James  did  not  die  until 
long  afterwards. 

Place  and  Date  of  Writing.  This  epistle  was  manifestly  written 
from  Jerusalem,  where  James  resided,  and  is  addressed  '  to  the 
twelve  tribes  who  are  scattered  abroad '  {kv  ry  ciaajropa  =  in  the 
dispersion,  a  technical  term  for  Jews  residing  out  of  Palestine). 
The  date  is  very  doubtful,  but  the  internal  evidence  leans  to  a  late 
date.  The  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  the  doctrine  peculiarly 
inculcated  by  the  epistles  of  Paul,  is  referred  to  in  ii.  14,  15,  and 
in  the  phrase  '  that  worthy  name  by  the  which  ye  are  called ' 
(ii,  7)  there  seems  to  be  a  reference  to  the  name  Christian,  first 


44  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

given  about  a.d.  ftO.  Some  also  see  an  allusion  to  the  immediate 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  v,  1. 

AutJienticity .  The  Epistle  of  James  is  reckoned  by  Eusebius, 
together  with  2  and  3  John,  and  Jude,  STuongst  the  disputed  books 
of  the  New  Testament  canon  ;  but  he  also  bears  witness  that  it 
was  publicly  read  as  authentic  in  most  churches,  and  he  himself 
recognises  its  authority.  The  ancient  Syriac  version  also  contains 
it,  Clement  of  Kome,  Hermas,  and  Irenseus  appear  to  refer  to  it, 
and  many  Fathers  of  the  fourth  century  quote  it.  In  397,  the 
Council  of  Carthage  declared  it  to  be  canonical,  and  since  this 
time  it  has  been  generally  received. 

Design.  The  design  of  the  epistle  is  (1)  to  enforce  Christian 
morality,  and  (2)  to  console  Christians  under  the  sufferings  to 
which  they  were  exposed.  Being  addressed  to  Jews,  the  writer 
especially  combats  their  Judaizing  tendencies  to  ceremonial  re- 
ligion (i.  27),  fatalism  (i.  13),  partizanship  (iii.  14),  improper  re- 
spect of  rich  persons  (ii.  2),  &c.  This  design  being  clearly  in 
view,  no  opposition  need  be  supposed  to  exist  between  the  doctrine 
of  justification  by  faith  and  the  doctrine  inculcated  by  St.  James. 
In  ii.  14-26,  a  careful  consideration  will  make  it  apparent  that  the 
argument  is  not  directed  against  the  efficacy  of  a  living  faith,  but 
against  the  notion  that  a  dead  and  fruitless  faith  is  efficacious.  In 
the  examples  of  Abraham  (ii.  23)  and  Rahab  (ii.  25),  the  faith 
both  of  Abraham  and  Eahab  is  clearly  taken  into  account  as  the 
reason  why  righteousness  was  imputed  to  them  ;  the  point  is,  that 
their  faith  was  a  fruit-bearing,  and  not  a  workless  {x^pk  tCov  tpyuji') 
faith. 

In  V.  14,  15,  some  have  wrongly  seen  a  reference  to  extreme 
unction.  But  in  the  case  here  supposed,  the  anointing  is  intended 
for  the  healing  of  the  sick,  whereas  extreme  unction  is  applied  as 
a  viaticum  for  a  person  in  articulo  mortis. 

ST.    PETER  AND   HIS   WRITINGS. 

1.  Iiife  of  Peter. — Nothing  is  known  of  the  early  life  of  Peter, 
except  that  he  was  the  son  of  Jonas  (Matt.  xvi.  17  ,*  John  i.  42 ; 
xxi.  16),  and  was  a  partner  with  James  and  John,  the  sons  of 
Zebedee,  in  the  ownership  of  fishing  vessels  and  apparatus  in  the 
sea  of  Tiberias.  He  was  brother  to  Andrew,  also  one  of  the 
apostles,  and  resided  first  at  Bethsaida  (probably  on  the  north-west 
coast  of  the  sea  of  Galilee)  (John  i.  44),  and  afterwards  at  Ca- 
pernaum, where  his  house  was  sufficiently  capacious  to  receive 
both  our  Lord  and  his  disciples  and  hearers.     He  was  a  married 


ST.  PETER  AND  HIS  WRITINGS.  45 

man ;  one  of  the  earliest  incidents  related  of  his  history  being  the 
healing  by  Jesus  of  his  wife's  mother,  who  was  sick  of  a  fever 
(Matt.  viii.  14,  15  ;  Mark  i.  29-31 ;  Luke  iv.  38,  39),  and  his 
married  condition  is  afterwards  referred  to  by  St.  Paul  as  a  proof 
of  the  apostles'  right  to  marry  (1  Cor.  ix.  5). 

When  Peter  first  appears  in  the  Gospel  history,  he  bears  the 
name  of  Simon,  and  is  afterwards  called  indiiferently  by  this  name 
and  by  that  of  Simon  Peter,  Peter,  and  Cephas.  The  name  of 
Peter  was  given  by  our  Lord  Himself  on  the  first  occasion  of  their 
meeting.  This  occurred  when  our  Lord  returned  to  John  the  Baptist 
after  the  temptation.  Philip  of  Bethsaida,  Andrew  and  Simon,  and 
probably  John,  were  at  this  time  amongst  the  disciples  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  were  in  attendance  upon  him.  When,  therefore, 
John,  beholding  Jesus  as  He  walked,  declared  Him  to  be  the  Lamb 
of  God,  Andrew  and  John,  who  heard  him,  followed  Jesus,  and 
remained  with  Him  that  day.  Andrew  then  sought  his  brother 
Simon,  and  having  found  him,  brought  him  to  Jesus,  with  the  in- 
timation that  they  had  found  the  Christ.  Jesus,  on  the  approach 
of  Simon,  said,  '  Thou  art  Simon,  the  son  of  Jona ;  thou  shalt  be 
called  Cephas,  which  is  by  interpretation  Petrus'  (Jlkrpoc,'^  A.  V, 
'  a  stone  ').  On  this  change  of  name  Stier  remarks  :  ^  The  allusion 
which  has  been  over-critically  detected  in  the  etymology  of  the 
old  name  and  its  allusion  to  the  new,  we  mention  and  leave  un- 
decided ;  the  hearer,  disciple,  heretofore  the  son  of  the  timid  dove, 
which  flies  among  the  rocks,  shall  become  the  sheltering  rock  of 
the  dove.' 

We  now  lose  sight  of  Peter  for  awhile,  until  he  reappears  in 
the  company  of  his  brother  Andrew,  and  his  partners  James  and 
John,  with  their  father  Zebedee,  engaged  in  fishing  upon  the  lake  of 
Galilee.  Here,  ,as  they  are  casting  a  net  into  the  sea,  Jesus  passes 
by  and  calls  them,  and  in  obedience  to  the  call  they  follow  Him 
(Matt.  iv.  18-22 ;  Mark  i.  16-20).  Soon  after  this  the  healing  of 
Simon's  mother-in-law  took  place.  But  the  final  call  was  yet  to 
come.  Once  more,  as  Simon  and  his  partners  were  washing  their 
nets,  the  Lord  passed  by,  and  begged  them  to  permit  Him  to  occupy 
their  ship,  from  which  to  address  the  multitude  on  the  shore. 
When  the  address  was  finished,  the  ship,  by  our  Lord's  command- 
ment, was  taken  out  from  the  shore,  and  an  incredible  haul  of  fish 
secured.  This  decided  the  future  occupation  of  Simon.  We  read 
that  'Jesus  said  unto  Simon,  Fear  not;   from  henceforth  thou 

'  n6'Tpos  =  a  rock  ;  ■n-eTpa=a  piece  of  rock,  or  a  stone  (See  Liddell  and  Scott).  On 
the  name  Cephas,  see  Section  5. 


46  ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

shalt  catcli  men.     And  when  they  had  brought  their  ships  to  land, 
they  forsook  all  and  followed  him '  (Luke  v.  10,  11). 

Soon  after  this  Simon  Peter  was  enrolled  amongst  the  twelve 
apostles,  and  not  only  so,  but  became  one  of  the  three  who  were 
chosen  by  our  Lord  to  accompany  him  upon  special  occasions. 
Thus  Peter,  James,  and  John  only  were  with  our  Lord  at  the 
raising  of  Jairus's  daughter  (Mark  v.  37),  at  the  Transfiguration 
(Matt.  xvii.  1 ;  Mark  ix.  2 ;  Luke  ix.  28),  at  the  Agony  in  the 
Garden  (Matt.  xxvi.  37  ;  Mark  xiv.  33).  On  several  occasions  he 
comes  into  special  prominence.  Thus,  when  after  the  discourse 
on  the  Bread  of  Life,  which  caused  the  secession  of  many  dis- 
ciples, Jesus  said  unto  the  Twelve,  *  Will  ye  also  go  away  ? '  it 
was  Simon  Peter  who  answered,  '  Lord,  to  whom  shall  we  go  ? 
Thou  hast  the  words  of  eternal  life.  And  we  believe  and  are  sure 
that  thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God '  (John  vi. 
67-69).  Again,  at  Caesarea  Philippi,  in  answer  to  our  Lord's  in- 
quiry, '  Whom  say  ye  that  I  am  ? '  it  was  Simon  Peter  who  said, 
'  Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God  '  (Matt.  xvi.  16 ', 
Mark  viii.  29 ;  Luke  ix.  20).  It  was  in  reply  to  this  declaration 
that  our  Lord  made  the  memorable  statement,  '  Thou  art  Peter 
(nhpoc),  and  upon  this  rock  (LttI  rav-y  ry  TTirpa)  I  will  build  my 
church,  and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  it.  And  I 
will  give  unto  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  :  and  what- 
soever thou  shalt  bind  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in  heaven  ;  and 
whatsoever  thou  shalt  loose  on  earth  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven ' 
(Matt.  xvi.  18,  19).  Various  explanations  of  this  statement  exist : 
1.  Peter  is  regarded  as  the  Head  of  the  Church,  and  as  entrusted 
with  authority  over  it.  Whatever  may  be  the  worth  of  this  sup- 
position, it  is  obvious  that  no  power  of  delegating  the  authority  is 
in  any  way  conferred,  and  hence  any  Papal  pretensions  which  are 
based  upon  this  interpretation  necessarily  vanish.  2.  That  our 
Lord  in  the  words  '  this  rock '  referred  to  Himself.  The  main- 
tainers  of  this  view  point  to  the  distinction  between  petrus  and 
petra,  already  adverted  to ;  but  although  the  truth  involved  in  the 
recognition  of  our  Lord  as  the  foundation-stone  of  his  Church  is  a 
valuable  and  most  important  one,  it  does  not  seem  to  be  naturally 
conveyed  by  the  passage  in  question.  3.  That  Peter  represents 
the  Church  at  large,  as  the  principal  disciple.  This  is  the  general 
patristic  view.  4.  That  the  '  rock  '  upon  which  Christ  builds  his 
Church  is  the  confession  of  faith  in  his  person  and  Messiahship. 
5.  That  Peter  in  some  senses  may  be  considered  the  foundation  of 
the  Church,  which  is  expressly  said  elsewhere  to  be  built  '  upon 


ST.  PETEE  AND   HIS   WEITINGS.  47 

tlie  foundation  of  the  apostles  and  prophets,  Jesus  Christ  being  the 
chief  corner-s^o?<e  '  (Eph.  ii.  20).  Thus,  on  the  day  of  Pentecost, 
and  afterwards  (Acts  ii.  j  viii.  14-25  j  x.),  we  find  him  taking  the 
most  prominent  place  in  the  work  of  the  ministry,  although  what 
may  be  called  the  primacy  rested  with  the  Apostle  James. 

The  apostle's  view  of  his  Master's  office  was,  notwithstanding, 
very  imperfect.  When,  immediately  after  the  occurrence  last 
mentioned,  our  Saviour  spoke  of  his  coming  sufferings  and  death, 
Peter  '  took  him  and  rebuked  him,'  and  incurred  the  severe  cen- 
sure— 'Get  thee  behind  me,  Satan,  for  thou  savourest  not  (oi> 
(ppovilg)  the  things  which  be  of  God,  but  those  that  be  of  men ' 
(Matt.  xvi.  23 ;  Mark  viii.  33). 

Other  circumstances  specially  recorded  of  Peter  are,  his  walking 
on  the  water  to  meet  Jesus  (Matt.  xiv.  28-31),  his  catching  the 
fish  in  whose  mouth  the  tribute-money  was  found  (Matt.  xvii.  24- 
27),  his  asking  questions  concerning  forgiveness  of  injuries  (Matt. 
xviii,  21,  22),  and  as  to  the  reward  which  those  should  receive 
who,  like  himself,  had  left  all  to  follow  Jesus  (Matt.  xix.  27-30 ; 
Mark  x.  28-31 ;  Luke  xviii.  28-30).  To  him  also,  in  company  with 
Andrew,  and  James  and  John,  was  privately  addressed  the  discourse 
on  the  last  days  delivered  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  (Matt.  xxiv.  3  ; 
Mark  xiii.  3  ;  Luke  xxi.  7). 

At  the  Last  Supper,  Peter  was  several  times  conspicuous.  With 
John  he  was  sent  to  prepare  the  supper  (Luke  xxii.  8).  When 
our  Lord,  in  the  course  of  the  supper,  made  preparations  for  wash- 
ing the  disciples'  feet,  Peter  at  first  objected;  and  when  the 
object  of  our  Lord's  action  became  more  apparent,  he  exclaimed, 
with  that  rapid  and  earnest  change  of  intention  by  which  he  was 
characterised,  *  Not  my  feet  only,  but  also  my  hands  and  my 
head '  (John  xiii.  6-11).  Again,  Simon  Peter  requested  John, 
who  was  leaning  on  Jesus'  bosom,  to  ask  the  name  of  the  be- 
trayer (John  xiii.  24).  Lastly,  when  our  Lord  predicted  the  defec- 
tion of  his  disciples,  Peter  answered  and  said,  '  Though  all  men 
should  be  offended,  yet  will  1  never  be  offended,'  and  as  a  rebuke 
for  his  presumption,  was  at  once  warned  that  before  'the  cock 
should  crow '  (Mark  adds  '  twice '),  he  should  thrice  deny  his 
Master  (Matt.  xxvi.  33-35  ;  Mark  xiv.  28-30). 

As  already  stated,  Peter,  James,  and  John  were  especially 
singled  out  for  companionship  with  Jesus  in  the  Garden  of  Geth- 
semane,  and  there  fell  asleep  for  awhile,  during  the  agony  of  our 
Lord  in  prayer.  Afterwards,  on  the  arrest  of  Jesus,  he  drew  a 
sword,  and  cut  off  the  ear  of  Malchus,  one  of  the  servants  of  the 


48  ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

high-priest,  and  was  rebuked  for  so  doing  (Matt.  xxvi.  51,  52  ; 
Mark  xiv.  47 ;  Luke  xxii.  49,  51 ;  John  xviii.  10,  11).  Then, 
with  the  rest,  he  forsook  Jesus  and  fled,  but  following  '  afar  off  to 
see  the  end/  was  admitted  by  the  influence  of  John,  who  knew 
the  high-priest,  into  the  court-yard  of  the  palace  to  which  Jesus 
was  conveyed.  There,  in  accordance  with  the  prediction  of  our 
Lord,  he  thrice  denied  Him,  but  on  the  third  occasion  our  Saviour 
'turned  and  looked  on  him.'  The  glance  produced  instantaneous 
conviction  and  repentance  in  the  disciple's  heart :  *  he  went  out 
and  wept  bitterly'  (Matt.  xxvi.  69-75  j  Mark  xiv.  66-72;  Luke 
xxii.  56-62 ;  John  xviii.  17,  18,  25-27). 

On  the  morning  of  the  Resurrection  Peter  was  specially  named 
as  one  to  whom  the  women  who  saw  the  angels  were  to  tell  the 
news  of  Christ's  coming,  and  Peter,  with  John,  were  the  flrst  of 
the  apostles  to  visit  the  sepulchre.  Peter  was  also  the  first  to 
enter  and  discover  the  absence  of  the  Lord's  body  (Luke  xxiv.  12  ; 
John  XX.  3-7).  It  also  appears  from  Luke  xxiv.  34  and  1  Cor. 
XV.  5,  that  a  special  appearance  to  Simon  took  place,  but  no 
details  are  given. 

After  this,  and  the  other  appearances  of  the  risen  Lord  which 
he  must  have  witnessed  in  company  with  the  other  disciples, 
Peter  seemed  to  have  gone  back  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  for  a 
while  to  have  resumed  his  original  occupation  of  fishing.  While 
thus  employed  with  Thomas,  Nathauael,  and  the  sons  of  Zebedee, 
our  Lord  once  more  appeared  to  him,  and  although  John  was  first 
in  recognising  his  Master,  Peter  first  reached  Him  by  casting  him- 
self into  the  sea  and  wading  to  land.  Similarly,  again,  he  showed 
his  zeal  in  being  the  first  to  seize  the  net  and  drag  it  to  land, 
when  our  Lord  said,  'Bring  of  the  fish.'  Then  followed  the  well- 
known  conversation  in  which  our  Lord  thrice  asked  the  same 
question,  'only  slightly  varied  by  the  exact  word  used — '  Lovest 
thou  Me  ?  '  and  having  been  thrice  answered  aflirmatively,  con- 
ferred on  his  repentant  disciple  the  oftice  of  pasturing  our  Lord's 
sheep  and  lambs,  and  predicted  his  martyrdom  by  crucifixion 
(John  xxi.  1-19).  Encouraged  by  this,  Peter  questioned  our  Lord 
respecting  John,  but  received  no  distinct  answer. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  Peter  undoubtedly 
appears  as  the  chief  and  foremost  of  the  apostolic  company.  He 
seems  to  preside  at  the  election  of  a  successor  to  Judas  (i.  15), 
and  is  the  spokesman  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (ii.  14,  38).  With 
John,  he  works  a  notable  miracle  upon  a  lame  man  at  the  Beauti- 
ful Gate  of  the  Temple,  addressing  the  people  on  the  power  and 


ST.   PETER  AND  HIS   WEITINGS.  49 

character  of  Jesus,  is  consequently  confronted  with  the  Sanhedrim, 
and  in  their  presence  boldly  preaches  the  Gospel  (iii.  1 — iv.  22).  It 
is  Peter,  again,  who  denounces  punishment  on  Ananias  and  Sapphira 
(v.  3,  8,  9),  and  whose  shadow  as  he  passes  by  is  supposed  by  the 
people  to  have  healing  virtues  (v.  15).  When  the  apostles  are 
put  in  prison,  and  thence  brought  before  the  Sanhedrim  again, 
Peter  once  more  becomes  spokesman  (v.  29),  But  it  is  evident 
from  viii.  14,  that  he  acted  in  subordination  to  the  general  authority ; 
for  here  we  read  that,  '  when  the  apostles  which  were  at  Jerusalem 
heard  that  Samaria  had  received  the  word  of  God,  they  sent  unto 
them  Peter  and  John.'  On  this  occasion  Peter  denounced  Simon 
Magus,  and  thence  returning  to  Jerusalem,  preached  in  many 
Samaritan  villages  (viii.  25).  After  this,  the  apostle  became  the 
host  of  Saul,  newly  arrived  from  Damascus,  for  fifteen  days 
(ix,  26 ;  Gal.  i.  18) ;  then,  leaving  Jerusalem  on  a  general  tour  of 
visitation,  he  went  to  Lydda,  where  he  healed  ^neas  of  a  palsy, 
and  thence  being  sent  for  to  Joppa,  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of 
Dorcas,  he  raised  her  from  the  dead  (ix.  32-43).  Next,  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  Joppa,  at  the  house  of  Simon  a  tanner,  and 
was  privileged  to  behold  a  vision,  by  which  he  was  prepared  to 
receive  the  application  of  Cornelius,  a  Roman  centurion  of  Csesarea, 
for  instruction  in  Christian  doctrine  (x.  1-23).  The  details  of  his 
visit  to  Cornelius,  of  Cornelius's  subsequent  conversion,  and  of  the 
discussion  which  followed  at  Jerusalem  as  to  the  outpouring  of 
the  Spirit  on  the  Gentiles,  are  given  in  Acts  x.  24- xi.  18.  In 
Acts  xii.  Peter  is  imprisoned  by  Herod,  but  miraculously  delivered 
by  an  angel ;  and  here  the  continuous  history  of  this  apostle  ends, 
the  remaining  notices  of  his  name  in  New  Testament  history 
being  only  two.  Thus,  we  find  Peter  again  a  spokesman,  and 
recounting  the  history  of  the  conversion  of  Cornelius,  at  the  council 
held  at  Jerusalem  to  determine  the  obligation  of  the  Mosaic  law 
on  Gentile  Christians  ;  but  it  is  noticeable  that  he  is  not  the  presi- 
dent, and  does  not  appear  to  exercise  any  official  authority  (Acts 
XV.  7 ;  Gal.  ii.  7,  8,  9).  Again,  a  meeting  at  Antioch  between 
Peter  and  Paul,  probably  soon  after  the  meeting  at  Jerusalem,  is 
recorded  in  Gal.  ii.  11 ;  but  it  should  be  carefully  noticed  that  the 
point  in  which  Paul  says  that  Peter  was  '  to  be  blamed  (Ka-eyvoja- 
fiki'oc) '  was  not  any  Judaizing  doctrine,  but  a  tendency  to  incon- 
sistency. That  no  breach  of  brotherly  feeling  was  the  result  is 
obvious  from  2  Pet.  iii.  15,  where  Peter  calls  Paul  his  '  beloved 
brother.' 

In  1  Cor.  i.  12  we  read,  '  one  of  you  saith,  I  am  of  Paul ;  and  I 


50  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

of  Apollos ;  and  I  of  Cephas.''  From  this  it  has  been  inferred  by 
some,  that  Peter  visited  Corinth,  and  this  is  suggested  by  Clement 
of  Rome,  and  stated  as  a  fact  by  Dionysius,  bishop  of  Corinth 
about  A.D.  180.  Origen  further  states,  that  Peter  seems  to  have 
preached  the  Gospel  in  the  countries  of  Asia,  mentioned  in  his 
first  epistle  ;  and,  in  1  Pet.  v.  13,  the  apostle  writes  from  Babylon. 
Whether  this  Babylon  is  the  ancient  city  of  that  name  (where  a 
numerous  and  prosperous  colony  of  Jews  then  resided),  or  a  mystic 
name  for  Rome,  cannot  be  determined. 

It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  to  discuss  the  question  as  to 
whether  Peter  ever  was  at  Rome  or  not.  No  trace  of  such  a  cir- 
cumstance (except  the  doubtful  reference  to  Babylon)  is  found  in 
the  New  Testament.  That  he  ever  visited  this  city  at  all  has  been 
vehemently  denied  by  many  modern  writers,  and  considerable  un- 
certainty must  be  allowed  to  hang  over  the  subject.  If  ever 
there,  he  could  not  have  been  there  before  the  last  year  of  his  life, 
and  certainly  never  occupied  the  post  of  bishop  of  the  church  there. 
Any  primacy  of  Peter  is  altogether  out  of  the  question ;  and  it 
has  been  demonstrated,  that  when  the  fathers  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries  speak  of  '  The  Apostle,'  they  mean  St.  Paul.  Tra- 
dition, however,  relates  that  St.  Peter  was  put  to  death  at  Rome 
about  the  same  time  as  St.  Paul,  and  was  crucified  with  his  head 
downwards,  by  his  own  request,  thinking  himself  unworthy  to  die 
in  the  same  posture  as  his  master.  Another  curious  tradition  re- 
lates that,  having  been  forewarned  of  the  intention  to  arrest  him, 
he  was  escaping,  but  met  our  Lord  at  the  gate.  To  the  question, 
'  Whither  goest  thou.  Lord  ? '  our  Lord  replied,  '  I  go  to  Rome 
to  be  once  more  crucified.'  Peter  then  returned,  gave  himself  up, 
and  suffered  death  accordingly. 

The  only  unquestioned  writing  of  St.  Peter  is  his  first  epistle. 
The  authenticity  of  the  second  epistle  has  been  strongly  contested. 
But  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark  (as  has  been  already  stated)  was  in  all 
probability  written  imder  his  direction ;  and  it  has  been  long  ob- 
served that  in  that  Gospel,  with  characteristic  Christian  humility, 
the  shortcomings  of  Peter  are  more  clearly  stated,  and  less  said  in 
his  favour,  than  in  the  remaining  Gospels. 

2.  THe  Spistles  of  St.  Peter. — FiRST  Epistle. — Authenticity. 
The  First  Epistle  of  Peter  was  unanimously  received  by  the 
ancient  church  as  the  work  of  the  apostle  whose  name  it  bears. 
It  is  referred  to  in  the  second  epistle  (iii.  1),  and  Polycarp,  Papias, 
Irenaeus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and  Origen,  all  quote 


ST.  PETER  AND  HIS  WRITINGS.  51 

it  frequently.  It  is  also  found  in  the  ancient  Syriac  version,  which 
contains  only  three  of  the  Catholic  epistles. 

Date  and  Place  of  Writiiig.  The  place  from  which  this  epistle 
was  written  is  clearly  described  in  v.  13  as  '  Babylon/  and  it  has 
been  already  stated  that  much  doubt  exists  as  to  whether  this 
place  was  really  Babylon  in  Mesopotamia,  or  Rome  described  under 
a  mystic  appellation.  There  is  no  valid  reason  why  the  true 
Babylon  should  not  have  been  the  place.  A  large  and  flourishing 
community  of  Jews  resided  there,  and  the  provinces  mentioned  in 
the  salutation  are  mentioned  in  the  order  in  which  they  would  occur 
to  a  person  ti-avelling  westward  from  Mesopotamia.  Further, 
Silvanus  or  Silas  is  the  bearer  of  the  epistle,  whom  we  know  to 
have  been  the  companion  of  Paul  -,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that 
Silvanus  may  have  been  sent  on  a  mission  by  St.  Paul  to  the  East, 
and  have  been  entrusted  with  this  letter  on  his  return.  The  date 
must  remain  entirely  undetermined.  A  fiery  persecution  appears 
to  have  commenced  (i.  6,  7 ;  ii.  12,  19,  20;  iii.  14,  16,  17;  iv.  1, 
12-19 ;  V.  9,  10),  and  this  may  possibly  have  been  that  occurring 
in  the  latter  years  of  Nero,  who  died  in  a.d.  68. 

Design.  The  epistle  itself  states  that  the  Christian  Jews  of  the 
dispersion,  and  resident  in  certain  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  were 
the  intended  readers  of  the  epistle.  Its  design  was  to  comfort 
them  under  their  tribulations,  and  to  exhort  them  to  practical 
piety. 

Second  Epistle, — Authenticity.  '  If  it  were  a  question  now  to 
be  decided  for  the  first  time  upon  the  external  or  internal  evidences 
still  accessible,  it  may  be  admitted  that  it  would  be  far  more  dif- 
ficult to  maintain  this  than  any  other  document  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. But  the  judgment  of  the  early  church  is  not  to  be  re- 
versed without  far  stronger  arguments  than  have  been  adduced, 
more  especially  as  the  epistle  is  entirely  free  from  objections  which 
might  be  brought,  with  more  show  of  reason,  against  others  now 
all  but  universally  received  :  inculcating  no  new  doctrine,  bearing 
on  no  controversies  of  post-apostolical  origin,  supporting  no  hier- 
archical innovations,  but  simple,  earnest,  devout,  and  eminently 
practical,  full  of  the  characteristic  graces  of  the  apostle,  who,  as  we 
believe,  bequeathed  this  last  proof  of  faith  and  love  to  the  church.' 
With  these  words  Canon  Cook  closes  a  careful  discussion  of  the 
evidence  for  and  against  the  authenticity  of  this  epistle  in  Smith's 
'  Bible  Dictionary.'  There  can  be  no  question  that  there  are  few 
references  in  the  early  Fathers  to  this  epistle,  and  that  its  style 

e2 


52         ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

(especially  in  chap,  ii.)  differs  from  that  of  the  first  epistle.  But 
it  was  formally  received  into  the  Canon  in  393,  and  passages  in 
Clement  of  Rome,  Hermas,  Justin  Martyr,  Theophilus  of  Antioch, 
and  Irenaeus,  suggest  an  acquaintance  with  its  contents.  In 
Origen,  but  only  in  the  Latin  translation  by  Rufinus,  also  occurs  a 
remarkable  passage,  so  peculiar,  that  we  cannot  hesitate  to  consider 
it  to  have  emanated  from  Origen  himself.  Alluding  to  the  pro- 
cession of  priests  round  Jericho,  the  writer  compares  the  writers 
of  the  New  Testament  to  so  many  sacerdotal  trumpeters,  and  says, 
'  First  Matthew,  in  his  gospel,  gave  a  blast  with  his  sacerdotal 
trumpet ;  Mark  also,  Luke,  and  John,  sounded  with  their  single 
sacerdotal  trumpets.  Peter  also  sounds  aloud  luith  the  two  trumpets 
of  his  epistles ;  James  also,  and  Jude.  But  John  adds  yet  again 
to  blow  with  the  trumpet  through  his  epistles  and  Apocalypse  ; 
Luke  also,  narrating  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  But  last  of  all 
that  man  came  who  said :  "  I  think  that  God  has  set  forth  us 
apostles  last ;"  and  thundering  with  the  fourteen  trumpets  of  his 
epistles  overthrew  to  their  foundations  the  walls  of  Jericho,  and 
all  the  engines  of  idolatry  and  dogmas  of  philosophy.'  Eusebius 
mentions  the  epistle  as  amongst  the  disputed,  but  Jerome,  who 
makes  the  same  statement,  notwithstanding  this  received  the 
epistle,  and  explains  the  difi"erence  of  style  and  language  by  the  sup- 
position that  Peter,  who,  according  to  tradition,  generally  employed 
an  interpreter,  employed  different  interpreters  as  amanuenses  of  his 
two  epistles. 

Design.  The  object  of  the  epistle  is  to  warn  believers  against 
gross  errors  and  false  teachers,  and  the  apostle  appeals  continually 
to  his  own  knowledge  of  our  Lord  and  personal  acquaintance  with 
his  doctrines.  The  similarity  between  chap.  ii.  and  Jude  may  be 
explained  on  two  suppositions.  Either  the  apostle  desired  to  give 
additional  force  to  sentiments  already  published  by  Jude,  or  Jude 
may  be  describing  actually  that  which  the  Epistle  of  Peter  de- 
scribes prophetically. 

Date  and  Place  of  Writing.  Of  the  latter  nothing  is  known.  The 
apostle  evidently  writes  in  the  expectation  of  speedy  departure 
(i.  13-15);  and  if  he  were  martyred  about  a.d.  Q7,  in  accordance 
with  tradition,  this  would  fix  the  date  of  the  epistle  to  some 
extent. 

ST.  jude's  epistle. 

The  Author.  The  writer  of  this  epistle  styles  himself  Jude 
^the  brother  of  James/  and  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  same 


ST.  PETER  AND  HIS  WRITINGS.  53 

as  the  apostle  Judas,  Lebbseus  or  Tbaddeus,  who,  in  Luke  vi.  16, 
is  styled  Jude  the  brother  of  James,  where  the  words  '  the  brother ' 
are  not  in  the  original,  and  many  suppose  that  they  should  be 
replaced  by  the  words  '  the  son.'  Others,  however,  think  that  he 
was  one  of  the  Lord's  brethren,  and  that  he  calls  himself  the 
brother  of  James  out  of  humility.  Neither  of  Judas,  Lebbseus, 
nor  of  Jude  the  Lord's  *  brother,'  do  we  know  much.  Lebbteus  is  , 
only  referred  to  in  John  xiv.  22  as  asking,  ^  Lord,  how  is  it  that 
thou  wilt  manifest  thyself  unto  us,  and  not  unto  the  world  ?  '  Of 
the  other  Jude,  beyond  his  early  rejection  of  our  Lord  in  common 
with  the  other  brethren,  nothing  whatever  is  known. 

Authenticity.  Clement  of  Alexandria  is  the  first  father  by  whom 
this  epistle  is  recognised ;  but  this  need  occasion  little  surprise, 
and  it  has  since  been  received  without  dispute  in  the  church.  The 
Muratorian  fragment  recognises  it,  and  Origen,  Tertullian,  and 
Jerome  quote  it  as  canonical.  No  time  or  place  of  writing  can  be 
defined.  It  is  probable  that  the  delay  in  recognising  it  arose,  not 
merely  from  the  nature  of  its  contents,  but  from  the  fact  that  the 
apocryphal  book  of  Enoch  is  quoted  in  it,  and  that  a  tradition 
about  Moses  and  the  archangel  is  referred  to.  It  does  not  appear, 
however,  that  the  apostle  necessarily  quoted  the  book  now  bearing 
the  name  of  Enoch.  It  may  well  have  been  that  this  book  in- 
corporates the  ancient  prophecy  also  mentioned  by  Jude.  The 
reference  to  the  tradition  about  Moses  also  does  not  necessarily 
imply  that  the  tradition  was  untrue. 

This  epistle  is  strikingly  similar  to  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter, 
chap,  ii,  This  similarity  may  be  satisfactorily  explained  on  either 
of  the  suppositions  mentioned  in  the  above  notice  of  2  Peter. 


54 


SECTION    II. 
SKETCH  OF  THE  GOSPEL  HISTOBY. 


%*  For  a  sketch  of  the  times  immediately  preceding  the  birth  of  our  Lord,  see 
under  Herod,  in  Section  5. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FROM    THE   BIRTH   OF   JESTJS    CHRIST,   B.C.  5,  TO   HIS   BEIIS'G   FOUND 
IN   THE   TEMPLE,   MARCH,    A.D.  9. 

1.  Bate  of  tHe  Birtb  of  Jesus  Cbrist. — The  exact  date  of  our 
Lord's  birth  has  been  a  matter  for  much  controversy.  But  there 
are  certain  considerations  which  narrow  the  limits  within  which 
it  must  have  taken  place.  The  earlier  of  these  limits  is  determined 
by  a  calculation  of  the  date  at  which  Zacharias  was  oiFering 
incense  in  the  Temple,  when  the  angel  Gabriel  appeared  to  him, 
and  announced  that  he  should  have  a  son.  Zacharias  was  of  the 
course  of  Abia,  the  eighth  of  the  twenty-four  courses  into  which 
David  divided  the  priests  (1  Chr.  xxiv.  1,  10).  Now  each  of  these 
courses  officiated  for  seven  days,  and  we  know  that  at  the  taking 
of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  which  happened  on  August  5,  a.d.  70 
=A.ir.c.  823,  the  first  ^  course,  named  the  course  of  Jehoiarib,  had 
just  entered  office.  This  furnishes  a  means  of  calculating  the  date 
of  the  ministry  of  Zacharias,  and  Whence  the  birth-date  of  our 
Ijord.  For  from  August  5,  823,  to  August  5,  748,  there  are 
seventy-five  Julian  years,  or  27,393  days,  or  163  complete  cycles 
of  the  whole  twenty-four  courses,  and  nine  days  over.  Hence,  the 
course  of  Jehoiarib  was  entering  on  its  ministry  on  August  14, 
748.^  Following  this  calculation  we  find,  that  the  course  of  Abia 
entered  office  on  October  8,  B.C.  6,  and  left  on  October  15.  The 
earliest  period,  therefore,  at  which  the  assertion  of  the  angel  to 

'  Josephus,  B.  J.  vi.  4, 1  and  2. 

*  The  same  calculation,  of  course,  makes  the  cycle  to  commence  also  on  Febru- 
ary 27,  B.C.  6,  and  various  dates  preceding  this  by  multiples  of  168  days.  But  the 
substitution  of  February  27  for  Aug.  14  in  the  above  calculation  has  not  been  hitherto 
made  by  harmonists,  as  it  throws  events  too  far  back. 


DATE   OF   THE   BIETH  OF  JESUS   CHRIST.  00 

the  Virgin  Mary,  in  Luke  i.  36,  could  be  made  is  about  the  middle 
of  March,  B.C.  5,  and  reckoning  forty  weeks  from  this  date,  our 
Lord  could  not  have  been  born  2Jrevious  to  December  21,  B.C.  5. 

Again,  we  have  a  later  limit  fixed  by  the  death  of  Herod  the 
Great.  This  took  place  shqrtly  before  the  Passover,  B.C.  4,  and 
in  all  probability  about  April  7.  Before  this  event,  we  have  to  place 
the  flight  into  Egypt,  the  visit  of  the  Magi,  and  the  Presentation 
in  the  Temple,  which  could  not  have  taken  place  until  the  infant 
Saviour  was  forty  days  old.  It  is  therefore  unlikely  that  the  birth 
of  our  Lord  took  place  later  than  January^  B.C.  4.  In  short, 
although  no  certain  day  can  be  laid  down  as  the  true  day  of  the 
Nativity,  we  can  have  little  doubt  as  to  its  having  taken  place  at, 
or  about  the  end  of  B.C.  5,  or  the  beginning  of  B.C.  4. 

2.  Annunciation  of  the  Birtb  of  John  the  Baptist  and  of 
our  Ziord's  Birth. — The  birth  of  our  Lord  was  announced  before- 
hand to  the  Virgin  destined  to  become  his  mother  Matt.  i.  I8-2.5. 
according  to  the  flesh.  She  was  named  Mary,  and  ^^^  ^-  ^~^*'- 
was  possibly  the  daughter  of  Jacob, ^  a  resident  at  Nazareth,  in 
Galilee.  She  was  betrothed  to  Joseph,  her  cousin,  when  the 
angel  Gabriel  conveyed  the  heavenly  tidings  to  her.  Enter- 
ing the  house  with  the  salutation,  *  Hail,  highly  favoured,  the 
Lord  is  with  thee;  blessed  art  thou  among  imnien^'^  the  heavenly 
messenger  announced  that,  by  the  overshadowing  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  Mary  should  conceive  and  bear  a  son.  This  son  should  be 
called  Jesus  (i.e.  Saviour),  and  the  Son  of  the  Highest,  and  to  him 
should  be  given  the  throne  of  his  father  David. 

Six  months  before  this,  another  announcement  had  been  made 
by  the  same  angel  Gabriel,  with  regard  to  him  who  was  to  be  the 
forerunner  of  Jesus.  As  the  aged  Zacharias,  a  priest  of  the  house 
of  Abia,  and  the  husband  of  a  childless  wife,  named  Elisabeth 
(who  was  a  cousin  to  Mary),  was  burning  incense  in  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem,  the  angel  had  appeared  to  him,  and  announced  that 
he  should  have  a  son,  whose  name  should  be  called  John,  and 
who  should  go  before  the  Lord  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elias. 
Zacharias,  however,  disbelieved  this,  and  as  a  punishment  was 
struck  with  dumbness  until  the  promised  child  was  bom.  That 
the  promise  of  the  angel  would  be  kept  was  soon  evident,  and 
when  the  annunciation  to  Mary  took  place,  the  condition  of  Elisa- 
beth was  referred  to  as  a  sign  of  Almighty  power,  and  it  was 
stated  that  it  was  '  now  the  sixth  month  with  her  who  was  called 
barren.' 

'  See  Grcnealogy  of  Jesns  Christ  in  Section  4.  '  Italics  omitted  by  {<. 


56  ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Immediately  after  the  Annunciation  Mary  visited  her  cousin,* 
who  resided  in  the  'hill  country  of  Judaea,'  which  lies  about 
fifteen  miles  south  of  Jerusalem.  This  was  formerly  a  very  popu- 
lous district,  and  is  still  covered  with  the  ruins  of  cities,^  amongst 
which  it  is  now  impossible  to  identify  any  particular  one  as  the 
residence  of  Zacharias  and  Elisabeth.  Here  Mary  remained  about 
three  months,  in  all  probability  until  immediately  before  the  birth 
of  Elisabeth's  child,  and  then  returned  home  to  Nazareth.  At 
the  meeting  of  the  cousins,  Mary  gave  utterance  to  the  song  now 
known  as  the  Magnificat,  from  its  commencement,  '  My  soul  doth 
magnify  the  Lord.'  This  song  may  be  compared  with  the  song 
of  Hannah  (I  Sam.  ii.  1-10)  uttered  under  somewhat  similar  cir- 
cumstances. 

It  became  evident,  after  Mary's  return  to  Nazareth,  that  she 
was  about  to  give  birth  to  a  child ;  but  her  betrothed  husband 
Joseph,  not  willing  to  make  her  a  public  example,  determined  to 
put  her  away  privately.  From  this  he  was  hindered  by  a  vision, 
in  which  an  angel  directed  him  to  espouse  Mary,  since  that  which 
was  conceived  in  her  was  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Being  raised  from 
sleep,  therefore,  Joseph  formally  espoused  Mary,  but  kept  himself 
from  her  until  the  birth  of  the  child. 

3.  Birtb  of  Jolm  tbe  Baptist. — Meanwhile,  the  child  of  Za- 
charias and  Elisabeth  was  born.    The  relatives  of  the  child  wished 

^^ .  „  him  to  be  called  Zacharias,  but  the  father,  by  means 

^  '  of  a  writing-tablet,  gave  Mm  the  name  of  John, 
and  being  then  miraculously  restored  to  the  use  of  speech,  he 
uttered  the  hymn  of  praise  known  as  the  Be7iedictus,  from  its  com- 
mencement, '  Blessed  be  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  in  which  the  ca- 
reer of  the  child,  as  a  forerunner  of  the  Lord,  was  shadowed  forth. 

4.  Birtli  of  Jesus  Christ. — The  Roman  province,  of  which  Pa- 
lestine at  this  time  formed  a  part,  was  called  Syria.     The  President 

of  Syria  was  Cy renins,  or  Quirinus,  for  the  first  time  ; 
and  Herod  the  Great  was  King  of  Judaea  under  him.^ 

*  oT;v7evTj?=relatioi].    The  exact  relationship  is  not  determined  by  this  expression. 
-  Tristram's  Land  of  Israel,  p.  384.    Ain  Karim  pretends  to  be  the  true  residence 
of  Zacharias  and  Elisabeth,  but  on  no  trustworthy  grounds.     See  Thompson's  Land 
and  the  Book,  p.  663. 

=■  It  has  been  recently  shown  by  Dr.  Zumpt,  that  the  succession  of  Presidents  of 
Syria  about  this  time  was  as  follows  : — 

B.C.  9—6  Sextius  Saturninus  A.D.    4—6    Lucius  Volsius  Satnminus 

6—4  Quintilius  Varus  6—12  Puhlius    Sulpicius    Quiri- 

4 — 1  Publius    Sulpicius    Quiri-  nus 

nus  12—17  Q.  C.  M.  Creticus  Silanus 

B.C.  1— A.D.  2  Marcus  Lollius  17—19  Cn.  Piso. 

2—  3  Caius  Marcus  Censorinus 


BIRTH  OF  JESUS  CHEIST.  57 

The  Emperor  of  Rome  was  Augustus  Caesar,  under  -^liom,  Cassio- 
dorus  says,  '  August!  siquidem  temporibus  orbis  Romanus  agris 
divisus  censuque  descriptus  est.'  ^  Suidas  also  says :  '  This  Au- 
gustus Csesar,  having  become  sole  ruler,  selected  twenty  men  .  .  . 
and  sent  them  throughout  the  provinces  (rj)v  yijv  toiv  uttz/kowv), 
and  by  their  means  made  a  sequestration  {dTroypafdg^  iTroiiiffaro) 
both  of  men  and  goods,  so  that  he  might  accurately  determine 
what  portion  of  these  should  be  converted  to  the  public  ser- 
vice.'^ Besides  this,  we  have  a  short  autobiography  of  the 
Emperor  Augustus,  directed  by  his  will  to  be  engraved  on 
brazen  tablets,  and  set  up  before  his  mausoleum.  This  is  known 
as  the  Monumentum  Ancyi-anum,  and  from  it  we  learn  that  three 
censuses  were  held  by  this  emperor."*  Whichever  of  these  three 
the  census  mentioned  in  Luke  ii.  2  may  have  been,  it  appears  to 
have  been  carried  out  on  the  Jewish  system  of  families,  and 
Joseph,  the  betrothed  husband  of  Mary,  went  up  with  her  to 
Bethlehem,  he  being  of  the  family  of  David.  Our  Authorised 
Version  says  they  went  '  to  be  taxed,'  but  the  true  meaning  is  that 
they  went  '  to  be  registered '  (d7roypd(ptrT9ai).  At  Bethlehem  the 
crowd  of  strangers  was  great,  and  the  inn  or  khan  ^  was  full,  so 
that  Joseph  and  Mary  had  to  take  refuge  in  a  stable,  and  in  this 
lowly  apartment  our  blessed  Lord  was  born.  He  was  wrapped 
in  swaddling-clothes,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  country,  and 
the  manger  of  the  cattle  became  his  cradle. '^  But  his  birth  was 
not  unnoticed.     On  the  hills  about  Bethlehem,  shepherds  were 

This  table  satisfactorily  explains  the  diflBcult  passage  in  Luke  ii.  2,  where  the  census 
which  brought  Joseph  to  Bethlehem  is  stated  to  have  happened  when  '  Cyrenius 
was  governor  of  Syria.'  This  census  took  place  during  Quirinus's  first,  and  not 
second,  term  of  office. 

^  Var.  iii.  52.  *  Another  reading  is  anoypa^riv. 

'  Suidas,  under  anoypa^rt.  Suidas  has  also,  under  Auyovo-tos,  a  doubtful  reference 
to  this  census. 

*  Second  table,  left  hand.  Wieseler  tries  to  show  that  two  of  the  censuses  were  lustra 
only,  and  that  none  of  them  were  the  census  of  Luke  ii.  2.  But  Reynolds,  followed 
by  Greswell  and  Huschke,  has  almost  demonstrated  that  the  second  census  is 
Luke's  census. 

*  Mr.  Hepworth  Dixon,  in  his  Holy  Land,  endeavours  to  show  that  this  khan 
is  stm  to  be  identified.    See  Bethlehem,  in  Section  5. 

*  The  suitability  of  the  manger  may  be  illustrated  from  The  Land  of  Israel. 
In  a  house  to  which  Dr.  Tristram  went,  the  accommodation  consisted  of  a  large 
and  lofty  barn,  the  lower  half  of  which  was  half-granary,  half-stable,  the  granaiy 
open  to  the  top,  and  a  few  steps  leading  up  to  the  dwelling  portion,  these  steps 
forming  in  part  the  manger  and  hay-rack  of  the  camel  and  two  cows.  This 
reminded  the  traveller  of  the  position  of  our  Lord's  parents  at  Bethlehem.  Kot 
received,  either  by  reason  of  their  poverty  or  humble  appearance,  on  the  upper  plat- 
form, but  left  below— the  infant,  when  born,  was  naturally  laid  in  the  long  earthen 
trough  which  serves  for  manger,  and  into  which  the  fodder  is  pushed  from  the 
floor.— p.  72. 


58  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

watching  over  their  flocks  by  night.  Suddenly  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
appeared  to  them,  saying :  '  Fear  not :  for,  behold,  I  bring  you 
good  tidings  of  great  joy,  which  shall  be  to  all  people.  For  unto 
you  is  born  this  day  in  the  city  of  David  a  Saviour,  which  is 
Christ  the  Lord.'  Instructed  by  this  angel,  and  encouraged  by 
others  who  joined  him,  the  shepherds  visited  the  birthplace  of  the 
child,  and  having  seen  it,  returned,  glorifying  God. 

5.  Tbe  Circumcision  and  Presentation  in  the  Temple. — 
Eight  days  later  the  child  was  circumcised,  and  named  Jesus  ; 

••  91  ^q  and  forty  days  after  his  birth,  his  mother  was  brought 
to  the  Temple,^  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the 
law  (Lev.  xii.),^  and  the  child  was  at  the  same  time  presented  to 
the  Lord.  At  this  ceremony  Joseph  was  present,  and  Simeon,  an 
aged  and  pious  Israelite,  together  with  Anna,  a  prophetess,  came 
into  the  Temple  and  blessed  Him.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the 
exact  account  given  by  St.  Luke  of  the  occurrences  in  the  Temple 
may  have  proceeded  from  Anna. 

6.  Visit  of  tbe  "Wise  Men  to  Betblebem  and  Retreat  of 
Josepb  to  Bgrypt. — The  birth  of  Jesus  also  attracted  notice  in 

other  countries.    Wise  men  from  the  East  (by  which 

Matt.  ii.  1-18.  "^ 

the  present  British  India  is  probably  intended)  having 
seen  a  star  in  the  east  (or,  '  at  its  rising,'  as  some  interpret),  came  to 
seek  and  to  worship  the  King  of  the  Jews.  Much  learning  has  been 
bestowed  on  the  attempt  to  determine  the  exact  nature  of  this 
star.  The  famous  astronomer  Keppler,  struck  by  a  conjunction  of 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  which  occurred  in  1604,  and  by  the 
appearance  of  a  temporary  star  at  the  same  time,^  made  calcula- 
tions as  to  whether  such  a  phenomenon  might  not  have  occurred 
about  the  time  of  our  Lord's  birth,  and  found  that  a  conjunction 
of  these  planets  did  occur  iu  B.C.  7.  It  is  also  stated  hj  Wieseler, 
on  the  authority  of  Bishop  Munter,  that  there  is  evidence  in  the 
Chinese  annals  of  the  appearance  of  a  temporary  star  shortly 
before  the  Christian  era.  But  whatever  may  have  been  the  exact 
nature  of  the  celestial  appearance,  it  is  sufficient  for  us  to  know 
that  by  its  guidance  certain  wise  men  found  their  way  to  Judaea. 
Here  they  applied  to  King  Herod  the  Great  for  information  as  to 

'  The  distance  from  Bethlehem  to  Jerusalem  is  only  about  one  and  a  half  hours. 
See  The  Land  and  Book,  p.  664. 

^  t<.  B.  A.  read  '  the  days  of  their  purification  being  accomplished,'  and  Bengel, 
who  denies  that  either  our  Lord  or  his  mother  needed  purification,  refers  the  pro- 
noun their  to  the  Jews. 

^  An  account  of  this  star  and  similar  stars  in  1670  and  1848  is  given  in  Arago's 
Popular  Astronomy,  ii.  266. 


VISIT   OF   THE   WISE  ilEN   TO   BETHLEHE^kl.         59 

where  the  King  wliom  they  sought  might  be  found.  He  being 
himself  in  ignorance  on  the  subject,  and  yet  having  his  anxiety 
aroused  by  the  statement  of  the  wise  men,  consulted  the  chief 
priests  and  scribes,  and  learned  that  Bethlehem  was  the  place 
where  (according  to  the  prophecy  of  Micah,  v.  2)  a  governor,  who 
should  rule  Israel,  might  be  expected  to  be  born.  The  wise  men 
accordingly  were  sent  to  Bethlehem,  with  instructions  to  inform 
Herod  of  the  result  of  their  search.  Guided  by  the  star,  they 
came  to  the  house  where  Jesus  was,  and  there  worshipped  Him 
and  presented  Him  with  gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh. ^  Having 
thus  seen  the  child,  and  being  warned  of  God  in  a  dream  not  to 
return  to  Herod,  they  departed  into  their  own  country  by  another 
way.  Shortly  afterwards  Joseph,  the  husband  of  Mary,  being 
similarly  warned  in  a  dream,  retired  from  Palestine,  and  dwelt  for 
a  short  period  in  Egypt.  Here  vast  numbers  of  Jews  dwelt,  and 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Memphis  an  extensive  Jewish  temple 
had  been  built,  in  accordance  with  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah,  xix.  19.^ 
Tradition  places  the  retreat  of  Joseph  in  the  vicinity  of  this 
temple,  but  no  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  this  supposition. 

7.  nsassacre  of  Infants  at  Betblebem,  Death  of  Herod, 
and  Return  of  Joseph. — The  reason  for  Joseph's  removal  from 
Bethlehem  soon  became  apparent.     Herod,  finding 

1.-         ir  J        '      j-u     ^-L         ■  J        .1-    .    1^    Matt.  u.  19-23. 

himseli  deceived  by  the  wise  men,  gave  orders  that  all 
children  under  two  years  old  in  and  about  Bethlehem  (probably  not 
exceeding  ten  or  twelve  in  number)  should  be  destroyed.  Soon 
afterwards  Herod  himself  died  of  a  dreadful  disease  at  Jericho, 
being  succeeded  in  his  government  of  Idumasa,  Judaea,  and 
Samaria  by  his  son  Archelaus,  and  in  the  government  of  Galilee 
by  his  son  Antipas.  Under  these  altered  circumstances  Joseph, 
who  appears  to  have  intended  to  reside  in  Judaea  on  his  return 
from  Egypt,  went  again  to  Nazareth,  and  dwelt  there.^  Besides  a 
natural  preference  for  his  own  native  town,  he  acted  in  these 
movements  under  the  direct  guidance  of  a  dream. 

8.  Jesus  is  broug:ht  up  at  XTazareth,  and  when  Twelve 


'  These  gifts  are  variously  explained.  A  reasonable  interpretation  is  that  the  gold 
indicated  the  royal  nature  of  Jesus,  the  frank  incense  Ms  divine  nature,  and  the  ?rtyrrA 
(much  used  in  burials)  his  mortal  nature. 

"  For  an  account  of  the  building  of  this  temple  see  Josephus  B.  J.,  vii,  10,  3. 

'  There  is  no  pretence  for  saying  that  Matthew  represents  Bethlehem  as  the  resi- 
sidence  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  He  caUs  Nazareth  '  his  own  country,'  xiii.  51,  and  in 
Matt.  ii.  22,  where  Joseph  is  said  on  his  return  from  Egypt  to  have  'turned  aside' 
into  the  parts  of  Galilee,  the  Greek  word  is  ai/exoipTjo-et',  which  more  accurately 
means  '  returned.'     See  Matt.  ii.  12,  where  dra^wpew  is  so  translated. 


60  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW    TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

■years  old  visits  Jerusalem. — It  is  not  expressly  stated  that 
our  Lord  was  employed  as  a  cMld  in  the  business  of  his 
reputed  father  Joseph,  but  as  He  is  called  (Mark  vi.  3) 
the  ^  carpenter  (rf/crwiO,^ '  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  He  was  taught 
his  trade  in  the  usual  manner.  His  personal  character  as  a  child 
was  that  ^  he  grew  in  favour  with  God  and  man/  and  '  the  grace 
of  God  was  upon  him.'  One  incident  of  our  Lord's  childhood  is 
alone  recorded.  Joseph  and  Mary  were  accustomed,  in  conformity 
witb  the  Jewish  law  (Deut.  xvi.  16),  to  visit  Jerusalem  at  the 
feast  of  the  passover.  When  Jesus  was  twelve  years  old,  He  also 
was  taken  to  Jerusalem,  but,  when  his  parents  returned,  remained 
behind  unknown  to  them.  Supposing  Him  to  have  been  amongst 
the  company  of  pilgrims,  they  did  not  at  first  regard  his  absence 
with,  anxiety,  but  after  a  day's  j  ourney  and  an  unsuccessful  search 
amongst  their  friends,  they  turned  back  and  sought  Him.  After 
three  days  they  found  Him  in  the  Temple,  questioning  and  being 
questioned  by  the  rabbis,  and  to  their  remonstrance  He  replied, 
'  Wist  ye  not  that  I  must  be  about  my  Father's  business  {or,  in 
my  Father's  house)  ?  '  Then  He  returned  with  them  to  Nazareth, 
and  was  subject  unto  them. 

On  the  meaning  of  the  word  Nazarene,  see  Section  4,  under  the 
word.  And  it  may  here  be  noted  that,  as  Joseph  is  never 
mentioned  after  this,  whereas  the  brothers  and  sisters  of  our  Lord 
(whoever  they  were)  and  His  mother  are  mentioned,  he  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  before  the  commencement  of  our  Lord's 
public  ministry. 

»  According  to  Liddell  and  Scott,  TeKT(oi'  =  a  worlcer  in  wood,  but  it  is  also  (but  not 
so  commonly)  used  to  describe  any  craftsman.  It  has  been  recently  argued  that  the 
re'/cToi'es  of  Palestine  were  rather  masons  than  carpenters,  stone  being  a  much  more 
commonly  used  material  than  wood. 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST   BAPTISES  JESUS   CHRIST.       6^ 


CHAPTER  II. 

FROM  THE  BAPTISM  OF  JESTJS  CHRIST  TO  HIS  RETURN  TO  GALILEE 
AFTER  THE  FEAST  (OF  PURIM  ?)  AT  JERUSALEM.  WINTER  OF 
A.D.  27-28  TO   MARCH  A.D.  29    (ONE   TEAR  AND   A   QUARTER). 

9.  John  the  Baptist  Baptises  Jesus  Christ. — Not  until 
eighteen  years  after  the  appearance  of  our  Lord  as  a  child  in  the 
Temple  did  He  commence  his  mission  as  the  Messiah, 
and  of  the  occupations  of  the  intervening  period  we  ^^*^  f\-u  ' ' 
know  absolutely  nothing.  At  the  end  of  eighteen  Luke  iii.  1-23. 
years  his  cousin,  John  Baptist,  had  become  an  im- 
portant public  character,  preaching  in  the  deserts  east  of  Jerusalem 
and  near  the  lower  fords  of  Jordan  (nearly  opposite  Jericho)  the 
coming  of  the  Lord,  and  the  necessity  of  repentance  and  baptism. 
At  this  time  Pontius  Pilate  was  procurator  of  Judsea;^  Tiberius 
was  emperor  of  Rome,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  his  sole  govern- 
ment and  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  his  government  united  with  his 
uncle  Augustus ;  Herod  Antipas,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  was 
tetrarch,^  or  ruler  of  Galilee  ;  Herod  Philip,  another  son  of  Herod 
the  Great,  tetrarch  of  Ituraea  and  Trachonitis  (the  regions  occupy- 
ing the  northern  portion  of  the  transjordanic  Palestine)  ;  and 
Lysanias  tetrarch  of  Abilene,  or  the  country  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Damascus.  The  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius,  reckoning  from  his 
union  in  authority  with  Augustus,  was  a.d.  26,  Augustus  Caesar 
hadng  died  in  August  a.d.  14.  As,  therefore,  we  have  already 
seen  that  the  birth  of  our  Lord  must  have  taken  place  about 
December  B.C.  5,  it  follows  that  in  December  a.d.  26  he  would  be 

^  After  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great,  B.C.  4,  his  kingdoms  were  divided  by 
Augustus  amongst  his  sons,  so  that  Judaea  fell  to  the  lot  of  Archelaus,  -nith  the  title 
of  Eihnarch,  Persea  to  Herod  Philip,  and  Gahlee  to  Herod  Antipas.  But  after 
reigning  nine  years,  Archelaus  was  removed  for  tyrannical  conduct  by  the  Emperor, 
his  kingdom  was  attached  to  the  province  of  SjTia,  and  Coponius  appointed  procu- 
rator. His  successors  were  M.  Ambivius,  Annius  Rufus,  Valerius  Gratus,  and  Pon- 
tius Pilatus,  who  was  appointed  a.d.  25-26. 

=  Tetrarch  literally  means  '  a  ruler  of  the  fourth  part  of  a  dominion.'  Thus 
Galatia  and  Thessaly  were  anciently  divided  into  four  '  tetrarchies.'  The  four  te- 
trarchies  of  Palestine  arose  fi-om  the  division  of  Herod  the  Great's  dominions  into 
three  parts,  to  which  Abilene  being  added,  constituted  a  fourth. 


62  ESSENTIAJ.S   OF, NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

just  thirty  years  old.     Now  St.  Luke  states  that  at  tbe  time  of  the 
commencement  of  his  ministry,  Jesus  was  of  this  age  (iii.  23).^ 

It  was,  therefore,  towards  the  close  of  a.d.  26,  or  the  beginning 
of  A.D.  27,  when  our  Lord  left  Nazareth,  and  sought  the  fords  of 
Bethabara,  where  his  forerunner  was  baptising.  Vast  crowds 
were  flocking  to  his  baptism,  and  amongst  them  Jesus  himself 
came.  John  at  first  refused  to  baptise  Him,  saying,  '  I  have  need 
to  be  baptised  of  thee,'  but,  being  pressed  by  the  Saviour,  at  length 
administered  the  rite.  As  they  came  out  of  the  water,  the 
heavens  were  opened,  the  Holy  Spirit  descended  upon  Jesus  under 
the  form  of  a  dove,  and  a  voice  was  heard  saying,  ^  This  is  my 
beloved  son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased.'  ^ 

10.  Jesus  is  Tempted  by  the  Devil. — Having  thus  been 
baptised  both  of  water  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  our  Lord  was  led 

bv  the  Spirit  into  a  wilderness,  the  exact  locality  of 

Matt.  iv.  1-11.        \..        ^       ,  .   •      J        rr     jv  1  •* 

Marki.  12, 13.  which  remains  unascertained,  iradition  places  it 
Luke  IV.  1-13.  jjg^j,  jgj^iciio,  and  has  given  it  the  name  of  Quaran- 
taria,  but  many  authors  identify  it  with  the  Wilderness  of  the 
Wandering.  Here,  after  forty  days  of  fasting,  our  Lord  was 
tempted  of  the  Devil,  (1)  by  an  invitation  to  display,  prematurely 
and  unbelievingly,  his  Sonship  to  God  in  converting  stones  to 
bread  ;  (2)  by  the  advice  to  expose  Himself  unnecessarily  to  danger 
in  leaping  down  from  the  pinnacle  of  the  Temple ;  and  (3)  by  an 
offer  to  give  Him  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  world  and  the  glory  of 
them  on  condition  of  worshipping  the  Evil  One.^  All  these 
temptations  our  Lord  successfully  repelled,  and  in  repelling  them 
used  no  other  weapon  than  the  Word  of  God,  quoting  Deut.  viii.  3 ; 
vi.  16  5  and  vi.  13.  The  tempter  then  retired,  and  angels  ministered 
to  the  victorious  Saviour, 

11.  Jesus  revisits  Jordan,  and  is  recog-nised  by  Jobn  as 

the  Iiamb  of  God. — Thus  refreshed,  and  having  now 
Johni.  19-51.  ,     ,  .  .  •,,    .  .    .• 

proved   his   capacity   to   overcome   all  temptations, 

•  It  is  now  almost  universally  agreed  upon  that  the  true  reading  of  Luke  iii.  23  is 
avTos  y\v  6  'lr}(Tov^  apx6fJievo<;  cbo-el  ercii'  TpiaKovra,  and  that  its  meaning  is,  '  Jesiis 
was  about  thirty  years  of  age  when  he  began  (.i.e.  his  ministry).'  Wieseler  lays 
stress  on  the  point  that  he  was  rather  over  than  under  thirty  years  of  age,  and  many 
commentators  point  out  that  the  reason  for  our  Lord  having  waited  until  this  age 
was  that  thirty  years  was  originally  the  time  for  commencing  the  Levitical  minis- 
try, and  that  our  Lord  desired  to  show  that  He  was  '  under  the  law,'  and  to  '  fulfil 
all  righteousness.*    See  Numb.  iv.  8,  23,  30,  47. 

*  Matthew  says  oiros  ianv  6  vlo^  ixov,  Mark  and  Luke  say  Iv  el.  6  vl.  Probably 
both  these  expressions  are  only  translations  of  the  language  used  by  the  Divine 
Voice.    o5Tos=(ri(  (See  LiddeU  and  Scott,  ad  verb.  V.). 

'  Luke  inverts  the  order  of  these  last  two  temptations,  but  does  not  connect  the 
relations  by  particles  of  time,  as  Matthew  does. 


JESUS  REVISITS  JOED  AN.  63 

Jesus  returned  to  Bethany,^  beyond  Jordan,  where  John  -was  still 
baptising.  There,  beholding  Him  as  He  returned,  John  declared 
Him  to  be  ^  The  Lamb  of  God,'^  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the 
world  (r?)j/  cij^iapriav  rov  Konfiov).^  On  the  following  day,  behold- 
ing Jesus  as  He  walked,  John  repeated  the  same  expression,  and, 
hearing  the  words,  two  of  John's  disciples  (Andrew,  Simon  Peter's 
brother,  and  probably  the  apostle  John)  followed  Jesus,  and 
having  remained  with  Him  for  that  night,  recognised  Him  as  the 
Messiah.  By  the  introduction  of  Andrew,  Simon  was  on  the 
following  day  brought  to  Jesus,  and  received  the  surname  of 
Cqjhas,  or  a  stone.  The  next  day  Philip  of  Bethsaida  was  called, 
and  by  his  means  Nathanael  was  also  brought  to  Jesus,  being  con- 
vinced of  his  Messianic  character  by  the  supernatural  knowledge 
of  his  private  actions  which  the  Saviour  exhibited. 

12.  Jesus  goes  into  Galilee. — From  Jericho  to  the  hill  country 
of  Galilee  was  about  three  days'  journey  (or  from  sixty  to  seventy 

miles),  and  on  the  third  day  after  the  events  recorded    ,  ^    ..  ,  ,. 
.      ,  -^\  ,  -r      n        •      -1      •  1    1  .  Jo'™,  ii.  1-12. 

in  the  last  paragraph,  our  Lord  arrived  with  his  new 

disciples  at  Cana,^  a  small  village  about  five  miles  N.E.  of  Nazareth. 
To  this  festival  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus,  had  been  called,  and 
Jesus  himself  attended,  accompanied  by  his  new  disciples.  The 
quantity  of  wine  proving  deficient,  Jesus  now  exerted  for  the  first 
time  his  divine  power  of  working  miracles,  converted  into  wine  the 
water  contained  in  '  six  waterpots,  containing  two  or  three  firkins 
{uerpifTag)  apiece.'  If  the  iueTpt]T>)t;  contained  8-6696  gallons,  and 
the  average  contents  of  the  waterpot  be  taken  at  2^  ntTpi)rai,  then 
the  quantity  converted  =  6  x  2^  x  8*6696  gallons  =  rather  more  than 
130  gallons,  and  the  extensive  character  of  the  miracle,  as  well  as 
the  particularity  with  which  the  circumstances  are  related,  may 
be  regarded  as  strong  testimonies  to  its  reality.  Some,  however, 
suppose  that  only  that  portion  of  the  water  was  converted  into 
wine  which  was  actually  drawn  from  the  jars.  ^ 

After  this  exhibition  of  his  power,  by  which  the  belief  of  his 
disciples  was  confirmed,  Jesus  went  down  to  Capernaum,  an  im- 
portant town  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  and 

*  A.  V.  '  Bethabara,'  but  most  good  MSS.,  including  }>?>  '  Bethany.' 
^  Probably  referring  to  Is.  liii.  4,  7,  and  not  to  the  Paschal  Lamb. 

^  Now  Cefr  Kana.  '  There  is  not  now  a  habitable  house  in  the  humble  village 
where  our  blessed  Lord  sanctioned  by  his  presence  and  miraculous  assistance  the 
all-important  and  world- ^\•ide  institution  of  marriage.' — Land  and  Book,  p.  427. 

*  See  an  able  article  in  Temperance  Bible  Commentai-y,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  301-308,  where 
the  questions  both  of  the  amoiint  of  wine  produced  and  the  character  of  the  wine 
are  exhaustively  discussed. 


64  ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

there  continued  a  short  time  with  his  disciples,  his  brethren,  and 
his  mother. 

13.  Jesus  goes  up  to  Jerusalem  for  tbe  first  Passover  of  Iiis 
Ministry.  Xficodezuus  visits  Kim,  and  Jobn  Baptist  again 
John  ii.  13         bears  witness  to  Him, — The  Passover  was  now  at 

-iii.  36.  band   (March  30,  a.d.  28),  ^  and  Jesus  accordingly- 

left  Capernaum  for  Jerusalem.  Here  he  commenced  his  public 
mission  with  an  act  similar  to  that  by  which  He  closed  it,  driving 
out  from  the  Temple  the  sellers  ^  of  animals  for  sacrifice,  and  the 
money-changers.  Here  also  he  performed  many  miracles,  and 
gathered  many  disciples.  Amongst  inquirers  was  Nicodemus,  a 
ruler  (dpx(^v)  of  the  Jews,  who  came  to  Him  by  night.  To  this 
man  He  opened  with  great  freedom  the  scheme  of  salvation  by  a 
crucified  Saviour,  likening  the  uplifting  of  the  Son  of  Man  to  the 
uplifting  of  the  serpent  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xxi.  8),  and  giving 
as  the  reason  of  this  uplifting  that  '  whosoever  believeth  in  Him 
should  not  perish,  but  ^  have  eternal  life.' 

From  Jerusalem  Jesus  went  to  '  ^Enon,  near  to  Salim '  on  the 
Jordan,  *  where  his  disciples  baptised,  and  the  jealousy  of  the 
Pharisees  was  aroused  by  their  success.  But  John  himself,  being 
consulted,  bore  testimony  to  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus,  and  said  of 
Him,  ^  He  must  increase,  but  1  must  decrease.' 

14.  Jesus  again  journeys  into  Galilee,  and  tbere  Heals  a 
N'obleman's  Son. — Our  Lord  now  left  Judaea,  and  again  visited 

Galilee.     On  his  way  thither  He  passed  by  Sychar, 
Mark rilS^'  '^    ^^^3"    °^   Samaria,'^    where    was    the    'well    of 
Lukeiv.  14, 15.  Jacob.'     Here  He  met  a  woman  from  the  neighbour- 
ly, -o  .     .^^  town,  and  during  the  absence  of  his  disciples 
(who  had  gone  to  buy  victuals)  conversed  with  her,  declaring  Him- 

'  G-resweU  makes  this  passover  the  passover  of  a.d.  27. 

^  The  text  is,  ndvTa^  e^e^akev  en  tov  iepov,  to.  re  npo^ara  Koi  TOii?  /36as,  which 
some  translate,  '  He  drove  aU  out  of  the  temple,  both  the  sheep  and  the  oxen,'  thus 
eliminating  that  personal  violence  to  the  persons  engaged  in  traffic  which  distin- 
guished the  second  cleansing.  The  nature  of  the  scourge  which  Jesus  used,  and 
which  would  be  unsuitable  except  for  driving  out  the  animals,  increases  the  Ukeh- 
hood  of  the  above  translation. 

^  Itahcs  omitted  by  fi}  and  B. 

*  Not  identified,  but  probably  near  Sheikh  Salim,  about  twenty  miles  S.  of  the 
Lake  of  Tiberias. 

=  Sychar  is  said  to  be  a  name  of  contempt  invented  by  the  Jews  as  a  nickname 
for  Shechem  (now  Nablous)  after  it  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  tho  Samaritans. 
In  a  similar  way  they  called  Shiloh  by  the  nickname  of  Gaggoth  Tseriphim.  But  Dr. 
Thomson  points  out  that  there  are  the  ruins  of  a  village  nearer  the  well  than 
Shechem,  and  going  by  the  name  of  Aschar. — Land  and  Book;  p.  472.  Mr.  Tristram 
makes  a  similar  remark  in  his  Land  of  Israel,  p.  146.  The  'well 'is  now  about 
seventy-five  feet  deep. 


JESUS   AGAIN   JOUENEYS  INTO   GALILEE.  65 

self,  both  by  word  and  by  tlie  exhibition  of  supernatural  knowledge 
of  her  family  affairs,  to  be  the  Messiah.  As  a  result  of  this  con- 
versation, and  of  the  woman's  statement,  many  of  the  Samaritans 
believed;  but  after  two  days  Jesus  continued  his  journey  north- 
wards, and  arrived  in  Galilee.  The  fame  of  his  doings  at  Jerusalem 
had  preceded  Him  hither,  and  many  of  the  Galileans  received  Him. 
Amongst  others,  a  certain  nobleman  (fSamXiKOi;^),  whose  son  was 
sick  at  Capernaum,  came  to  Cana,  where  our  Lord  was,  and  besought 
Him  to  come  and  heal  his  son,  then  lying  at  the  point  of  death. 
Jesus  assured  him  that  his  son  was  living.  The  nobleman,  believ- 
ing Him,  returned  home,  to  find  his  child  not  only  recovered,  but 
having  begun  to  amend  at  the  hour  at  which  Jesus  spoke. 

15.  Jesus  goes  up  to  a  Feast  at  Jerusalem. — Up  to  this 
point  the  sequence  of  the  events  in  our  Lord's  life  is  generally 
ao-reed  upon ;  but  at  this  point  a  serious  disao^ree-    ,  , 

°  r       7  ,  ,    1  .  -X  John  V.  1^7. 

ment  appears  among  the  sacred  harmonists.  From 
John  V.  1,  it  appears  that  our  Lord  went  up  about  this  period  of 
his  ministry  to  '  a  feast  of  the  Jews'  ^  at  Jerusalem,  and  the 
important  contention  arises  as  to  what  feast  this  was.  A  very  few 
commentators,  among  whom  Ebrard  is  the  chief,  regard  it  as  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles ;  but  this  opinion,  as  well  as  the  notion  that  it 
was  Pentecost,  may  be  dismissed  as  in  all  probability  untenable. 
The  great  body  of  harmonists  are  divided  upon  the  question  as  to 
whether  it  was  Passover  or  Purim.  Without  denying  that  there 
are  difficulties  in  the  assumption,  the  latter  supposition  will  here 
be  made.  It  has  at  least  the  authority  of  Neander,  Olshausen, 
Wieseler,  Tischendorf,  Stier,  and  Bishop  Ellicott,  The  effect  of 
this  supposition  is  to  reduce  the  length  of  our  Lord's  ministry  from 
three  and  a  half  years  to  two  and  a  half;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
has  the  advantage  of  enabling  us  to  use  the  Gospels  of  St.  Luke 
and  St.  Mark  as  very  nearly  chronological,^  and  to  form  an  exceed- 
ingly clear  idea  of  the  movements  and  work  of  our  Lord's  latter 
ministry. 

'  Probably  a  courtier  attached  to  the  court  of  Herod  Antipas. 

*  The  reading  of  X  is  '  the  feast  of  the  Jews.' 

^  The  chronological  character  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel  is  vehemently  asserted  by 
Wieseler,  Tischendorf,  and  others,  on  the  ground  that  he  himself  declares  it  to  be 
chronological  in  i.  3  (eSo^e  kol/jlol,  naprjKoKovOriKOTi.  avojOei/  naa-iv^  aKpi^co?,  KaOe^rjg 
<roi  vpdi//ai,  'it  seemed  good  to  me  also,  having  had  perfect  understanding  of  a:l 
things' — or,  having  accurately  traced  aU  things — 'to  write  unto  thee  in  order'). 
This  interpretation  of  i.  3  is  as  vehemently  denied.  Westcott  says,  'the  teim 
-rrapaKoXovOeiu  describes  the  personal  attendance  on  a  teacher,'  and  '  the  notion  of 
order  (/ca0efT)s)  does  not  necessarily  involve  that  of  time,  but  rather  that  of  moral 
or  logical  sequence.' — Introduction  to  the  Gospels,  p.  172. 


Q6  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

The  Feast  of  Purim  was  instituted  to  commemorate  the  delivery 
of  the  Jews  from  Haman  (Esther  ix.  26, 31),  and  was  regularly 
celebrated  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  Adar  (or  March),  and  if  a 
second  month  of  Adar  was  intercalated,  again  on  the  14th  and 
15th  of  the  second  Adar.^  Giving  alms  to  the  poor,  and  general 
feasting,  were  especially  characteristic  of  this  feast.  In  the  year 
A.D.  29,  the  feast  fell  on  March  19  and  20. 

Supposing,  then,  that  the  feast  of  John  v.  1  was  the  Feast  of 
Purim,  our  Lord's  stay  in  Galilee  and  Capernaum  must  have  lasted 
about  three  months,  when  He  left  for  Jerusalem.  His  arrival 
there  was  signalised  by  an  important  miracle.  At  the  north  of 
Jerusalem,  near  the  sheep  market,  was  a  pool,  called  Bethesda,  sur- 
rounded by  five  porches,  in  which  lay  a  multitude  of  sick  persons.^ 
One  of  these,  who  had  been  sick  for  thirty-eight  years,  was  cured 
by  Jesus,  and  commanded  by  Him  to  take  up  his  bed  {icpdj3l3aTov) 
and  depart  to  his  house.  The  Jews  objected  to  this,  on  the  ground 
that,  according  to  their  law,  it  was  not  lawful  for  a  man  to  carry 
his  bed  on  the  Sabbath  day,^  on  which  the  miracle  had  taken 
place.  But  Jesus — neither  denying  nor  accepting  their  objection 
— replied,  '  My  Father  worketh  hitherto  and  I  work ;'  indicating 
the  eternal  activity  of  God  the  Father,  and  no  doubt  suggesting 
(as  the  Jews  themselves  understood,  see  v.  18)  his  ov^oi  equality 
with  God. 

It  might  have  been  our  Lord's  intention  to  remain  in  Jerusalem 
until  the  Passover,  which  was  to  take  place  in  the  succeeding 
month  of  April,  and  the  opposition  manifested  by  the  Jews  may 
have  compelled  Him  to  retire.  In  any  case.  He  appears  at  once  to 
have  left  Jud^a  again  for  '  his  own  country.' 

'  According  to  Wieseler,  the  year  A.D.  29,  which  is  now  being  considered,  was  an 
intercalated  year,  and  the  14th  of  the  second  Adar  (when  the  Feast  of  Purim  fell) 
was  a  Sabbath  day.  The  healing  of  the  impotent  man  at  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  if  it 
took  place  on  the  first  day  of  the  feast,  must  have  taken  place  on  the  Sabbath  day, 
as  is  stated  in  John  v.  10.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  when  Purim 
fell  on  a  Sabbath  the  feast  was  deferred  until  the  next  day. 

^  The  statement  that  the  curative  eificacy  of  the  pool  depended  upon  the  descent 
into  it  of  an  angel  at  certain  seasons  depends  on  the  very  doubtful  text  of  John  v. 
4.    J{  A.  and  B.  omit  the  verse. 

^  They  probably  based  their  objection  on  Jer.  xvii.  21,  22.  No  direct  prohibition 
of  such  an  act  as  that  complained  of  is  to  be  found  in  Moses. 


JESUS  AERIVES  AT  NAZARETH.  67 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  GALILEANS'  MINISTRY,  ER03I  THE  APPEARANCE  OF  OUR  LORD 
AT  iSTAZARETH  TO  THE  FEEDING  OF  THE  FIVE  THOUSAND.  MARCH- 
APRIL  A.D.  29.      (four  WEEKS.) 

16.  Jesus    arrives    at   ZTazaretli    and    preacbes    tbere. — 

Arrived  in  Galilee,  our  Lord  at  once  betook  Himself  to  Nazareth, 
where  he  had  been  brought  up,  and  there  announced  jj-^^^^  ^^^  ^^^ 
his  mission  as  the  Messiah  by  reading  in  the  syna-  ^iike  iv.  i6-30. 
gogue  on  the  Sabbath  ^  Isaiah  Ixi.  1,  2,  and  declaring  this  pro- 
phecy fulfilled  in  Himself.  The  Nazarenes,  regarding  Him  as  the 
son  of  Joseph  the  carpenter,  demanded  a  sign ;  and  when  Jesus 
refused  this  and  pointed  out  that  the  power  of  Elijah  was  exercised 
only  on  behalf  of  a  widow  not  of  his  own  nation,  and  that  a  Syrian, 
and  not  an  Israelite,  was  cleansed  by  Elisha,  they  were  filled  with 
wrath,  and  led  Him  to  the  brow  of  their  hill,  in  order  to  cast  Him 
down  headlong.^  This  attempt  was  frustrated  by  his  miraculously 
passing  through  the  midst  of  them,  and  departing  to  Capernaum. 

17.  Jesus  withdraws  to  Capernaum,  there  performs 
IVXiracles,  and  calls  Simon  and  Andrew,  James  and  John. — 
At  Capernaum,  our  Lord  now  began  to  preach  '  the 

Gospel  of  the  Kingdom,'  and  Andrew  and  Simon,  -^^^j^j  ^\lllj'^ ' 
together  with  James  and  John  the  sons  of  Zebedee  Mark  i.  16-34. 
(all  of  whom  were  engaged  in  fishing  on  the  Sea  of 
Galilee),  now  received  a  distinct  call  to  become  '  fishers  of  men.' 
They  do  not,  however,  appear  to  have  entirely  forsaken  their 
occupation  until  a  short  time  afterwards.  On  the  following  Sab- 
bath (i.e.  April  2,  a.d.  29)  Jesus  preached  in  the  synagogue  at 
Capernaum,  and  healed  a  demoniac.  The  same  day  Simon's  wife's 
mother  was  healed  of  a  fever,  and  in  the  evening  '  all  that  had 

*  Probably  the  next  Sabbath  after  that  spent  in  Jerusalem,  viz.,  iMarch  26, 
A.D.  29. 

""  '  There  are  still  places  (in  the  hill  at  Nazareth)  where  a  fall  from  the  hill  would 
be  certain  death.' — Land  of  Israel,  p.  121.  Nazareth  is  'bare  and  featureless,  sin- 
gularly unattractiTe  in  its  landscape,  with  scarcely  a  tree  to  reUere  the  monotony  of 
its  brown  and  dreary  hills.' — Ibid.  p.  122. 

k2 


68  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW    TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

any  sick  with  divers  diseases  brought  them  unto  him  .  .  .  and 
devils  (^SaifAovfQ  and  Saiixoviay  also  came  out  of  many,  crying  out 
and  saying,  Thou  art  Christ  the  Son  of  God.' 

18.  A  Circuit  of  Galilee,  and  Cure  of  a  Xieper. — Accom- 
panied by  some  of  his  disciples,  the  Lord  next  visited  a  number  of 
M  tt  ■    '>3-35-^^®  towns  of  Galilee,  preaching  in  the  synagogues 

viii.  2-4.  and  casting  out  evil  spirits;  and  at  the  termination  of 
Lake  iv .^42-44 ;  ^his  journey,  Greswell  supposes  the  discourse  con- 

V,  12-16.  tained  in  Matt,  v.-viii.,  known  as  tbe  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  to  have  been  delivered.  Others,  however,  defer  the  delivery 
of  the  sermon  until  after  the  appointment  of  the  twelve  Apostles  ; 
and  this  arrangement  will  accordingly  be  adopted  here.  During  this 
circuit  the  first  instance  of  a  miraculous  cure  of  leprosy  occurred. 
Lepers  were  then  deemed  incurable,  were  restricted  by  the  Mosaic 
law  from  intercourse  with  other  men,  and  regarded  as  the  objects 
of  Divine  wrath.  But  one  of  this  unhappy  class,  confiding  in  the 
power  of  Jesus,  came  saying,  ^  Lord,  if  thou  art  willing,  thou 
canst  (ovvacai)  make  me  clean.'  Jesus  at  once  put  forth  his  hand, 
touched  and  healed  him ;  and  in  consequence  '  great  multitudes 
came  together  to  hear,  and  to  be  healed  of  their  infirmities.' 

19.  £L  miraculous  Brau^lit  of  Fishes  is  granted  to  Simon 

Peter  and  his  Partners.      They  follow  Jesus. — Here,  if  the 

circumstance  be  not  the  same  as  that  recorded  in 
Lu  ev.l-ll.      ^^^^^^  .^^   ^g_^2^  ^j.^^^  ^    ^g_2^^  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^ 

second  and  final  call  of  Simon,  James  and  John,  accompanied  by  a 
miracle,  by  which  their  ships  were  filled  with  a  miraculous 
draught  of  fishes.  Wieseler,  followed  by  Hannah  and  French, 
regards  the  two  calls  as  identical,  but  Greswell  and  Alford  take 
the  contrary  view.  There  are,  in  fact,  many  circumstances  dis- 
tinguishing the  two  calls.  In  the  first,  (1)  Andrew  appears,  (2) 
the  fishermen  are  fishing,  (3)  no  miracle  is  recorded.  In  the 
second,  Simon,  James,  and  John  have  toiled  all  night  and  caught 
nothing.  In  the  morning,  when  their  boats  are  drawn  up  on  the 
beach,  and  they  are  washing  their  nets,  they  are  accosted  by  Jesus. 
He  first  uses  their  vessel  as  a  pulpit,  then  invites  them  to  make 
another  eifort  to  repair  their  bad  fortune.  They  accede,  and  are 
rewarded  with  a  vast  multitude  of  fishes.  Then,  overwhelmed  by 
the  power  of  their  Master,  they  finally  determine  to  give  them- 
selves to  his  service,  and  '  having  brought  their  ships  to  land,  they 
forsook  all,  and  followed  Him.' 

*  Tlie  term  SiajSoAos  is  ouly  applied  in  N.  T.  to  the  chief  of  the  evil  spirits. 


JESUS  HEALS  A  PARALYTIC,  AND  CALLS  MATTHEW.     69 

20.  Jesus  heals  a  Paralytic,  and  calls  Matthew, — Heturn- 
ing  to  Capernaum,  our  Lord  cured  a  paralytic,  brought  into  his 
presence  by  the  singular  zeal  of  his  four  bearers,  who,  ,,  ^,  .    „  ,„ 

f   •       1  •     1        1  1       ^  ,   „  ,  .         T  Matt.  IX.  2-17. 

being  hindered  b}'  the  crowd  from  approaching  J  esus,  Mark  ii.  1-22. 
*  uncovered  the  roof  where  he  was,'  and  so  let  down  ^^^^6"^- 1'-39- 
the  sick  man  before  Him.  At  first  Jesus  only  said  '  Thy  sins  be' 
forgiven  thee ;'  but  when  the  bystanders  murmured  at  this  apparent 
presumption,  He  vindicated  his  authority  to  forgive  sins  >by  healing 
the  paralytic.  Going  forth  from  the  performance  of  this  miracle, 
he  saw  Matthew  or  Levi,  a  tax-gatherer,  occupied  in  his  business 
near  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  called  him  with  the  words  '  Follow 
me.'  Levi  at  once  arose,  followed  Him,  and,  not  content  with 
doing  this,  made  Him  a  feast  in  his  own  house. 

21.  Jesus    defends    his    ISisciples    from    the    Charg-e     of 
violating:  the  Sabbath  by  plucking^  Corn  as  they  walk. — 
Thenext  day  was  the  Sabbath,known  as  SevrfpoTrpoj-ov.  .. 
This  expression  only  occurs  here,  and  has  had  many  Mark  ii.  23-28. 
interpretations,^    according  to  the  varying  views  of  ^^^^  ^^"  ^~^' 
harmonists  and  commentators  as  to  this  difficult  period.     On  this 
Sabbath,  whatever  it  might  be,  the  disciples,  passing  through  a 
cornfield,  plucked  the  ears  of  corn.^       The  Pharisees,  beholding 
this,  declared  such  an  act  to  be  unlawful  on  the  Sabbath  day.     In 
reply,  Jesus  referred  to  the  example  of  David  (1  Sam.  xxi.  1-6), 
who,  under  pressure  of  physical  necessity,  partook  of  the  sacred 
shewbread;    and  to  the  common  practice   of    the   priests,    who 
habitually  ^profane  the  Sabbath,  and  are  blameless.'     '  Therefore,' 
said  Christ,  probably  referring  to  Himself  as  the  typical  head  of  all 
human  nature,  '  the  Son  of  Man  is  Lord  even  of  the  Sabbath.' 

22.  Jesus  heals  a  nSan  with  a  withered  Hand  on  the 
Sabbath  Day. — On  '  another  Sabbath,'  asserted  by  Wieseler  to 
have  been  in  reality  not  a  true  Sabbath,  but  the  day 
following  the  Sabbath,  which  in  the  case  of  the  first  Mark  iii.'i-^i2.* 
Sabbath  in  Nisan  was  also  regarded  as  holy,  Jesus  was  ^^'^^^  "^^^  ^"^^• 
teaching  in  the  synagogue  (probably  still  at  Capernaum),  where  was 
a  man  having  his  right  hand  withered.  It  would  appear  that  many 

'  The  principal  are  :  (a)  The  first  Sabbath  after  the  second  day  of  unleavened 
bread.  (b>  The  first  Sabbath  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  (i.e.  the  first  Sabbath  in 
Nisan),  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  first  Sabbath  of  the  civil  year  (i.e.  the 
first  Sabbath  in  Tisri).  (c)  The  first  Sabbath  of  the  second  year  of  the  week  of 
years,  a.d.  28  was  a  sabbatical  year,  and  therefore  a.d.  29  would  be  the  second 
year  of  a  week  of  years,  (d)  A  Sabbath,  the  day  before  which  had  been  a  feast  day 
— (c)  is  the  view  of  Wieseler,  approved  of  by  ALford.  But  many  good  MSS.,  in- 
cluding {<,  omit  SevTeponpa}T(v  altogether. 

^  Permitted  by  Deut.  xxiii.  25. 


70  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Scribes  and  Pharisees  had  now  come  down  from  Jerusalem,  and 
were  present  to  watch  our  Lord.  Tempting  Him,  they  enquired 
whether  it  was  lawful  to  heal  on  the  Sabbath  day.  To  this  He 
replied,  '  Is  it  lawful  to  do  good  or  to  do  e^il  on  the  Sabbath  ?' 
The  questioners  were  silent.  Jesus  then  adduced  the  case  of  an  ox 
or  an  ass  fallen  into  a  pit,  and  legally  extricated  on  the  Sabbath 
day  ;  and  having  thus  established  the  lawfulness  of  the  act,  called 
the  diseased  man  into  the  midst,  healed  him,  and  let  him  go. 

23.  Twelve  Apostles  are  appointed. — The  next  important 
event  in  New  Testament  history  is  the  selection  of  the  twelve 
Mark  iii.  13-19.  Apostles.  A  sketch  of  the  history  of  each  individual 
Luke  vi.  13-19.  apostle,  SO  far  as  known,  is  given  in  Section  5,  but 
some  circumstances  relating  to  them  as  a  body  remain  to  be 
recorded.  Matthew  does  not  give  an  account  of  the  selection,  but 
names  the  Apostles  afterwards  incidentally  (x.  2-4).  By  Mark  and 
Luke  the  place  of  selection  is  described  as  '  a  mountain  (-6  opoc),^ 
but  no  means  of  identifying  the  place  exist.  Their  lists  are 
given,  and  here  subjoined,  together  with  that  found  in  Acts. 

These  lists  correspond  except  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  names. 
In  all  cases  Simon  Peter  holds  the  first  place,  and  Judas  the  last ; 
and  there  is  a  certain  pairing  of  names  which  is  easily  observable, 
and  in  two  cases  easy  to  explain.  James  and  John  were  brothers. 
Bartholomew  (if — as  many  suppose — he  is  identical  with  Nathanael) 
was  brought  to  Jesus  by  Philip  (John  i.  45,  &c.).  A  review  of 
this  otherwise  complete  accordance  at  once  suggests  that  Thad- 
daeus  and  Judas  the  brother  (?)  of  James  (whose  existence  among 
the  Apostles  John  also  notes  in  xiv.  22)  were  identical,  and 
although  no  valid  reason  for  this  double  name  can  be  offered,  no 
argument  from  conflicting  passages  can  be  brought  against  it. 

24.  Jesus  performs  various  ^Miracles,  and  delivers  the 
Sermon  on  the  IVSount. — Having  thus  selected  his  Apostles,  our 

Lord  in  their  company  performed  many  miracles. 
Matt  xn.__:J2-45 ;  ^^^  ^^g  -^  consequence  again  charged  by  the  Scribes 
Mark  iii.  20-30.  and  Pharisees  with  casting  out  devils  and  performing 

miracles  by  Satanic  agency.  Vast  multitudes  also 
gathered  themselves ;  and  seeing  them,  our  Lord  withdrew  with 
his  disciples  into  a  mountain,  probably  the  ^  horned  hill '  of  Hat- 
tin,  which  lies  west  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  about  five  miles  from 
the  sea.  Dean  Stanley  (who  supports  the  tradition  which  sup- 
poses this  mountain  to  have  been  the  scene  of  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount)  says,  '  Its  situation  is  central,  both  to  the  pea- 
sants  of   the  Galilean  hills,  and    the  fishermen  of  the  Galilean 


THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES. 


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72  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

lake,  between  whicli  it  stands,  and  would  therefore  be  a  natural 
resort  both  to  ^^  Jesus  and  his  disciples  "  when  they  retired  for 
solitude  from  the  shores  of  the  sea,  and  also  to  the  crowds  who 
assembled  ^'  from  Galilee,  from  Decapolis,  from  Judiiea,  and  from 
beyond  Jordan."  None  of  the  other  mountains  in  the  neighbour- 
hood could  answer  equally  well  to  this  description,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  merged  into  the  uniform  barrier  of  hills  round  the  lake  ; 
whereas  this  stands  separate — "the  mountain"  which  alone  could 
lay  claim  to  a  distinct  name.  ^ '  On  this  mountain,  then,  to  the 
Apostles,  before  selected,  as  well  as  to  other  assembled  disciples 
and  a  surrounding  multitude,  our  Lord  now  delivered  either  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  for  the  first  time,  or  else  a  fragmentary  re- 
capitulation of  its  principal  parts.  Considering  the  importance  of 
this  discourse,  and  the  proverbial  nature  of  many  of  its  dicta,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  suppose  that  on  a  solemn  occasion,  such  as  was  this 
ordination  of  an  apostolate,  a  re-statement  of  the  moral  doctrines 
of  the  Gospel  would  be  introduced  with  the  greatest  propriety. 

25,  Healingr  of  a  Centurion's  Servant,  and  Raising^  of  a 
Voungr  Man  at  ITain. — Having  ended  his  sayings,  our  Lord  now 
Matt  vm.5-13.  I'^tumed  to  Capernaum,  and  there  raised  from  the 
Luke  vii.  1-17.  point  of  death,  by  the  mere  power  of  his  word,  the 
servant  of  a  Roman  centurion.  The  faith  of  this  centurion,  who 
requested  Jesus  not  to  come  under  his  unworthy  roof,  but  simply 
to  utter  a  word  of  power,  elicited  the  high  commendation,  '  I  have 
not  found  so  great  faith,  no,  not  in  Israel.'  This  was  followed  by 
a  yet  more  remarkable  miracle.  The  corpse  of  a  young  man,  the 
only  son  of  a  widowed  mother,  was  being  carried  out  for  burial 
from  the  small  town  of  Nain,^  when  our  Lord  met  the  funeral  pro- 
cession, and,  touched  with  compassion,  raised  the  young  man  to 
life. 

26.  John  the  Baptist  sends  IVIessengers  to  Jesus.  Death 
of  John  the  Baptist. — The  fame  of  Jesus  had  now  spread  through 
Matt.  xi.  2-30  •  ^1^  Judaea,  and  had  reached  the  ears  of  John  the 

xiv.  1-12^  '  Baptist,  now  shut  up,  by  order  of  Herod  Antipas,  in 
L?k?^V.  18-35';  the  fortress  of  Machterus  (Machaur),  on  the  eastern 

is.  7-9.  g]^Qj.g  Qf  the  Dead  Sea.     The  reports  which  reached 

John  no  doubt  confirmed  him  in  his  previously  expressed  opinion 
about  Jesus;  and  whether  from  a  wish  to  satisfy  himself  by  direct 
enquiry,  or  in  order  to  bring  about  a  transference  of  his   own 

*  Sinai  and  Palestine,  chap.  x. 

^  The  present  and  ancient  gi-aveyard  of  Nain  is  to  the  east,  and  about  ten 
minutes'  walk  from  the  town.  Although  now  a  miserable  village,  its  remains  show 
that  Nain  was  once  a  walled  city. 


DEATH  OF  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST.        73 

disciples  to  Jesus,  he  sent  two  of  his  disciples  to  ask  the  question, 
'  Art  thou  he  that  should  come  (6  fpxofievoc^),  or  look  we  for 
another  ?  '  Our  Lord  replied  by  pointing  to  the  miracles  wrought 
by  Him ;  and  when  the  messengers  had  departed,  took  occasion  to 
address  the  people  in  favour  of  John,  whom  He  declared  to  be 
the  greatest  of  all  prophets  born  of  women,  and  yet  less  than  the 
least  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  who  are  born  ^not  of  corruptible 
seed,  but  of  incorruptible,  by  the  Word  of  God'  (1  Peter  i.  23). 
Then,  having  thus  spoken  of  the  work  of  John,  our  Lord  proceeded 
to  upbraid  the  cities  of  Galilee  and  Gennesareth,  for  their  unbelief 
in  Himself,  and  to  threaten  them  with  complete  destruction. 

The  fate  of  John  may  here  be  stated.  Herod  Autipas  had  now 
married  Herodias,  the  wife  of  a  brother  named  Philip,-  having 
put  away  his  lawful  wife,  the  daughter  of  Aretas,  king  of  Petraea. 
John  the  Baptist,  whom  Herod  feared  and  listened  to,  remon- 
strated with  him  strongly  as  to  his  conduct  in  this  incestuous 
marriage.  In  consequence  of  this,  Herodias  conceived  a  feeling  of 
intense  hatred  against  the  prophet,  and  watched  her  opportunity 
to  be  revenged.  This  presented  itself  at  a  banquet  given  by 
Herod  to  his  principal  state  officers,  on  the  occasion  of  the  anni- 
versary of  his  birthday.^  At  this  feast  the  daughter  of  Herodias 
danced,  and  so  pleased  Herod  that  he  promised  to  give  her,  as  a 
reward  for  her  skill,  anything  she  might  desire,  even  to  the  half 
of  his  kingdom.  Instructed  by  her  mother,  the  damsel  demanded 
the  head  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  '  for  his  oath's  sake '  the  king 
consented  to  give  it  to  her.  One  of  the  king's  body-guard 
(TTreKovXccTiop  =  speculator  =  executioner,  A.  V.)  was  immediately 
sent,  John  was  beheaded  in  the  prison,  his  head  brought  in  a 
great  dish  to  Herodias,  and  his  body  given  for  burial  to  his  disciples. 
The  execution  of  John  long  continued  to  excite  the  remorse  of 
Herod,  and  when  he  afterwards  heard  of  Jesus,  he  imagined  at 
once  that  the  new  prophet  was  John  risen  from  the  dead. 

27.  Simon  the  Pharisee  makes  a   Feast  to  Jesus,  and   a 
IVoman  anoints  his  Feet. — At  the  conclusion  of  his  discourse 
regarding  John,  our  Lord  entered  into  the  house  of  a 
Pharisee  named  Simon,  who  desired  that  He  would    "  ^  ^"" "  ~    ' 
eat  with  him.     Daring  the  meal,  a  woman  'which  was  a  sinner' 

'  Compare  tov?  o-co^ojueVov?,  '  such  as  should  be  saved,'  Acts  ii.  47. 

=  Not  Philip,  the  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  but  a  Philip  resident  at  Rome.  See  Jo- 
sephus,  Ant.  18.  5.  1. 

*  Td  yevicrta.  Wieseler  and  Tischendorf  assert  that  this  day  was  commemorative 
of  Herod's  accession,  and  not  of  his  birth.  But  no  evidence  is  adduced  to  show  that 
such  may  be  the  meaning  of  the  term. 


74  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

came  behind  Him  as  He  reclined,  and  began  to  wash  his  feet  with 
tears,  to  wipe  them  with  the  hairs  of  her  head,  and  to  anoint  them 
with  ointment  from  an  alabaster  box  which  she  had  brought  with 
her.^  At  the  familiarity  thus  tacitly  allowed  by  our  Lord  to  such 
a  woman  his  host  was  secretly  scandalised,  although  he  refrained 
from  expressing  his  thought.  But  Jesus,  reading  it  in  his  heart, 
first  suggested  to  him,  by  means  of  the  parable  of  The  Tioo  Debtors 
(Luke  vii.  41-43),  the  difference  between  his  own  affection  and 
that  of  the  woman ;  and  then,  turning  to  the  woman,  said,  '  Thy 
sins  are  forgiven  ;  thy  faith  hath  saved  thee.     Go  in  peace.' 

28.  Various  Parables.  Our  Ziord's  Brethren  visit  Him. — 
During  this  circuit  among  the  towns  of  Galilee,  our  Lord  uttered 
Matt.  xii.  47-     various  parables,  viz. : — The  Soever  (Matt.  xiii.  1-23 ; 

xiii.  52.  INIark  iv.  1-20 ;  Luke  viii.  4-15),  The  Candle  on  a 

iv.  34!"  ~  Candlestick  (Mark  iv.  21-25  ;  Luke  viii.  16-18),  The 
Luke  viii.  1-21.  j.^^^^  ^^j^^^_  ^-^  24-30,  36-43),  The  Seed  growing 
secretly  (Mark  iv.  26-29),  The  Mustard  Seed  (Matt.  xiii.  31,  32 ; 
Mark  iv.  30-34),  The  Leaven  (Matt.  xiii.  33-35),  The  Treasure 
hid  in  a  Field  (Matt.  xiii.  44),  The  Merchantman  seeking  Pearls 
(Matt.  xiii.  45,  46),  The  Draivnet  (Matt.  xiii.  47-50),  The  In- 
structed Scribe  (Matt.  xiii.  51,  52).  At  this  time  also  our  Lord 
was  visited  by  his  relations.^  This  incident  evoked  the  memor- 
able saying,  '  Whosoever  shall  do  the  will  of  my  Fatlier  which  is 
in  heaven,  the  same  is  my  brother  and  sister  and  mother.' 

29.  Jesus  calms  a  Storm  on  tlie  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  heals 
a  Demoniac. — To  this  period  belongs  a  wonderful  exhibition  of 
Matt  viii  18-    our  Lord's  power  over  material  nature.  Overwhelmed 

ix.  1.  by  the  multitudes  who  thronged  to  hear  Him  on  the 

v^.  20. '  ~  western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  He  determined  to 
Luke  vui.  22-39.  q^^q^^  ^he  sea,  and  for  that  purpose  embarked  along 
with  his  disciples  in  the  ship  (jb  ttXoIov)  which  appears  to  have 
been  ordinarily  placed  at  his  disposal.  During  the  voyage  He  fell 
asleep.  A  sudden  and  violent  storm  arose.  The  disciples  in 
terror  awoke  Him,  saying,  '  Master,  Master  (^t^acrmXf,  Mark  ; 
iirioTara,  Luke;  Kvpif,  Matt.),  we  perish.'  'Then  he  arose  and 
rebuked  the  winds  and  the  sea,  and  there  was  a  great  calm.' 

'  Some  commentators  have  imagined  that  this  incident  is  identical  with  another 
of  the  same  sort  mentioned  in  Matt,  xxvi.,  Mark  xiv.,  and  John  xii.;  but  there  is  a 
probabiUty  that  such  an  act,  once  commended,  would  be  repeated.  Besides  which, 
many  of  the  details  of  the  two  events  are  entirely  dissimilar,  and  there  is  no  ground 
for  supposing  that  the  woman  mentioned  in  the  latter  passages  was  '  a  siimer.' 

^  Greswell  distinguishes  two  visits,  uniting  Matt.  xii.  46-50  and  Mark  iii.  31-35 
into  one,  and  regarding  Luke  viii.  19-21  as  the  record  of  another. 


JESUS  CALMS  A  STORM  ON  THE  SEA  OF  GALILEE.      75 

Arrived  safely  at  the  other  side,  our  Lord  was  met  by  a  de- 
moniac (or,  according  to  Matthew,  by  two^  demoniacs),  who 
lived  in  the  tombs.^  On  the  approach  of  Jesus,  he  cried  out, 
'What  have  I  to  do  with  thee,  Jesus,  Son  of  the  Most  High 
G-od  ?  '  Jesus  demanded  his  name.  To  this  the  demoniac  re- 
pliel,  '  Legion  (A«y6wr),  for  we  are  many,'  and  besought  Him  that, 
if  the  evil  spirits  went  out,  it  might  be  permitted  them  to  go  away 
into  a  numerous  herd  of  swine  which  was  feeding  on  the  moun- 
tains near.  The  Lord  assenting,  the  devils  went  out  of  the  man 
and  entered  into  the  swine,  which  immediately  ran  down  a  steep 
place  into  the  neighbouring  lake  and  perished  in  the  waters.  The 
traditional  spot  where  this  took  place  is  still  pointed  out ;  ^  and 
the  occurrence,  probably  reminding  them  of  the  unlawful  nature 
of  their  occupation,  struck  terror  into  the  keepers  of  the  swine, 
who  fled  to  the  neighbouring  city.  The  people  then  came  and 
besought  Jesus  to  depart  out  of  their  coasts.  As  for  the  healed 
demoniac,  he  besought  that  he  might  be  permitted  to  accompany  his 
benefactor.  But  Jesus  said,  '  Go  home  to  thy  friends  (rovg  aoiq), 
and  tell  them  how  great  things  the  Lord  hath  done  for  thee.' 

30.  Jesus  performs  otber  ZVIiracles,  and  revisits  Iffaza- 
retli. — Having  returned  to  Capernaum,  and  being  there  seated  at 
table,  He  was  surrounded  by  tax-gatherers  (jEKibvai  =  jj^^^.  ^^^  jq_o-  . 
publicans,  A.  V.)  and  persons  of  bad  reputation,  with  ^^!|!"^^^f* 
whom  He  freely  conversed,  justifying  his  conduct  vi.  6.* 
against  the  accusations  of  the  Pharisees  by  the  say-  1^"^^  viu.40-56. 
ing,  ^  They  that  be  whole  need  not  a  physician,  but  they  that  are 
sick.'  While  thus  engaged  in  teaching,  He  was  requested  by  a 
certain  ruler  of  the  synagogue  {apxiowaywyujv),  Jairus  by  name,  to 
come  and  heal  his  daughter,  then  at  the  point  of  death.     The 

'  Various  solutions  of  the  difficulty  hare  been  suggested  ;  e.g.  that  one  demoniac 
was  fiercer  than  the  other  (Maldonatus),  or  that  one  was  more  notorious  than  the 
other  (Augustine).  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that,  because  Mark  and 
Luke  mention  only  one,  therefore  no  second  demoniac  was  present.  The  name 
'  Legion  '  suggests  the  contrary. 

^  '  I  have  often  met  in  the  outskirts  of  CaifFa  a  maniac  who  dwells  in  similar 
tomh?,'— Land  of  Israel,  p.  461.  '  In  the  district  of  Gadara,  vast  numbers  of  empty 
tombs  were  visited  by  Dr.  Tristram,  many  of  which  are  used  as  dwelling-places.' 
—Ibid.  pp.  458-461. 

^  Some  diflBculty  arises  from  the  various  readings  of  the  MSS.  as  to  the  name  of 
the  locality.  Matt,  places  it  in  the  '  counti-y  of  the  Gergesenes '  (but  J<  Gaza7-enes, 
and  B.  Gadarenes).  Mark  says  "■  Gadarenes'  (but  }«5  Gergesenes,  and  B.  Gerasenes). 
Luke  says  '  Gadarenes'  (but  5^  Gergesenes,  and  B.  Gerasenes).  Hence  there  are  four 
readings;  viz.  Gergesenes,  Gazarenes,  Gadarenes,  and  Gerasenes.  Captain  Wilson,  in 
the  Exploration  of  Jertisalem,  vol.  ii.,  suggests  that  the  real  locality  was  Khersa, 
which  was  in  the  district  of  Gadara,  so  that  the  place  belonged  both  to  Gergesenes 
and  Gadarenes.    See  also  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,  p.  423. 


76  ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Lord  consented  to  come  witli  Mm,  and,  finding  the  damsel  already- 
deceased,  brought  her  back  to  life.  His  passage  to  the  house  of 
Jairus  was  also  signalised  by  a  subsidiary  miracle — that  of  a  woman 
who  had  been  diseased  with  an  issue  of  blood  for  twelve  years. 
Coming  behind  Him  in  the  crowd,  she  touched  the  hem  of  his 
garment,  and  was  perfectly  healed.  In  connection  with  these 
miracles,  Matthew  relates  two  others — the  cure  of  two  blind  men, 
and  of  a  dumb  man  possessed  with  an  evil  spirit.  Both  Mark 
and  Matthew  also  inform  us  that  He  revisited  Nazareth,  where  his 
reception  was  somewhat  less  scornful  than  before ;  but  although 
many  of  his  wonderful  works  were  done  in  his  own  country,  yet 
the  people,  remembering  his  former  trade,  and  that  his  relatives 
were  still  amongst  them,  were  offended  at  Him. 

31.  The  Twelve  Apostles  are   sent  out. — The  twelve  dis- 
ciples were  now  sent  out,  by  two  and  two.    Power  was  given  them 

to  cast  out  evil  spirits,  to  heal  the  sick,  and  to  raise 
Matt.^ix.  36-  ^j^^  dead.  They  were  commanded  to  be  without  fear 
Mark  vi.  7-13.    of  man,  and  "^dthout  thought  either  for  their  daily 

maintenance,  or  as  to  what  they  might  answer  when 
brought  before  judges  or  kings,  to  avoid  an  excess  of  clothing,  and 
to  preach,  saying,  The  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand.  During  their 
absence,^  Jesus  Himself  continued  to  teach  and  preach  in  other 
directions,  and  appears  to  have  met  them  again  at  Gennesareth. 

32.  iVEiraculous  Feeding  of  5,000  IVZen. — On  the  return  of 
the  disciples  to  their  Master,  the  whole  company  crossed  the  Sea 

of  Galilee,  with  the  view  of  seeking  retirement  in 
M^rk  ¥1^30-44'  ®^^^®  desert  place.  This  purposed  retirement,  how- 
Liike  ix.  10-17,  ever,  was  rendered  impossible  by  the  gathering  of  a 

vast  multitude,  who  followed  Jesus  to  hear  his  word 
and  avail  themselves  of  his  miraculous  power  of  healing.  At 
length,  when  evening  was  coming  on,  and  the  impossibility  of 
providing  food  by  ordinary  means  for  such  a  multitude  became 
apparent,  Jesus  put  forth  his  power  on  behalf  of  their  bodily 
necessity.  The  disciples  had  with  them  five  small  ba-rley  loaves 
and  two  fishes,  and  these  were  multiplied  so  as  not  only  to  pro- 
vide food  for  all  (in  number  above  5,000),  but  also  to  furnish 
twelve  basketfuls  '^  of  fragments. 

The  locality  of  this  miracle  has  occasioned  some  discussion. 
The  local  notes  in  the  evangelists  are — 

'  Wieseler  considers  this  mission  to  have  occupied  only  a  couple  of  days. 

°  AU  four  eyangelists  use  the  same  word,  viz.  k6^lvo<;,  which  seems  to  have  desig- 
nated a  local  sort  of  basket.  Compare,  'Judaeis  cophinus  foenumque  supellex,' 
Juv.  iii.  13. 


MIEACULOUS  I'EEDING   OF  5,000  MEN. 


77 


Matthew 


Jesus  .  .  .  departed 
thence '  (no  place 
distinctly  mention- 
ed previously)  'by 
ship  into  a  desert 
place.'  .  .  .  Then, 
after  the  miracle, 
'Jesus  constrained 
his  disciples  to  get 
into  a  ship,  and  to 
go  before  him  unto 
the  other  side  (et? 
TO  -nipav).'  And 
'  when  they  were 
gone  over,  they  came 
info  the  land  of 
Gennesareth."^ 


Mark 


Jesus  and  his  disci- 
ples '  departed  into 
a  desert  place  by  ship 
privately.  And  the 
people  saw  them 
departing  and  ran 
afoot  thither.' 

Then,  after  the  mi- 
racle, '  he  con- 
strained his  disci- 
ples to  get  into  the 
ship,  and  to  go  to 
the  other  side  be/ore 
unto  Bethsaida  .  .  . 
And  when  they 
had  passed  over 
they  came  into  ihe 
land  of  Gennesa- 
reth. 


LtTKJE 


Jesus  and  his 
disciples  '  de- 
parted into  a 
desert  place  be- 
longing to  the 
city  called  Beth- 
saida.' ^ 

Of  the  local- 
ity to  which 
the  disciples 
went  after  the 
miracle  Luke 
says  nothmg. 


Jesus  went  over  the 
Sea  of  Galilee.' 
Then,  after  the  mi- 
racle, '  his  disciples 
went  down  unto 
the  sea,  and  enter- 
ed into  a  ship,  and 
went  over  the  sea  to- 
ward Capernaum.' 
And  'the  day  fol- 
lo%ving,  when  the 
people  which  stood 
on  the  other  side  of 
the  sea  saw  that 
there  was  none 
other  boat  (ttAoioi- 
piov  ^)  there  save 
that  one  wherein 
his  disciples  were 
entered,  and  that 
Jesus  went  not 
with  his  disciples 
into  the  boat  .  .  . 
( howbeit  there 
came  other  boats 
from  Tiberias,  nigh 
unto  the  place  where 
they  did  eat  bread) 
.  .  .  they  also  took 
shipping,  and  came 
to  Capernaum,  seek- 
ing for  Jesus.'  * 


From  a  comparison  of  these  parallel  local  indications,  it  is 
evident  that — 

1.  Jesus  and  his  disciples  crossed  the  sen  hefore  the  miracle. 

2.  The  miracle  took  place  near  Bethsaida. 

3.  After  the  miracle  the  sea  was  crossed  '  unto  Bethsaida '  and 

'toward  Capernaum.' 

All  these  points  are  met  by  the  supposition  that  there  were  two 
Bethsaidas,^  the  one  Bethsaida  Julias,  and  the  other  at  a  point 
between  Tell  Hum  and  the  plain  of  Gennesareth.  We  may  then 
suppose  that  our  Lord  and  his  disciples  crossed  to  the  north- 
eastern shore  of  the  lake,  near  Bethsaida  Julias,  and  the  miracle 

'  }^  '  They  came  to  land  unto  Gennesareth.' 

-  J?  omits  'belonging  to  the  city  called  Bethsaida,'  but  these  words  have  been  cor- 
rected by  a  later  hand  to  '  into  the  city  called  Bethsaida.' 

^  Mr.  Macgregor  distinguishes  between  7rA.oiap4oi'(  =  boat)  and  77X0^01' (  =  ship).  His 
theory  is  that  the  disciples,  after  the  miracle,  came  down  to  the  sea,  went  on  board 
'  the  ship '  by  means  of  a  small '  boat,'  and  after  vainly  waiting  for  their  Master 
until  late  in  the  evening,  sailed  across  the  lake,  leaving  the  •  boat '  behind.— i2o6 
Roy  on  the  Jordan,  p.  355. 

*  ts  however  reads, '  Tiberias,  which  was  nigh  unto  the  place.' 

*  On  the  arguments  for  two  Bethsaidas,  see  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,  p.  375. 


78  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

having  been  there  performed,  recrossed  the  lake  to  Bethsaida  on 
the  north-west  shore. 

33.  Jesus  walks  upon  the  Sea. — After  the  performance  of 

this  miracle,  our  Lord  dismissed  his  disciples,  directing  them  to 

recross  the  sea,  while  He  remained  behind,  intending 

Matt.  xiv.  22-36.  .  .      ,  m,  -jr. 

Mark  vi.  45-56.  to  engage  in  private  prayer.  Ihe  wind,  however, 
John  vi.  15-21.  ^^g  contrary,  and  the  boat  made  little  progress,  only 
reaching  twenty  or  thirty  stadia  (between  three  or  four  miles) 
from  the  land  by  three  o'clock  in  the  morning.  At  this  hour  they 
saw  Jesus  coming  to  them,  walking  on  the  sea.  At  first  sight 
they  supposed  the  appearance  to  be  that  of  a  spirit,  and  cried  out 
in  terror,  but  were  reassured  by  the  voice  of  the  Lord  answering 
them  and  declaring  his  identity.  Peter,  half  in  zeal  and  half  in 
doubt,  replied,  '  If  it  be  thou.  Lord,  bid  me  come  to  thee  on  the 
water,'  and  receiving  the  answer,  '  Come,'  went  out  to  meet  Jesus. 
For  some  distance  he  walked  in  safety,  but  at  length,  becoming 
terrified,  he  began  to  sink.  The  Lord  then  put  forth  his  hand, 
rescued  him,  and  brought  him  safely  to  the  ship,  which  the  winds 
now  ceased  to  toss,  and  which  at  once  reached  the  land. 

34.  Jesus  discourses  on  the  Bread  of  life. — On  the  follow- 
ing day,  the  multitude  which  had  been  fed  by  the  Lord's  bounty 

followed  Him  across  the  sea  to  Capernaum,  and,  in  a 
lengthened  discourse  in  the  synagogue  of  that  place, 
Jesus  explained  to  them  the  need  of  spiritual  as  w^ell  as  material 
food,  declared  Himself  to  be  the  'bread  which  came  down 
from  heaven,'  and  warned  them  that  except  they  should  eat  the 
flesh  and  drink  the  blood  of  the  Son  of  Man,  they  had  no  life  in 
them.  At  this  saying,  which  doubtless  looked  forward  to  a  similar 
declaration  at  the  Last  Supper,  many  of  his  disciples  left  Him.  The 
Twelve,  however,  remained  stedfast,  and  Peter,  in  particular, 
speaking  both  for  himself  and  his  brother  apostles,  declared  his 
belief  in  Jesus  as  '  the  Christ,  the  son  of  the  living  God.' 

According  to  Wieseler,  this  discourse  was  delivered  on  the  eve 
of  the  Passover,  and  accordingly  acquired  additional  force. 

35.  Various  Discourses.— At  this  time  also,  and  probably 
during  the  Passover  (which  our  Lord  apparently  spent  this  year 
Matt  XV  1-20.  i^  Capernaum),  various  discussions  were  held  with 
Mark  vii.  1-23.  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  who  had  come  down  to  Galilee 
from  Jerusalem,  and  questioned  Him  as  to  the  ceremonial  uncleanness 
which  He  permitted  to  his  disciples.  In  answer  to  their  questions, 
our  Lord  uttered  a  discourse  upon  the  futility  of  Eabbinical  tradi- 
tion.    According  to  this,  a  man  might  evade  the  duty  of  supporting 


VAKIOUS  DISCOUESES.  /y 

his  father  and  mother  in  poverty,  by  a  pretended  dedication  of 
his  property  to  the  service  of  God.  (See  Corhan  in  Section  4.) 
But  the  true  law  of  evangelical  purity  was  now  defined  to  be, 
'  not  that  which  goeth  into  the  mouth  defileth  {kolvoi)  a  man,  but 
that  which  cometh  out  of  the  mouth.' 


80  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  GALTLAEAN  MIISTISTRT,  PROM  OUR  LORD's  DEPARTTJRE  TO  STRO- 
PHCENICIA,  TO  HIS  DEPARTURE  FOR  THE  FEAST  OF  TABERNACLES 
AT  JERUSALEM.      APRIL-OCTOBER  A.D.  29.      (siX  MONTHS.) 

86.  Jesus  journeys  into  the  Bistricts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

— Our  Lord  now  departed  for  awhile  from  the  districts  of  Galilee, 
Matt.  xv.  21-31.  ^°^  journeyed  northward  towards  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
Mark  vii.  24-37.  or  even  into  the  latter  city,^  and  thence  through 
Decapolis  hack  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Two  miracles  are  recorded 
as  having  taken  place  during  this  journey.  A  woman  of  Canaan, 
or  Syro-Phcenicia,^  a  Greek  by  birth,  obtained  a  cure  for  her 
daughter  by  an  exhibition  of  strong  faith.  Jesus  had  at  first 
refused  her  petition,  declaring  that  He  was  not  sent  but  to  the 
house  of  Israel,  and  that  it  was  ^  not  meet  to  take  the  children's 
bread  and  cast  it  to  the  dogs.'  To  this  she  replied,  '  Yea,  Lord, 
but  the  dogs  eat  of  the  crumbs  which  fall  from  their  masters' 
table,'  and  by  her  strong  faith  gained  her  request.  The  second 
miracle  was  the  cure  of  a  deaf  man  with  an  impediment  in  his 
speech,  remarkable  as  one  of  the  few  miracles  in  which  our  Lord 
used  means  of  healing,  and  in  which  his  actual  words  ^  are 
recorded.  We  read  of  this  miracle  that  '  he  took  him  aside  from 
the  multitude,  and  put  his  fingers  into  his  ears,  and  he  spit  and 
touched  his  tongue,  and  looking  up  to  heaven,  he  sighed  and 
said  EiiJqyhatha,  i.e.  be  opened.' 

'  In  Mark  vii.  31,  {<  reads  'Departing  from  the  coasts  of  Tyre  he  came  through 
Sidon,  unto  the  sea.' 

-  The  LXX  ti-anslate  '  land  of  Canaan,'  in  Ex.  xvi.  35  and  Josh.  v.  12,  by  x<i^po-  tmv 
^oivUiov.  Gesenius  gives  Phoenicia  as  one  of  the  meanings  of  '  Canaan,'  and  refers 
to  Augustine  to  show  that  this  appellation  was  extended  to  the  Punic  colonies  in 
North  Africa.  The  object  of  the  term  *S!/ro-PhcBnicia  was,  in  fact,  the  distinguish- 
ing the  Phoenicia  of  Palestine  from  the  Phoenicia  of  Africa,  or  Libi/-Fhcem.ci&. 

^  The  most  reasonable  supposition  as  to  our  Lord's  language  seems  to  be  that 
advocated  by  Dr.  Roberts  in  the  Sunday  at  Home  for  1869,  viz.  that  our  Lord  was 
bilingual,  speaking  Aramaic,  or  the  ordinary  country  dialect,  when  amongst  un- 
learned persons,  but  ordinarily,  and  especially  when  amongst  educated  persons  or 
foreigners,  using  Greek.  Hence,  in  times  of  excitement,  or  much  solemnity,  He 
would  use  his  native  tongue,  as  on  the  cross  (Eli,  EU,  lama  Sabachthani),  and  at  the 
raising  of  Jairus'  daughter  (TaUtha  cumi),  and  the  rarity  of  such  a  manner  would 
cause  liis  exact  words  to  be  remembered  and  preserved. 


MIRACULOUS  FEEDINa   OF  4,000  MEN.  81 

37.  Miraculous  Feeding:  of  4,000  IMCen. — On  our  Lord's 
return  to  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  the  feeding-  of  a  mul- 
titude by  miraculously  increased  food  was  repeated. 

In  this  case  the  number  fed  was  4,000,  the  original  xvi.  12! 
quantity  of  food  consisting  of  seven  loaves  and  a  few  ^^^^  '^"^^  ^~^^' 
small  fishes,  and  the  baskets  of  fragments  taken  up  amounted 
to  seven.^  Upon  this  miracle,  and  the  demand  of  the  Pharisees 
and  Sadducees  for  a  sign,  our  Lord  founded  an  exhortation  to 
beware  of  the  teaching  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  which  He 
likened  to  leaven,  whose  secretly  fermenting  influence,  commenc- 
ing from  a  very  minute  beginning,  ultimately  affects  the  whole 
mass  into  which  it  is  infused. 

38.  Cure  of  a  Blind  ZVZan  at  Betbsaida. — At  this  time  also, 
at  Bethsaida,  on  the  north-western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  we 
find  our  Lord  performing  a  cure  upon  a  blind  man, 

,  1    VI      r       x-u  •  £c    I       -^1         1-   I     1      Mark viii. 22-26. 

^  remarkable  tor  the  seeming  effort  with  which  he 
wrought  it.' 2     Jesus  having  at  first  laid  his  hands  upon  him  and 
anointed  his  eyes  with  spittle,  the  blind  man  only  saw  indistinctly  ; 
but  when  the  hands  of  our  Lord  had  been  a  second  time  laid  upon 
his  eyes,  he  looked  up  and  saw  clearly. 

39.  Tesus  Foretells  His   Death    and   Resurrection.     Tlie 
Transfigruration.     Cure  of  a  Xiunatic.     Jesus  pays  Tribute 
witli  a  miraculously-provided  Coin.     The  Dis- 
ciples  dispute  who  should  be  the   Greatest. —  -^^,^*:-..^Tj':  ^^" 
The  ministry  in  Galilee  was  now  nearly  terminated,  Mark  viii,  27- 
but  notwithstanding  the  teaching  and  miracles  both  Luke  tx.  I8-50, 
of  our  Lord  Himself  and  of  his  apostles,  the  number  "^^^^  '*'"•  •^• 

of  believers  was  yet  small.  Near  Csesarea  Philippi,  or  Banias,  a 
city  at  the  foot  of  Hermon,  and  close  to  the  springs  of  the  Jordan, 
about  twenty  miles  north  of  Capernaum,  Jesus  formally  enquired 
of  his  disciples  as  to  the  popular  opinion  respecting  Himself. 
They  affirmed  in  reply  that  some  regarded  Him  as  John 
Baptist,  others  as  Elias,  others  as  Jeremiah  or  one  of  the  prophets. 
But  this  want  of  belief  was  somewhat  outweighed  by  the  zealous 
declaration  of  Peter,  who  declared  his  own  conviction  that  Jesus 
was  'the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God,'  and  whose  outspoken 

'  No  gi-ound  exists  for  confounding  the  miracles  of  the  4,000  and  the  5,000.  Mark 
describes  both,  and  as  in  the  case  of  the  5,000  the  word  '  basket'  is  unifonnly  ex- 
pressed by  /c6^ii/os,  so  in  the  case  of  the  4,000  both  Matthew  and  Mark  denote  the 
utensils  employed  as  o-Trupig  (=the  Latin  sportula),  generally  understood  to  indicate 
a  larger  sort  of  basket.  It  was  in  this  sort  of  basket  that  St.  Paul  was  let  down  from 
the  wall  of  Damascus  (Acts  ix,  25), 

""  Archbishop  Thomson,  article  '  Jesus  Christ,'  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

Q 


82  ESSENTIALS   OE   NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

confidence  was  received  by  our  Lord  with  tlie  memorable  declara- 
tion, '  Blessed  art  thou,  Simon  Bar-jona.  I  say  unto  thee,  that 
thou  art  Peter  (av  d  Ilsrpoe),  and  upon  this  rock  {kirl  ravrr}  ry 
■nkTpq)  I  will  build  my  church.' 

Not  improbably  also,  in  consequence  of  this  declaration,  which 
appears  to  have  been  acquiesced  in  by  the  other  disciples  (see 
Matt.  xvi.  20 ;  Mark  viii.  30),  as  well  as  with  a  view  of  preparing 
them  for  what  would  otherwise  be  too  bitter  a  disappointment, 
JesLis  from  this  time  commenced  to  speak  of  his  coming  sufferings, 
death  and  resurrection,  at  Jerusalem.^  Peter,  indignant  at  this 
prediction  of  evil,  rebuked  Him,  but  only  received  for  answer  the 
strong  reproof  '  Get  thee  behind  me,  Satan  5  thou  art  a  stumbling 
block  to  me,"  and  the  other  disciples  being  called  together,  were 
farther  instructed  that  he  who  would  follow  Jesus  must  take  up 
his  cross  and  deny  himself.  This  lot,  however,  was  to  be  only 
temporary ;  for  when  the  Son  of  Man  should  come  in  his  glory, 
with  the  holy  angels,  then  he  should  '  reward  every  man  according 
to  his  works.' 

Six  days"'^  after  this  discourse,  our  Lord,  taking  Peter,  James 
and  John,  ascended  a  mountain,^  and  while  there  engaged  in 
prayer  was  transfigured  (/^sri^op^wf^?;)  before  them,  his  face  and 
garments  becoming  white  and  shining.  Moses  and  Elias  also 
appeared,  talking  with  him  of  his  decease  at  Jerusalem.  A  voice 
also  came  out  of  an  overshadowing  cloud,  saying,  '  This  is  my 
beloved  Son  [in  whom  I  am  well  pleased  (Matt.)],  hear  him.' 
When  the  cloud  departed,  the  scene  again  changed,  and  Jesus  was 
found  alone  and  wearing  his  ordinary  appearance. 

Descending  from  the  mountain  on  the  following  day,  our  Lord 
charged  the  three  disciples  to  keep  his  transfiguration  a  secret 
until  after  the  resurrection,  and  pointed  out  to  them,  in  answer  to 
their  enquiries,  that  the  coming  of  Elias,  which  was  expected  to 
precede  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  had  already  taken  place  in  the 
person  of  John  the  Baptist.     This  discourse  was  immediately  fol- 

*  Intimations  of  this  had  been  before  given  (see  Matt.  x.  38,  xil.  40  ;  John  ii.  19, 
iii.  14,  vi.  51),  but  they  had  not  been  strongly  insisted  upon,  or  clearly  understood. 

*  Luke  says  '  about  an  eight  days  (tocret  ijixepai  oktui).'  Obviously  Matthew  and 
Mark  number  exclusively,  and  Luke  inclusively. 

^  Mount  Tabor  is  the  traditional  site,  but  has  no  other  claims,  and  its  summit  in 
the  time  of  our  Lord  was  occupied  by  a  fortified  city.  Dean  Stanley,  followed  by 
other  good  authorities,  suggests  Hennon  as  the  site.  It  overlooks  Cassarea  Philippi, 
or  Banias  ;  its  snows  may  have  suggested  the  comparison  of  the  garments  of  our 
Lord,  when  transfigured,  to  snow ;  and  its  configuration  easily  adapts  it  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  care  of  the  demoniac's  child.  Mr.  Tristram  describes  this 
mountain  as  very  easy  to  ascend,  although  9,400  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  and 
says  that  only  one  path  leads  from  Banias  to  the  summit.— Land  of  Israel,  p.  581. 


JESUS  FOEETELLS  HIS  DEATH  AND  RESUKEECTION.   83 

lowed  by  the  cure  of  a  lunatic,  whom  the  disciples,  owing  to 
their  want  of  faith,  had,  in  the  absence  of  their  Master,  vainly- 
endeavoured  to  cure. 

After  this  our  Lord  returned  to  Galilee,  and  there  spoke  openly 
to  his  disciples  of  his  betrayal,  death,  and  resurrection.  At  this 
time  also,  having  been  visited  by  the  collectors  of  the  annual  tax 
of  a  double  drachma  or  half-shekel,  payable  towards  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  Temple,  our  Lord  declared  Himself  to  be  not  liable  to 
such  a  tax,  in  right  of  his  Divine  Sonship.  Notwithstanding, 
lest  He  should  cause  offence.  He  consented  to  pay  the  tax,  and 
directed  Peter  to  go  and  fish  in  the  sea.  A  fish  was  soon  caught, 
and  in  its  mouth  was  found  the  necessary  coin.  To  this  period 
also  may  be  referred  ^  the  contest  between  the  disciples  as  to 
which  of  them  should  be  greatest,  and  the  consequent  teaching 
of  Jesus  that,  amongst  his  disciples,  the  least  of  all  should  be  the 
greatest.  This  lesson  was  enforced  by  the  example  of  a  child  set 
in  the  midst  of  them,  and  the  moral  drawn  from  such  a  spectacle, 
'  except  ye  be  converted,  and  become  as  little  children,  ye  cannot 
enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.'  The  necessity  of  a  lowly  and 
forgiving  spirit  was  still  further  illustrated  by  the  parables  of 
The  Lost  Sheep  and  The  Ungrateful  Servant. 

*  Unless  the  theory  recently  propounded  by  Mr.  Norris  {Key  to  the  Gospels)  and 
Mr.  Stock  {Lessons  from  the  Life  of  our  Lord)  be  admitted— viz.  that  these  circum- 
stances took  place  after  our  Lord's  return  from  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  at  Jeru- 


84 


ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


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86         ESSENTIALS  OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY, 


CHAPTER  V. 

FKOM  THE  DEPARTTJR'E  OF  JESUS  FOE  THE  EEAST  OP  TABERNACLES 
AT  JERUSALEM,  TO  THE  END  OE  THE  FEAST  OE  DEDICATION, 
OCTOBER-DECEMBER,  A.D.  29  (TWO  MONTHS). 

40.  Commencement  of  the  Final  Six  IMEontlis  of  our  Iiord's 
ministry. — The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (celebrated  October  12  to 
October  19)  was  now  near  at  hand,  and  in  view  of 
this  festival  our  Lord's  unbelieving  brethren,  coming 
to  Him,  taunted  Him  with  a  disinclination  to  work  miracles  openly, 
and  exhorted  Him  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  and  there  exhibit  his 
mighty  works.  In  reply  our  Lord  declared  his  intention  to  delay 
his  going  up,  nor  did  He  set  forth  until  his  brethren  themselves 
had  gone  up.  Even  then  He  went  ^  not  openly,  but  as  it  were  in 
secret,'  i.e.  in  all  probability,  not  with  the  usual  caravan  company, 
and  not  by  the  usual  way. 

41.  Tlie  Seventy  Disciples  are  sent  out.  Other  In- 
cidents of  the  Journey. — Although  the  fact  that  our  Lord  left 
Luke  ix.  51-  Galilee  finally  at  this  conjuncture,  and  never  returned 
X.  24.  there  (except   perhaps   for  a  brief  period),  is  now 

generally  conceded,  yet  the  exact  direction  of  the  journeys  between 
the  departure  from  Galilee  and  the  final  arrival  at  Jerusalem, 
shortly  before  his  passion,  still  continue  to  be  subjects  of  keen 
controversy.  The  points  of  difficulty  may  be  gathered  from  a 
comparison  of  the  accounts  given  by  the  evangelists  of  this  journey, 
which  are  tabulated  on  pp.  84  and  85. 

A  careful  inspection  of  the  foregoing  table  will  show  that  the 
chief  difficulty  arises  from  the  relation  by  St.  John  (in  full  accord- 
ance with  the  usual  manner  of  his  Gospel)  of  various  incidents 
entirely  unnoticed  by  the  three  former  evangelists.  But  it  is  also 
evident  that  an  interval  of  two  months  is  unaccounted  for  by 
St.  John,  between  x.  21  and  x.  22,  i.e.  between  the  appearances 
of  Jesus  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  and  the  Feast  of  Dedication. 
Where  was  our  Saviour  during  this  interval  ?  Did  He  go  back  to 
Galilee,  and  thence  commence  the  progress  to  Jerusalem  related  in 
Luke  ix.  51-xviii.  14,  or  is  the  progress  whose  commencement  is 


THE  SEVENTY   DISCIPLES  ARE  SEXT   OUT.  87 

related  in  Luke  ix,  ol  the  original  journey  to  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles? Without  positive  assertions  on  the  subject,  the  latter 
supposition  will  here  be  made.  It  solves  many  difficulties,  if  not 
all,  and  the  chief  objections  to  it  (viz.  that  the  going  up  to  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  must  have  been  more  rapid  and  more  secret 
than  such  a  journey  as  is  described  by  St.  Luke)  do  not  appear 
insurmountable.^ 

According  to  this  scheme,  our  Lord  now  travelled  towards 
Jerusalem  through  Samaria,  at  first  with  the  usual  concourse  of 
his  disciples,  but  afterwards  with  only  his  apostles,  having  sent 
messengers  and  chosen  out  seventy  other  disciples  also  to  go  before 
Him  to  'every  city  and  place  whither  he  himself  would  come," 
and  there  preach  the  approach  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  At  the 
outset  of  this  journey,  a  Samaritan  village  refused  to  receive  Him, 
because  his  face  was  towards  Jerusalem  ;  but  Jesus,  although  re- 
minded by  James  and  John  of  the  doings  of  Elijah,  refused  to 
visit  this  with  punishment,  and  merely  departed  to  another  village. 

42.  Jesus  Preacbes  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Porgrives 
a  'Woman  taken  in  Adultery,  Keals  a  Blind  IVZan,  and 
irtters  several  Parables. — The  Feast  of  Taber-  j^^,^  ^-j^  ^-^^ 
nacles  lasted  eight  days.  In  the  midst  of  it  our  ^-  -i- 
Lord  appeared  at  Jerusalem,  and  entering  into  the  Temple,  openly 
taught  there  daily  until  the  close  of  the  feast.  On  the  eighth  day 
a  more  striking  declaration  of  his  mission  was  made.  Each  day 
it  was  the  custom  for  a  priest  to  bring  forth  in  a  golden  vessel 
water  from  the  streams  of  Siloah  and  pour  it  solemnly  on  the 
altar.  This  act  was  accompanied  with  the  blast  of  trumpets,  and 
the  sinofing  of  the  Hallel  (Ps.  cxiii.-cxviii.),  and  the  hymn  from 
Isaiah  xii.  3  :  'With  joy  shall  ye  draw  water  out  of  the  wells  of 
salvation.'  This  ceremony  however  was  omitted  on  the  eighth  day, 
and  taking  advantage  of  its  absence,  and  possibly  at  the  hour  when 
it  usually  took  place,  the  Lord  stood  and  cried,  '  If  any  man  thirst, 
let  him  come  unto  me  and  drink.'  This  bold  declaration,  coupled 
with  his  previous  words  and  works,  naturally  excited  great  atten- 

*  This  journey  is  described  by  St.  John  as  '  ov  <j)n.vep(o?,  aAX'  w?  iv  kpvtttiZ, 
not  openly,  but  as  it  were  in  secret.'  This  is  evidently  very  different  from  a  secret 
jonmey,  for  '  as  it  -were  in  secret '  may  refer  either  to  the  ignorance  in  which  his 
brethren  were  as  to  his  movements,  or  to  the  fact  that  the  large  company  of  disciples 
which  usually  accompanied  Him  was  dispersed  and  sent  two  and  two  in  advance, 
leaving  Him  with  only  his  twelve  apostles.  Again,  Jesus  did  not  appear  at  Jerusalem 
until '  the  midst  of  the  feast,  eoprTJs  neaova-rs  ; '  and  since  He  apparently  left  for 
Jerusalem  immediately  after  his  brethren  (John  vii.  10),  He  had  at  least  seven  or 
eight  days  to  perform  a  joiu-ney  which  only  ordinarily  occupied  three  days,  so  that 
his  progress  was  in  rJl  likelihood  the  reverse  of  rapid. 


88  ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

tion ;  the  populace  were  disposed  to  accept  Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  the 
priestly  party  and  the  Pharisees,  on  the  other  hand,  alleging  our 
Lord's  supposed  birth  in  Nazareth  as  a  fatal  bar  to  his  claims, 
disbelieved  and  endeavoured  vainly  to  effect  his  apprehension. 
But  the  officers  sent  by  them  soon  returned  to  their  employers, 
saying,  '  Never  man  spake  like  this  man/  and  Nicodemus,  whose 
interview  with  our  Lord  has  been  ah-eady  mentioned,  counselled 
them  not  to  pass  judgment  without  a  personal  inquiry. 

An  incident,  the  account  of  which  is  not  found  in  the  Sinaitic 
and  Alex,  versions,  also  belongs  to  this  period.  As  Jesus  preached 
in  the  Temple,  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  brought  before  Him  a 
woman  taken  in  adultery.  The  law  provided  that  such  persons 
should  be  stoned  (Lev.  xx.  10 ;  Deut,  xxii.  22),  but  the  enemies 
of  Jesus  probably  thought  that  our  Lord  would  either  mercifully 
forgive  the  offender,  in  which  case  He  could  be  charged  with 
blasphemy,  or  declare  for  the  law,  and  so  excite  public  hatred  by 
what  was  reckoned  at  this  time  extraordinary  harshness.  But  the 
answer  of  Jesus  evaded  both  these  difficulties.  *  Let  him  that  is 
without  sin  (o  dvafidpTtjroi^)  among  you  first  cast  a  stone  at  her.' 
This  response  had  the  effect  of  causing  the  withdrawal  one  by  one 
of  all  the  accusers,  and  Jesus  and  the  woman  were  left  in  the 
midst.  Then,  noticing,  the  absence  of  all  accusers,  Jesus  said, 
'  Neither  do  I  condemn  thee  ;  go  and  sin  no  more.' 

This  visit  of  our  Lord  to  Jerusalem  was  further  signalised  by 
the  cure  of  a  man  blind  from  his  birth,  whose  infirmity  was  a 
matter  of  such  public  not<5riety  that  his  restoration  to  sight  at- 
tracted the  utmost  attention.  The  man  himself  was  brought 
before  the  council,  and  efforts  were  vainly  made  to  shake  his 
account  of  his  cure.  Being  at  last  dismissed,  he  was  sought  out  by 
onr  Lord,  and  finally  confessed  his  belief  in  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God. 

At  this  time  also  our  Lord  delivered  the  parable  ^  of  The  Good 
Shepherd. 

43.  Jesus  Utters  various  Parables  and  Biscourses,  Visits 
BKartba  and  mary,  and  Heals  a  "Woman  wlio  had  been  Pos- 
Luke  X.  25-        sessed  with  a  Spirit  of  Infirmity  Eig^hteen  Years. 

xiii.  21.  — Our  Lord  now  left  Jerusalem,  and  if  we  may  judge 

from  the  fact  that  He  is  almost  immediately  found  in  Bethany,^  and 

'  But  the  Greek  word  is  Trapoijuta,  only  used  by  St.  John  (x.  6  ;  svi.  25,  29),  and 
in  2  Peter  ii,  22.     St.  John  never  uses  irapaPoArj. 

«  It  is  here  assumed  that  the  house  of  Martha  (Luke  x.  38)  was  at  Bethany,  and 
not,  as  GreswcU  and  others  suppose, '  north  of  Capernaum.'  If  Simon  the  Leper  was, 
as  has  been  supposed,  a  near  relative  of  the  family  of  Lazarus,  but  in  seclusion  on 
account  of  his  disease,  the  double  reference  of  the  ownership  of  the  house  (to  Simon 
at  one  time,  Matt.  xxvi.  6,  &c.,  and  to  Martha  at  another)  is  easily  understood. 


JESUS  UTTEES  VARIOUS  PAEABLES  AND  DISCOUESES.    89 

relating  a  parable  respecting  a  traveller  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho, 
the  road  between  which  places  ran  througb  Bethany,  we  may 
suppose  that  He  retired  at  first  to  the  districts  eastward  from  Jeru- 
salem. But,  as  has  been  already  stated,  the  only  account  of  this 
period  being  given  by  St.  Luke,  and  no  certain  notes  of  time  being 
appended,  no  certainty  can  be  attached  to  any  chronological 
arrangement  of  the  circumstances  related.  Amongst  these  cir- 
cumstances are — 

1.  A  visit  to  the  house  of  Martha  in  '■  a  certain  village.'  ^    Here 

Martha  devoted  herself  to  '  much  serving,'  while  her  sister 
Mary,  who  sat  at  Jesus'  feet  and  heard  his  word,  received 
tbe  commendation  ^Mary  hath  chosen  that  good  part  (Gr. 
jufpj'e  =  portion  of  food)  which  shall  not  be  taken  away  from 
her '  (x.  38-42). 

2.  The  casting  out  of  a  dumb  demon  (xi.  14-26). 

3.  A  fruitless  endeavour  on  the  part  of  a  covetous  person  to 

obtain  our  Lord's  decision  in  the  matter  of  a  disputed  inheri- 
tance (xii.  13-15). 

4.  The  healing,  in  a  synagogue  on  the  Sabbath  day,  of  a  woman 

bowed  together  for  eighteen  years  (xiii.  10-13). 

During  this  period  also  our  Lord  uttered  the  parables  of  The 
Good  Samaritan,  The  Friend  at  Midnight,  The  Rich  Fool,  The 
Barren  Fig  Tree,  The  Mustard  Seed,^  and  The  Hidden  Leaven,^  and 
again  ^  set  forth  The  Lord's  Prayer  as  a  pattern  for  the  prayers  of 
bis  disciples  (xi.  2-4). 

44.  Jesus  Returns  to  Jerusalem  at  the  Feast  of  tlie  Dedi- 
cation.— The  feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Temple  (ja  tyKaivia) 
had  now  arrived.     This  feast  had  been  instituted  by    ,  ^       „„  ,„ 

•'     John  X.  22-42. 

Judas  Maccabseus  in  B.C.  164,  to  celebrate  the  res- 
toration of  the   temple  worship  on  the  25th  of  Kisleu  (about 
December  20)  in  that  year.-     It  lasted  for  eight  days,  and  was 
sometimes  called  Lights,  to  signify  its  joyous  character.     Of  this 
concourse  at  Jerusalem  our  Lord  took  advantage,  and  entering  into 

*  The  Greek  word  is  Kiafi-q,  a  term  perhaps  applied  to  Bethany  in  Mark  xi.  2,  Luke 
six.  30,  and  certainly  in  John  xi.  1  and  30  (where  A.  V.  translates  'town '). 

^  Repeated  from  Matt.  xiii.  31-33. 

^  '  There  is  no  reason  for  supposing  this  to  be  the  only  occasion  on  which  the  Lord 
delivered  this  prayer  to  his  disciples.  .  .  .  When  asked  by  his  disciples  to  teach  them 
to  pray,  He  was  not  likely  to  depart  from  the  form  once  given  them.'  Alford  in- 
loco.  '  They  (i.e.  the  disciples)  wished  for  a  directory  and, form  for  daily  use  :— as 
John  also  taught  his  disciples.  The  Lord  did  not  refuse  it,  but  most  emphatically 
referred  them  in  their  need  to  that  which  He  had  given  a  long  time  before.''  Stier  on 
Matt.  vi.  9-13. 

*  See  Josephus,  Antiq.  12,  7,  6  and  7.     Also  1  Mace.  iv.  52-59,  2  Mace.  x.  1-8. 


90  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAIVIENT   STUDY. 

the  arcade  or  corridor  of  the  temple  known  as  Solomon's  Porch 
(see  Acts  iii.  11 ;  v.  12),  conversed  there  with  the  people  upon  the 
subject  of  his  own  Messiahship.  They  pressed  him  to  declare 
plainly  whether  he  were  the  Christ  or  not.  He  replied  with  an 
indirect  answer,  which  however  ended  with  the  expression  '  I  and 
my  Father  are  one.'  Hereupon  they  took  up  stones  to  stone  him, 
and  though  for  awhile  deterred,  yet  soon  after  they  renewed  the 
attempt  on  his  life.  'But  He  escaped  out  of  their  hand,  and 
retired  again  to  Bethabara  beyond  Jordan.' 

45.  Various  Discourses  are  uttered  by  Jesus. — If  Luke 
xiii.  22-xvii.  10 — from  which  we  learn  that  Jesus  was  (1)  travelling 

through  cities  and  villages  towards  Jerusalem   (xiii. 
xvii',  10.  22)  (2)  in  the  territories  of  Herod  Antipas,  i.e.  in 

John  xi.  1-16.  Qalilee  or  Peraea  (xiii.  31)— be  considered  the  rela- 
tion of  our  Lord's  doings  during  this  retirement  from  Jerusalem, 
we  shall  attribute  to  this  period  of  retirement  in  Peraea  the 
parables  of  The  Great  Supper,  The  Lost  Sheep  (repeated  from 
Matt,  xviii.  with  fuller  detail),  The  Lost  Piece  of  Motiet/,  The 
Prodigal  Son,  The  Unfaithful  Steiunrd,  and  The  Rich  Man  and 
Lazarus,  and  the  healing  of  a  man  with  the  dropsy  in  a  Pharisee's 
house  on  the  sabbath-day.  The  name  of  the  poor  man  in  the 
last  parable  may  well  have  been  suggested  by  that  of  Lazarus  of 
Bethany.  Concerning  this  friend  of  our  Saviour,  news  was  at  this 
juncture  brought  that  he  was  sick.  Notwithstanding  this,  our 
Lord  remained  where  he  was  for  two  days,  and  then,  having  in- 
formed his  disciples  that  Lazarus  was  dead,  announced  his  intention 
of  journeying  to  Bethany,  to  '  awake  him  out  of  sleep.' 

46.  Iiazarus  is  raised  from  the  Dead. — Lazarus  had  been 
buried  four  days  when  our  Lord  arrived  in  Bethany.^  Outside  the 
John  xi.  village  He  was  met  by  Martha,  who,  after  an  interest- 

17-54.  ing  conversation  as  to  her  own  belief  in  Jesus  as  the 

Resurrection,  called  her  sister  Mary.  On  her  arrival,  accompanied 
by  weeping  friends,  both  the  sisters  went  with  Jesus  to  the  grave. 
Standing  there,  our  Saviour  wept.     Then,  having  had  the  stone  ^ 

*  From  the  lower  ford  of  Jordan  to  Bethany  through  Jericho  is  twenty  miles  of 
steep  and  rough  road,  or  at  least  one  day's  journey.  Allowing  the  messenger  only 
one  day  to  reach  Peraea  from  Bethany,  and  adding  the  two  days  of  our  Lord's  st£iy 
in  Peraea,  and  one  day  for  his  journey,  the  '  four  days '  of  the  grave  are  easily 
accounted  for.  But  in  all  probability  the  journeys  were  not  made  in  such  haste, 
and  certainly  our  Lord  arrived  before  the  evening,  and  therefore  had  probably  left 
Peraea  on  the  morning  of  the  preceding  day. 

*  In  Mr.  Tristram's  Land  of  Israel  (p.  407)  the  accompanying  ingenious  method  of 
closing  a  tomb  is  described  as  not  uncommon.  A,  rock  out  of  which  the  tomb 
and  entrance  are  hewn.    B,  a  large  block  of  stone,  shaped  like  a  mill-stone,  and 


LAZARUS  IS  RAISED  FROM  THE   DEAD.  91 

removed  which  barred  the  entrance,  He  cried,  '  Lazarus,  come 
forth.'  And  Lazarus  came  forth.  The  effect  of  this  miracle,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  was  very  great,  and  so  many  were 
induced  by  it  to  become  believers,  that  the  priestly  party,  headed 
by  Caiaphas,  the  high-priest,  determined  to  put  our  Lord  to  death. 
But,  knowing  this,  and  being  aware  that  his  time  was  not  yet 
come,  Jesus  withdrew  to  Ephraim,  a  city  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  situated  about  eight  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  and  by 
others  about  sixteen  miles  in  the  same  direction. 

capable  of  being  rolled  back  into  C.  D,  a  stone  door,  discovered  •when  B  is  rolled 
back,  and  opening  into  the  tomb. 


92  ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FROM   THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  FINAL   JOURNEY  TO  JERrSALEM 
TO    THURSDAY,    14tH   NISAN,    A.D.    30. 

47.  Jesus  Commences  His  Final  Journey  towards  Jeru- 
salem.— How  long  our  Lord  remained  at  Ephraim  it  is  impossible 
to  decide,  but  it  is  stated  that  He  '  there  continued 
Mark  x^^i-3i!^'  ^'^^^  ^^®  disciples '  until  ^  the  Jews'  passover  was  nigh 
Luke  xvii.  11-  at  hand.'  Setting  out  when  this  conjuncture  had  ar- 
rived, He  probably  proceeded  northward,  or  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  through  Sychar,  until  the  frontier  of  Samaria 
and  Galilee  was  reached.  Here  ten  lepers  met  Him  and  besought 
Him  to  heal  them.  All  were  healed ;  but  one  only  returned  to  give 
him  thanks,  and  he  was  a  Samaritan.  Turning  from  them,  the 
path  led  eastward  along  the  frontier  to  the  Jordan  valley,  and 
thence  southward  along  the  valley  through  Persea  to  the  lower 
fords,  nearly  opposite  Jericho.  As  might  have  been  expected,  our 
Lord  now  declared  much  more  plainly  than  before  his  coming 
death.  Being  enquired  of  by  Pharisees  as  to  when  the  king- 
dom of  God  should  come,  he  took  occasion  to  speak  of  his  own 
coming  sufferings  and  rejection.  At  this  time  also  were  uttered 
the  Parables  of  The  Unjust  Judge,  and  The  Publican  and  Pharisee, 
and  a  rich  young  ruler  (apx^iv),  who  enquired  as  to  the  conditions 
of  eternal  life,  had  his  sincerity  tested  by  the  commandment  to  sell 
all  that  he  had  and  give  to  the  poor  and  follow  Jesus.  At  some 
point  of  this  journey,  also,  our  Lord  discussed  the  institution  of 
marriage,  and  putting  his  hand  upon  little  children  who  were 
brought  to  Him,  blessed  them. 

48.  Jesus  again  Propbesies  bis  coming:  Deatb  and  Re- 
surrection.— As  the  company  of  pilgrims  drew  nearer  to  the 
end  of  their  journey,  and  were  probably  in  the  vicinity 
Mark  x^'32^5**  ^^  Jericho,  Jesus  began  to  speak  even  more  clearly 
Luke  xYiii.  31-  of  his  coming  passion.  After  uttering  the  parable  of 
The  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard,  he  took  the  twelve, 
and  to  them  declared  in  plain  words  that  he  should  be  delivered  to 
the  Gentiles  by  the  chief  priests  and  scribes,  be  mocked,  scourged. 


HEALING   OF  BAETIMAEUS.  93 

and  crucified,  and  on  the  third  day  rise  again.^  Notwithstanding 
this,  the  disciples  were  unable  to  believe  that  this  would  be  the 
case,  and  Salome,  the  wife  or  widow  (?)  of  Zebedee,  with  her  two 
sons,  James  and  John,  actually  came  to  him  with  the  request  that 
the  two  mig-ht  occupy  the  chief  positions  of  honour  in  the  kingdom 
which  they  anticipated  for  their  master.  Again  our  Lord  declared 
that  He  was  come  to  give  his  life  a  ransom  for  many  (XvTpov  avrl 
TToXXwv),  and  exhorted  them  to  humility. 

49.  Jesus  passes  tbrougrb  Jericbo,  beals  two  Blind  SXen, 
and  is  entertained  by  tlie  Publican  Zacchaeus. — Jericho  was 
now  in  siffht,  a  city  of  considerable  importance  and  Matt.  xx.  29-34. 
much  architectural  beauty.  Near  the  gate  of  the  ^^^g  Siii."^  ' 
city  sat  a  blind  beggar  named  Bartimaeus,  possibly  35-xix.  28. 
accompanied  by  a  companion.^  In  answer  to  their  importunate 
cries  of  '  Jesus,  Son  of  David,  have  mercy  upon  me,'  both  these 
men  were  restored  to  sight.  Meanwhile,  attracted  by  so  remark- 
able a  visitor,  a  multitude  of  persons  assembled  and  thronged 
Jesus  as  he  passed  along.  Amongst  the  multitude  was  Zacchaeus, 
a  chief  officer  of  the  tax-department,  extremely  anxious  to  behold 
our  Lord,  but  short  of  stature,  therefore  unable  to  see  by  reason  of 
the  crowd.  Under  these  circumstances  he  climbed  into  a  sycomore 
(or  mulberry-fig),  and  thence  was  attentively  considering  the  pro- 
cession, when  our  Lord  looking  up  saw  him,  and  invited  him  to 
come  down  with  the  words,  '  To-day  I  must  abide  at  thy  house.' 
Zacchaeus  at  once  deseended,  accompanied  Jesus  to  his  house,  and 
there  entertained  him.  At  the  feast  which  took  place,  Zacchaeus 
declared  his  intention  to  refund  fourfold  all  which  he  had  obtained 
by  dishonest  exaction,  and  to  give  half  of  his  property  to  the  poor, 
and  at  the  same  entertainment  our  Lord  appears  to  have  uttered 
the  parable  of  The  Founds^  and  then  leaving  Jericho,  proceeded 
onwards  to  Jerusalem. 

*  These  words  are  recorded  precisely  by  all  the  synoptics. 

=*  The  cure  of  Bartimaeus  involves  one  of  the  perplexities  of  the  gospels,  not,  how- 
ever, incapable  of  various  simple  solutions.  Matthew  says  :  '  As  they  departed  from 
Jericho,  behold,  two  blind  men,'  &c.,  and  then  relates  the  miracle,  giving  no  names 
to  either  of  the  blind  men.  Mark  says  :  '  As  He  went  out  of  Jericho  .  .  .  bUnd 
Bartimaeus,  the  son  of  Timaeus,  sat  by  the  highway  side,  begging.'  Luke  says  : 
'  As  He  was  come  nigh  unto  Jericho  (ei^  to?  eyyi'^etv  avTov  eis  'I.),  a  certain  blind 
man,'  &c.,  and  gives  no  name.  It  seems  clear,  therefore,  that  there  were  two  blind 
men  healed,  of  whom  one  was  named  Bartimaeus.  It  is  also  probable  that  when 
Jesus  entered  the  city  the  two  men  only  observed  the  multitude  and  the  noise,  and 
reserved  their  importunate  appeal  until  his  exit  on  the  following  day,  when  they 
waylaid  Him  at  the  gate.  Or  Bartimaeus  might  have  been  alone  when  Jesus  entered, 
and  during  our  Lord's  absence  in  the  city  might  have  been  joined  by  the  second 
blind  man.    On  this  point  see  the  next  note. 


94  ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

50.  Arrival  of  Jesus  at  Bethany.  Xflary  anoints  bis 
Peet. — In  all  probability  our  Lord  remained  at  Jericho  all  night, 
Matt.  sxvi.  6-13.  started  for  Bethany  early  in  the  morning,  and  reached 
Joh?5!'55-~^'    *^^*  village  towards  the  end  of  the  afternoon  ^  of 

xii.  li.  Friday,  March  31,   a.d.  30.      Here   he   appears   to 

have  entered  into  the  house  of  Simon  the  Leper, '^  and  to  have  re- 
mained in  seclusion  through  the  following  sabbath.  On  the  even- 
ing of  the  sabbath,  a  feast  was  given.  In  accordance  with  custom, 
only  the  men  (among  whom  was  Lazarus)  sat  at  table,  while  the 
women  were  engaged  in  various  portions  of  the  service.  As  on  a 
previous  occasion,  Martha  '  served  (^ay/cova),'  but  Mary,  taking  an 
alabaster  vessel  containing  spikenard  ointment,^  anointed  with  it 
the  head  and  feet  of  Jesus,  and  wiped  the  latter  with  her  hair. 
At  this  some  of  his  disciples,  among  whom  Judas  Iscariot  was 
conspicuous,  had  indignation,  regarding  the  act  as  wasteful,  but 
Jesus  himself  took  an  entirely  different  view.  '  In  that  she  hath 
poured  this  ointment  on  my  body,'  said  He,  '  she  hath  done  it  for 
my  burial.' 

51.  Triumphal  Entry  of  Jesus  into  Jerusalem. — On  the 
next  day  (Sunday)  our  Lord  made  a  public  entry  into  Jerusalem, 
Matt.  xxi.  1-11.  accompanied  with  every  sign  of  popular  triumph  and 
LukeS:^'>8-44  j°y-  Mary  pilgrims  had  now  arrived  from  Galilee, 
John  xii.  12-19.  and  other  provincial  districts,  and  these,  providing 
themselves  with  the  large  leaves  of  the  palm,  waved  them  aloft, 
and  went  towards  Bethany  to  meet  our  Lord.  From  Bethany,  two 
roads  lead  to  Jerusalem,  one  shorter  and  steeper,  over  the  crest  of 
Olivet,  the  other  longer  but  easier,  winding  between  the  crests  of 
Olivet,  and  the  Mountain  of  Corruption.     The  latter  road  brings 

'  The  arrival  of  our  Lord  at  Bethany  (as  it  took  place  on  a  Friday)  must  have 
taken  place  before  the  commencement  of  the  sabbath,  i.e.,  before  6  p.m.,  since  the 
time  of  the  year  was  close  upon  the  vernal  equinox.  From  Jericho  to  Bethany 
would  take  a  good  pedestrian  at  least  four  hours.  Upon  the  closest  calculations, 
therefore,  our  Saviour  could  not  have  left  Jericho  before  1.30.  This,  however, 
would  be  a  most  unlikely  time  for  a  traveller  in  Palestine  to  start,  and  the  arrival  at 
and  entrance  into  Jericho,  the  entertainment  with  Zacchaeus  and  its  preparations,  as 
weU  as  the  healing  of  Bartimaeus,  had  to  precede.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  seems 
safer  to  conclude  that  the  entertainment  of  Zacchaeus  occupied  Thursday  evening,  and 
that  our  Lord  set  out  for  Bethany  on  the  Friday  morning.  In  this  case  Bartimaeus 
might  well  be  supposed  to  have  determined  upon  his  course  after  some  consideration, 
and  to  have  intentionally  waylaid  the  merciful  Son  of  David,  whose  entrance  into 
the  city  he  had  observed  the  evening  before. 

"  See  note  on  §  43. 

^  Matthew  says  :  '  akd^aarpov  fxvpov  /SapvTiMOu  '  (xxvi.  7)  ;  Mark  says  :  '  aAa- 
jSaa-rpoi/  t^vpov  vdpSov  TricTTiKrjs  rrokvTtXovg'  (xiv.  3)  ;  John  says  ;  '  AiVpai/  (A.  V.  a 
pound.  Cf.  John  xix.  39)  fxvpov  vdpSov  7rtcrTiKi^5  ttoAvtiuov  '  (xii.  3).  The  real  mean- 
ing of  TrtoTt/c-^?  (which  A.  y.  seems  entirely  to  neglect,  except  it  is  represented  by 
'  very '  before  '  precious ')  is  doubtful.    But  see  Alford,  note  on  Mark  xiv.  3. 


TRIUMPHAL  ENTRY   OF  JESUS  JKTO   JERUSALEM.    95 

the  traveller  from  Bethany  suddenly  in  view  of  Jerusalem,  seen 
across  the  valley  of  the  Kidron,  and  both  from  this  circumstance 
and  from  its  greater  suitability  for  a  processional  progress  it  vs'as  pro- 
bably the  one  used  on  this  occasion.  The  processions  of  pilgrims  from 
Jerusalem,  and  of  the  smaller  company  of  disciples  from  Bethany, 
having  united  near  Bethany,  our  Lord  directed  an  ass's  colt  to  be 
fetched  from  a  spot  indicated  by  Him  at  Bethphage,^  and  having 
sat  thereon,  he  rode  forward  amidst  the  triumphant  Hosannas^  of 
the  accompanying  crowd.  At  the  point  already  mentioned,  where 
Jerusalem  comes  into  view,  and  where,  according  to  Dean  Stanley, 
the  path  '  reaches  a  ledge  of  smooth  rock,'  ^  there  was  a  temporary 
pause.  Then,  beholding  the  city  which  He  had  loved  and  which 
was  about  to  reject  Him  finally,  our  Lord  wept  for  the  second  time 
recorded  in  the  sacred  history,  and  pathetically  foretold  its  future 
destruction. 

This  public  entry  naturally  excited  great  attention.  The  whole 
city  was  moved,  the  temple  (into  which  our  Lord  entered)  was 
thronged  with  blind  and  lame  persons,  beseeching  and  obtaining 
relief,  and  with  children  crying  out  Hosanna,  whom  the  priestly 
party  endeavoured  vainly  to  induce  our  Lord  to  silence.  Even 
certain  Greek  proselytes  then  in  Jerusalem  at  the  feast  endeavoured 
to  obtain  an  interview,  through  the  introduction  of  Philip  of 
Bethsaida.  Nor  were  there  wanting  more  decisive  signs  of  our 
Lord's  Messiahship.  In  answer  to  our  Lord,  crying  '  Father, 
glorify  Thy  name,'  there  came  a  voice  from  heaven,  saying  '  I  have 
both  glorified  it,  and  will  glorify  it  again.' 

This  circumstance  seems  to  have  occurred  towards  evening,  and 
shortly  afterwards  our  Lord  withdrew  to  Bethany  for  the  night.''- 

52.  Our  Iiord  cleanses  tbe  Temple,  and  curses  a  barren 
Pigr-tree. — In  the  morning  (Monday)  Jesus  once  more  sought  the 
city,  and  on  the  way  wrought  the  only  miracle  of 

,    7       ^.  J    J      p  1  •  x-L  •  en       Matt.  xsi.  12-22. 

destruction  recorded  oi  him,  the  cursing  of  a  fig-  Mark  xi.  12-1 9. 
tree.  This  tree,  having  leaves  upon  it,  seemed  to  ^^^^  ^^'  ^^~*^- 
promise  fruit,  but  being  found  to  have  nothing  but  leaves  received 
the  sentence  of  condemnation,  '  No  man  eat  fruit  of  thee  hereafter 
for  ever.'  ^   Leaving  the  tree,  which  immediately  began  to  wither, 

'  The  site  of  Bethphage  is  unascertained.    See  Section  5. 

^  Hosanna ='  Save  now,'  from  Ps.  cxriii.  25. 

^  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  193. 

*  '  It  only  takes  half  an  hour  to  walk  from  Jerasalem  to  Bethany.'— Zanc?  and  the 
Book,  p.  697. 

'  '  The  fruit  of  the  fig-tree  comes  with,  or  even  before,  the  leaves,  and  especially  on 
tlie  early  kind.    If,  therefore,  there  was  no  fniit  on  this  leafy  tree,  it  might  justly 


96  ESSENTIALS   Of  NEW  TESTAJMENT   STUDY. 

Jesus  passed  onward  to  Jerusalem,  and  there  entering  into  tlie 
temple,  overthrew  the  tables  of  the  money-changers/  and  the  seats 
of  those  who  sold  doves  for  sacrificial  purposes,  put  a  stop  to  the 
carrying  of  vessels  through  the  temple,  and  declared  that  whereas 
the  temple  was  called  by  God  a  '  house  of  prayer,'  it  had  been 
made  a  '  den  of  thieves.' 

53.  Discourses  in  the  Temple. — The  night  of  Monday  was 

again  spent  at  Bethany,  and  early  on  Tuesday  morning  our  Lord 

again  returned  to  the  temple.     Passing  the  fig-tree 

xsv.  46.*  which  had  been  cursed  on  the  preceding  day,  the 

"^xiS  ?7.^^  disciples  observed  that  it  was  withered  away — a  fact 
Luke  XX.  1-  which  they  had  probably  not  noticed  on  the  previous 
evening,  owing  to  the  darkness.  His  attention  hav- 
ing been  called  to  this,  our  Lord  made  the  circumstance  an  occa- 
sion for  discoursing,  as  they  wended  their  way  to  the  temple,  on 
the  power  of  faith  in  God. 

Arrived  at  the  temple,  our  Lord  was  at  once  encountered  by  the 
Scribes  and  Pharisees,  who  demanded  of  him  his  authority  for  his 
actions.  To  this  our  Lord  would  return  no  reply,  except  upon  the 
understanding  that  they  would  inform  him  as  to  their  opinion  of 
John  the  Baptist.  This,  however,  they  were  afraid  to  state,  fear- 
ing on  the  one  hand  lest  by  denying  John's  authority  they  should 
encounter  the  ill-feeling  of  the  people,  and  on  the  other  hand,  lest 
if  they  acknowledged  his  authority,  they  should  be  justly  blamed 
for  not  believing  Him.  Their  enquiries  having  been  thus  silenced, 
our  Lord  entered  upon  the  discussion  of  various  subjects,  including 
the  payment  of  tribute  to  the  Roman  emperor,  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection,  the  great  commandment  of  the  law,  denounced  the 
character  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  and  predicted  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  the  signs  which  should  accompany  the  end 
of  the  world.  Amongst  these  discourses  were  included  the  para- 
bles of  The  Father  and  Uco  Sons,  The  Vineyard  let  out  to  Husband- 
men, The  Wedding  Feast,  The  Ten  Virgins,  and  The  Talents. 

be  condemned  as  barren.'— Zand  and  Book,  p.  349.  Tbere  is  some  difficulty  aboat 
the  words,  '  He  found  nothing  but  leaves,  for  the  time  of  figs  was  not  yet '  (Mark  xi. 
13).  Dr.  Tristram's  explanation  is  very  good  :  'The  event  happened  at  the  end  of 
March  or  beginning  of  April,  a  time  of  year  when  it  would  be  most  unusual  for  a 
fig  on  Mount  Olivet  to  be  in  leaf.  But  if  the  tree  exhibited  its  precociousness  by 
having  leaves  so  early,  it  might  be  expected  to  have  fruit,  although  the  time  of  figs 
was  not  yet,  for  the  fruit  appears  before  the  lesrie?,'— Natural  History  of  the  Bible, 
p.  352. 

'  KoXAvjSio-Tat  (Matt,  and  Luke)  were  persons  who  made  it  their  business  to  change 
the  foreign  moneys  brought  by  foreign  Jews  into  Jewish  money,  the  offering  of 
foreign  money  being  regarded  as  contrary  to  Exod.  xxx.  13,  where  the  offering  of 
'  half  a  shekel  after  the  shekel  of  the  sanctuary '  is  directed. 


JUDAS  ISCAEIOT  AGKEES  TO  BETEAY  JESUS.       97 

64.  Judas  Zscariot    agrrees  to  betray  Jesus. — It   is   quite 
possible  that  some  of  the  foregoing  discourses  were  spoken  on 
Wednesday   and    Thursday,   and    not   on    Tuesday 
only,  but  no  data    exist   for  arriving  at  a  definite     14-I6. 
conclusion  on  this  point.     Meanwhile,  rage  and  de-  ^ark^^v.  l,  2, 
termination  to  destroy  our  Lord  more  than  ever  took  Lukexxi.  37- 
possession  of  the  priestly  party,  and  a  council  was 
held  in  the  house  of  the  high  priest  (Caiaphas)  to  determine  as  to 
the  method  of  his  destruction.     The  conclusion  come  to  was  that 
it  was  inexpedient  to  arrest  Jesus  in  open  day,  or  in  the  midst  of 
his  friends,  and  that  some  opportunity  must  be  taken  of  seizing 
him  at  a  time  and  place  when  little  or  no  opposition  would  be 
encountered.     Such  an  opportunity  was  oflPered  them  by  Judas 
Iscariot,  one  of  the  apostles.    For  thirty  pieces  of  silver  (apyvpia}\ 
Judas  agreed  to  deliver  up  his  master,  and  from  that  time  '  sought 
opportunity  \  to  betray  him. 

*  Between  tliree  and  fonr  pounds  sterling'.  This  was  the  value  of  a  slave ;  see 
Exod.  xxi.  32.  Zechariah  xi.  12,  alludes  to  this  sum  also  as  the  price  prophetically 
given  for  himself. 


98         ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

FROM   THE   LAST  SUPPER   TO   THE   BURIAL   OP  JESTJS. 

55.  Jesus  eats  tlie  Iiast  Supper  witli  bis  Disciples. — The 

'  first  day  of  unleavened  bread '  having-  now  arrived,  Jesus  sent 
Matt.  xxvi.  two  of  his  disciples  into  the  city,  with  instructions  to 
Markov  12-17  f^i'^^i^D^  ^^^  ^^®  Celebration  of  the  passover ;  and  when 
Luke  xxii.  7-18.  evening  was  come,  betook  himself  with  the  twelve 
apostles  to  the  appointed  place.  This  was  a  large  upper-room, 
possibly  extending  over  the  whole  of  the  upper-storey  of  the  house, 
and  belonging  to  some  unnamed  disciple. 

The  question  now  arises  as  to  the  exact  nature  of  the  meal  of 
which  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  partook.  With  regard  to  this, 
considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists,  principally  arising  from 
the  statements  of  St.  John.  For  the  purpose  of  clearly  exhibiting 
the  difficulty,  a  statement  is  here  appended,  from  which  the  exact 
nature  of  the  accounts  given  by  each  evangelist  may  be  at  once 
ascertained,  and  for  the  sake  of  future  reference  the  accounts  are 
carried  on  as  far  as  the  resurrection. 

{Notes  of  Time  are  Italieised.) 

1.    ST.    MATTHEW'S   ACCOUNT. 

1.  Jesus  sends  his  disciples  to  prepare  the  passover  on  the  Jirst 

day  of  unleavened  bread,  xxvi.  17-18. 

2.  The  disciples  make  ready  the  passover,  xxvi.  19. 

3.  When  the  even  is  come,  Jesus  sits  down  with  his  disciples,  and 

in  the  course  of  the  meal,   and  afterwards,  institutes  the 
Lord's  Supper,  xxvi.  20-29. 

4.  A  hymn  having  been  sung,  Jesus  and  his  disciples  go  out  into 

the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  there  Jesus  is  apprehended,  xxvi. 
30-56. 

5.  Incidents  at  the  high  priest's  house,  xxvi.  57-75. 

6.  When  the  moiming  is  come,  Jesus  is  taken  to  Pontius  Pilate, 

xxvii.  1-27. 
\7.  Details  of  the  crucifixion,  xxvii.  27-44. 


JESUS  EATS  THE  LAST  SUPPER.  99 

8.  From  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  hour  darkness  overspreads  the  land. 

At  the  ninth  hour  Jesus  yields  up  the  ghost,  xxvii.  45-56. 

9.  When  the  even  is  come  the  body  is  removed  from  the  cross, 

and  laid  in  the  tomb  of  Joseph,  xxvii.  57-61. 

10.  On   the  next  day,   that  followed  the  day  of  the  preparation 

Q'jTig  IcTTL  fiiTCL  Ti)v  TTapaaKiv^v),  the  priests  set  a  watch, 
xxvii.  62-66. 

11.  In  the  end  of  the  sabbath,  as  it  begins  to  dawn  an  the  first  day 

of  the  week,  two  Maries  come  to  the  sepulchre  and  find  it 
empty,  xxviii.  1-6. 

2.  ST.  mark's  account. 

1.  The  first  day  of  unleavened  bread,  ichen  they  hilled  (tOuoi')  the 

passover,  Jesus  sends  his  disciples  to  make  ready  the  passover, 
xiv.  12-15. 

2.  The  disciples  make  ready  the  passover,  xiv.  16. 

3.  In  the  evening,  Jesus  comes  with  the  twelve,  and  during  the 

meal,  and  afterwards,  institutes  the  Lord's   Supper,  xiv. 
17-25. 

4.  A  hymn  having  been  sung,  Jesus  and  his  disciples  go  into  the 

Mount  of  Olives,  where  the  apprehension  takes  place,  xiv. 
26-52. 

5.  Incidents  at  the  house  of  the  high  priest,  xiv.  53-72. 

6.  Straightway  in  the  morning  a  council  of  Jews  is  held,  Jesus  is 

delivered  to  Pilate,  who  delivers  him  to  be  crucified.     The 
crucitixien  takes  place  at  the  third  hour,  xv.  1-25. 

7.  Details  of  the  crucifixion.     Darkness  over  the  land  from  the 

sixth  to  the  ninth  hour.     At  the  ninth  hour  Jesus  dies,  xv. 
26-41. 

8.  When  the  even  is  come,  because  it  is  (the)  pt'eparation,  i.e.  the 

day  before  the  sabbath  (o  ian  izpoaajiiiarov),  Joseph  begs  the 
body  and  lays  it  in  his  own  tomb,  xv.  42-47. 

9.  When  the  sabbath  is  past,  Mary  Magdalene  and  other  women 

bring  sweet  spices,  xvi.  1. 
10.    Very  early  in  the  morning,  the  first  day  of  the  week  (Xlav  TrpiuX 
T^jc  fiuiQ  (Ta0[3drujv),  the  women  come  to  the  sepulchre  at 
the   rising   of  the  sun  {dvaTelXavTOQ  tov  r'jXiov),   and   find 
Jesus  risen,  xvi.  2-8. 

3.  ST.  ltjke's  AccoinvrT. 

1.  'Then  came  the  day  of  unleavened  bread,  when  the  passover 
must  be  killed.'  Jesus  sends  Peter  and  John  to  prepare 
the  passover,  xxii.  7-12. 

h2 


100       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

2.  The  disciples  make  ready  the  passover,  xxii.  13. 

3.  When   the  hour  is  come,  Jesus  and  the  twelve  apostles  sit 

down.  Jesus  says,  With  desire  have  I  desired  to  eat  this 
passover  with  you.  He  then  institutes  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  utters  various  discourses,  xxii.  14-38. 

4.  Incidents  in  the  garden.     Jesus  is  apprehended,  xxii.  39-53. 

5.  Incidents  in  the  house  of  the  high  priest,  xxii.  54-65. 

6.  As  soon  as  it  is  day,  Jesus  is  taken  before  the  council,  and 

thence  to  Pilate.  Pilate  sends  him  to  Herod,  Herod  back 
again  to  Pilate.  Pilate  finally  delivers  him  to  be  crucified, 
xxii.  66-xxiii.  32. 

7.  Jesus  is  crucified.    From  the  sixth  hour  to  the  ninth  hour  there 

is  darkness  over  all  the  earth  {yy)v).  At  the  ninth  hour 
Jesus  expires,  xxiii.  33-49. 

8.  Joseph  of  Arimathaea  begs  the  body  of  Jesus,  and  lays  it  in 

his  own  tomb.  '  That  dai/  ivas  (the)  preparation,  and  the 
sabbath  dreiu  on  (fTrs^waKf)/  xxiii.  50-54. 

9.  The  women,  who  came  from  Galilee,  return  from  the  entomb- 

ment, prepare  spices  and  ointments,  and  rest  the  sabbath 
day  according  to  the  commandment  (jb  fxlv  aa^^arov 
rjavxaffav),  Xxiii.  55,  56. 
10.  On  the  jirst  day  of  the  lueeky  very  early  in  the  morning,  the 
women  come  to  the  sepulchre,  and  find  Jesus  arisen,  xxiv. 
1-9. 

From  a  comparison  of  these  three  accounts  it  would  appear  that 
the  course  of  events,  according  to  the  synoptics,  was  as  follows  : — 

Thursday  evening  .  .Our  Lord  keeps  the  passover. 

Thursday  night  .  .  Apprehension  and  trial. 

Friday  morning  .  .  Conviction. 

Friday  afternoon  .  .  Death. 

Friday  evening  .  .  Burial. 

Saturday  .  .  .  Sabbath  rest. 

Sunday  morning  .  .  Kesurrection. 

"We  now  turn  to 

4.  ST.  John's  account. 

1.  before  the  feast  of  the  passover,  J  esna  .  .  .  loved  his  disciples 

unto  the  end.  And  supper  being  ended  (so  A.  V.;  but  Greek 
(Shttvov  yfvoixsvov)  rather  =  supper  being  come),  Jesus  washes 
his  disciples'  feet,  xiii.  1-11. 

2.  Incidents  and  Discourses  at  the  Last  Supper,  xiii.  12-xvii.  26. 


JESUS  EATS  THE  LAST  SUPPER.  101 

At  xiii.  29,  '  Buy  those  things  we  have  need  of  against  the 
feast.'' 

3.  After  supper,  Jesus  goes  with  his  disciples  to  a  garden,  over 

the  brook  Cedron,  and  is  there  apprehended,  xviii.  1-11. 

4.  Incidents  in  the  house  of  the  high  priest,  xviii.  12-27. 

5.  ^  Then  led  they  Jesus  from  Caiaphas  unto  the  hall  of  judgment 

{to  irpaLTiopiov)  ;  and  it  was  early  \  and  they  themselves 
went  not  into  the  judgment  hall,  lest  they  should  he  defiled^ 
hut  that  they  anight  eat  the  passover,  xviii.  28. 

6.  Incidents   at  the   Judgment-hall.     Jesus  is  brought  out  by 

Pilate  when  ^  it  luas  (the)  preparation  of  the  passover  ;  and 
about  the  sixth  hour^  Jesus  is  then  delivered  to  be  crucified, 
xviii.  29-xix.  16. 

7.  Jesus  is  crucified,  xix.  17-30. 

8.  '  Because  it  was  (the)  preparation,  that  the  hodies  should  not 

remain  upon  the  cross  on  the  sabbath  day  (for  that  sabbath 
day  was  an  high  day  ' — fxeydXr])  the  Jews  beseech  Pilate  to 
have  the  legs  of  Jesus  and  the  two  thieves  broken,  so  that 
they  might  die.  The  soldiers,  finding  Jesus  dead,  do  not 
break  his  legs,  but  his  body  is  removed  and  placed  in  the 
tomb  of  Joseph  of  Arimathaea,  *  because  of  the  Jeios'  prepar- 
ation (day),'  xix.  31-42. 

9.  '  The  first  day  of  the  week '  Mary  Magdalene  comes  early,  and 

finds  the  stone  rolled  away  from  the  sepulchre,  xx.  1. 

It  seems  at  first  sight  equally  clear  that  .John  does  not  regard 
the  Last  Supper  as  the  Passover  Supper,  and,  therefore,  is  at 
variance  with  the  synoptics  as  to  the  time  of  the  passover.  But  if 
the  expressions  used  by  John  be  carefully  attended  to,  it  will  be 
seen  that  such  is  not  necessarily  his  meaning,  although  it  is  readily 
allowed  that  such  may  be.  Referring  to  the  previous  table,  and 
taking  the  difiiculties  in  the  order  there  indicated  : — 

1.  Does  '  before  the  feast  of  the  passover'  necessarily  mean  that 

the  supper  was  before  the  feast  ?  May  it  not  mean  that 
'  before  the  feast  Jesus  showed  his  love  for  his  disciples  '  by 
washing  their  feet — which  he  did  not  after,  but  really 
before,  the  feast  ?     See  correction  of  A.  V.  above. 

2.  '  Buy  those  things  we  have  need  of  against  the  feast'  (a'g  rijv 

toprriv),  xiii.  29.  Here  our  Lord  evidently  must  have  been 
speaking  of  something  immediately  about  to  take  place,  or 

*  A  Jew  was  defiled  until  the  evening  by  entering  into  the  house  of  a  Gentile. 


102       ESSENTIALS  OE  NEW  TESTA]\fENT  STUDY. 

even  actually  occurring ;  else  why  should  the  words  '  That 
thou  doest,  do  quickly,'  be  misunderstood  ?  If  the  passover 
were  next  day,  what  need  of  haste  ? 

5.  The  Jews  are  said  to  have  feared  on  the  morning  of  Friday, 
lest,  by  being  defiled,  they  should  not  be  able  to  eat  the 
passover,  xviii.  28.  Now  if  the  passover  had  been  on 
Friday  evening,  they  could  not  have  had  this  fear,  as  defile- 
ment did  not  last  beyond  sunset.  We  must,  therefore,  have 
recourse  to  some  other  supposition,  and  the  supposition  is 
that  the  persons  who  thus  feared  had  been  interrupted  in 
the  paschal  supper,  and  wished  to  go  back  and  finish  it. 
Others  think  that  the  expression,  'to  eat  the  passover/ 
may  be  used  in  a  general  sense,  or  of  eating  an  additional 
sacrifice,  called  the  Chagiga. 

6-8.  Wiessler  endeavours  to  show  at  great  length  that  ^  the 
preparation-day  '  was  a  synonym  for  '•  Friday,'  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  weekly  sabbath.  His  arguments,  although  not 
quite  satisfactory,  are  well  worthy  our  attention,  and  if  he 
is  right,  all  difficulty  arising  from  the  phrase  '  preparation 
of  the  passover '  (xix.  14),  disappears,  as  it  is  simply 
equivalent  to  '  Friday  in  passover  week.' 

8.  The  sabbath  being  a  '  high  day '  scarcely  requires  explanation, 
the  sabbath  of  passover  week  naturally  occupying  such  a 
position. 

Hence,  although  some  obscurity  still  remains,  it  is  clear  that  the 
statements  of  John  are  not  by  any  means  irreconcileable  with  those 
of  the  other  evangelists.  No  doubt,  if  his  Gospel  only  had  remained, 
the  impression  produced  by  it  would  have  been  that  the  passover 
had  not  been  eaten  on  Friday  morning ;  but  with  the  clear  state- 
ments of  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  on  the  matter,  it  seems  neces- 
sary to  enquire  whether  the  first  impression  derived  from  John  be 
not  a  fallacious  one.  "We  therefore  conclude  that  the  Last  Supper 
was  the  passover. 

56.  Incidents    of  the    Xast    Supper.     Jesus  washes    the 

Disciples'  Feet. — The  proper  time  for  supper  having  now  arrived, 

the  companv  of  disciples  and  their  master  assembled 

Lukexxii.  .       ,1  111  -1     J  1      o 

14-18.  in  the  upper-room  already  described.^     bome  com- 

John  xiii.  1-26.  uientators  think  that  Luke  xxii.  24  (in  which  it  is 

»  The  order  of  incidents  here  observed  will  be  as  fellows- 
Matt,  xxvi.   Mark  xlv.   Luke  xxii.  John  xiii. 
Preliminary  cup  of  wine                —                 —             15-18  — 
Washing  of  the  disciples'  feet       —                —              —                  1-20 


JESUS  WASHES  THE  DISCIPLES'  FEET.  103 

said  that  '  there  was  a  strife  amongst  the  disciples,  which  of  them 
should  be  (Soxra  dvai  =  lit.  seems  to  be)  the  greatest ')  should  be 
inserted  here,  and  that  the  strife  arose  about  questions  of  preced- 
ence at  table,  and  who  should  perform  the  necessary  ^  menial  office 
of  washing  the  feet  of  the  assembled  company.  Whether  this  be 
the  case  or  no,  our  Saviour  himself  now  performed  that  office, 
having  previously  partaken  with  his  disciples  of  the  preliminary 
cup  of  wine,  usually  handed  round  at  the  commencement  of  the 
paschal  supper.  Peter  at  first  declined  to  permit  his  master  to 
wash  his  feet  with  the  words  ^  Dost  thou  (emphatic)  wash  w?/ 
(emphatic)  feet  ?'  But  when  our  Lord  replied  '  If  I  wash  thee  not, 
thou  hast  no  part  in  me,'  he  cried  '  Lord,  not  my  feet  only,  but 
also  my  hands  and  my  head.'  To  this  our  Lord  replied,  'He  that 
is  washed  (XeXovfisvog)  needeth  not  save  to  loasJi  Jiisfeet,  hut  is  clean 
every  whit.'  Commentators  have  here  seen  a  reference  to  baptism, 
and  the  necessity  of  a  daily  cleansing  from  daily  sins,  but  the 
words  in  italic  are  very  doubtful.  Stier  draws  out  many  lessons 
from  this  act  of  Christ :  with  him  the  towel  is  the  sign  of  service, 
('  he  took  the  form  of  a  servant ')  &c. 

57.  The  Traitor   pointed  out,  and  dismissed. — The  usual 
method  of  arrangement  at  a  banquet  in  New  Testament  times  was 
by  placing  three  couches  on  three  sides  of  a  square 
about  a  central  table,  the  fourth  side  being  left  open     21-25. 
for  convenience  of  serving  ;  on  these  couches  the  guests  t^^^^^^^ 
reclined,  their  faces  being  towards  the  table  and  their     21-23. 

f     ^  r  -^       T  ^-u-  •^-  T  1  ^        J  John siii. 21-32. 

leet  away  irom  it.     In  this  position  John,  placed 


Matt.  sxvi. 

Mark  siv. 

Luke  xxii. 

John  xiii. 

The  traitor  pointed  out .        .     21-25 
Judas  goes  out    :   .        .        .        — 

18-21 

21-23 

21,27 
27-32 

Strife  concerning  precedence  1       

and  discourse                        1 

- 

24-30 

- 

Institution    of    the    Lord's)     26-29 

Supper                                  1 
First  warning  to  Peter  .        .        — 

22-25 

19,20 
31-38 

33-38 

Discourses      ....        — 

— 

— 

xiv.-xvii. 

Departure  to  Mount  of  Olives      30 
Second  warning  to  Peter       .      31-35 

26 
27-31 

39 

xviii.  1 

In  this  arrangement,  the  only  transposition  of  verses  is  in  removing  Luke  xxii.  19, 
20.  From  the  expression  used,  '  like^vise  after  supper,'  it  is  clear  that  this  is  not  in 
its  right  place.  This  arrangement  brings  all  the  accounts  into  harmony,  and  ex- 
cludes Judas  from  participation  in  the  supper.  In  Luke  xxii.  17,  A.V.  says  '  He  took 
the  cup  and  gave  thanks,'  &c.,  bub  the  literal  rendering  is  '  Having  received  a 
cup,  he  gave  thanks,'  &c.  This  cup,  then,  has  no  necessary  connection  with  the  cup 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  it  may  have  been  one  of  the  four  paschal  cups  of  wine. 

*  Washing  the  feet  after  a  journey  is  a  necessity  in  a  hot  country,  and  especially 
•when,  as  in  Palestine,  only  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  protected.  The  custom  is  often  re- 
ferred to.    See  especially  Luke  vii.  44. 


104       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

next  to  his  master,  lay  as  it  were  upon  his  breast,  and  could  carry 
on  conversation  witli  him  almost  unnoticed.  The  anxieties  of  the 
disciples  having  been  already  excited  by  our  Lord's  intimation  that 
one  of  them  should  betray  him,  Peter  beckoned  to  John  to  ask 
which  of  them  this  should  be.  Our  Lord  privately  intimated  to 
John  in  reply  that  it  should  be  he  to  whom  after  He  had  dipped  a 
sop  He  should  give  it.  Dipping  a  sop,  therefore,  in  the  bitter 
sauce  which  formed  part  of  the  paschal  supper,  Jesus  gave  it  to 
Judas.  It  is  previously  stated  by  John  that  the  devil  had  entered 
into  Judas  at  the  beginning  of  the  feast.  He  had  probably  been 
meditating  on  the  best  means  of  accomplishing  his  purpose ;  and 
now,  taking  advantage  of  the  incident,  he  went  out  as  if  on  some 
business  errand,  but  really  in  order  to  apprise  the  priests  of  the 
locality  in  which  his  master  might  be  found.  Our  Lord  favoured 
the  pretence  of  the  traitor  in  the  words  '  That  thou  doest,  do 
quickly,'  and  the  rest  of  the  disciples,  ignorant  of  what  was  pass- 
ing, supposed  that  he  had  gone  to  purchase  something  necessary  for 
the  repast. 

58.  Dispute  for  Precedence.  Institution  of  the  Itord's 
Supper. — The  disciples  now  began  to  discuss  the  question  of 
Matt  xxvi.        supremacy,  and  after  rebuking  them  and  calling  to 

26-29.  mind  his  own  recent  example  of  the  duty  of  serving, 

Luke  xxii.       *  OUT  Lord  proceeded  to  the  institution  of  that  solemn 

24-30. 19, 20.  ordinance  which  is  now  known  as  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  passages  referring  to  this  are  enumerated  and  discussed  in  Sec- 
tion 5.  Here  it  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  the  rites  observed  were 
founded  upon  the  usual  paschal  rites.  The  cup  was  probably  the 
third  of  the  four  cups  of  wine  traditionally  prescribed  at  the  paschal 
supper ;  and  if  it  be  enquired  why  bread,  and  not  a  portion  of  the 
lamb,  should  be  selected,  it  can  be  replied  that  since  the  Lord's 
own  blood  was  now  about  to  be  shed  for  his  people,  no  more  shed- 
ding of  blood  was  deemed  necessary.  And  the  object  of  the  rite 
was  very  clearly  expressed  when  our  Lord  said,  '  Do  this  in  re- 
membrance of  me  {dg  T7IV  k^iriv  avafivTi]aiv)y\.Q.  not  because  you 
remember  me,  but  in  order  that  you  may  remember  me. 

59.  Peter  is  -framed  tliat  be  will  deny  his  Master.  Dis- 
courses and  Prayer  of  Jesus  for  his  People. — Judging  from 

the  question  of  Peter,  'Lord,  whither  goest  thou?' 

Matt.  xxvi.  .^      ^    ,-,  X-,     X  r    \  r  v 

30-35.  it  would  seem   that   our  Lord  now  arose  from  his 

'^26-31^^*  recumbent  position,  as  if  to  depart.     The  departure, 

Luke  xxii.  however,  did  not  immediately  take  place.     Taking 

John  xiii.  33-  occasion  by  this  question,  Jesus  warned  his  disciple 

^^^'  ^'  that  he  could  not  as  yet  follow  his  master,  and,  not- 


JESUS  IN  THE  GAEDEN.  105 

■withstanding  his  vehement  protestations,  foretold  to  him  that 
before  cockcrow  he  should  even  deny  him  thrice.  Then  followed, 
probably  while  standing  in  the  paschal  room,  previous  to  depar- 
ture, the  discourses  of  John  xiv.,  and  the  prayer  of  John  xvii.,^ 
including  the  promise  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  After  this,  a  concluding 
hymn  (probably  Psalm  cxvi.,  which  formed  part  of  the  Hallel, 
sung  at  the  passover)  ^  was  sung,  and  the  company  of  disciples, 
with  their  master,  left  the  chamber,  and  descending  the  hill 
into  the  ravine  of  Kidron,  crossed  the  brook,  and  took  the  road  to 
Bethany.  ^ 

60.  Jesus  is  arrested  in  tbe  Garden  of  Getbsemane. — The 
disciples  possibly  believed  that  our  Lord  intended  to  return  to 
Bethany.  But  at  Gethsemane,  on  the  other  side  of  j^a,tt.  xxvi. 
the  Kidron,  i.e.  on  the  slope  of  the  hill  towards  ^e-se. 
Bethany,  was  a  garden,  called  Gethsemane,  to  which  19-24. 
it  was  the  habit  of  our  Lord  to  resort.  Here,  taking  ^^^q_^^^' 
with  him  Peter  and  James  and  John  into  the  more  John  xviii.  2-14. 
private  parts  of  the  garden,  our  Lord  withdrew  apart  and  prayed. 
The  consciousness  of  the  fearful  future  now  appears  to  have  over- 
whelmed him.  Great  drops  of  blood''  exuded  from  his  person,  and 
'  being  in  an  agony,'  he  entreated,  yet  with  the  submission  of  a 
son,  that  if  it  were  his  Father's  will,  the  cup  might  pass  from  him. 
An  angel  also  appeared  from  heaven  strengthening  him.  Mean- 
while his  disciples  slept,  and  were  twice  so  found  by  their  master, 
as  at  intervals  in  his  prayer  he  returned  to  them.  At  length  the 
time  for  prayer  on  the  Lord's  part  and  for  sleep  on  the  disciples' 
was  at  an  end.  Judas,  who  had  doubtless  first  visited  the  paschal 
supper-room,  and  there  learned  the  direction  which  our  Lord  had 
taken,  now  entered  the  garden  with  a  company  of  soldiers,  torches, 
and  weapons,  and  advancing,  '  betrayed  him  with  a  kiss.'  ^  Some 
slight  resistance  might  perhaps  have  been  made,  for  Peter,  draw- 
ing a  sword,  attacked  one  of  the  high-priest's  servants  (named 
Malchus)  and  struck  ofi"  his  ear,  but  this  was  at  once  put  an  end 
to  by  our  Lord,  who  touched  the  servant's  ear  and  healed  him, 

*  For  the  subjects  see  Chronological  Summary  of  Gospels  in  Section  3. 
"  See  Passover,  under  Feast,  in  Section  4. 

^  "  Our  Lord  would  set  out  for  the  Mount  of  Olives  in  the  last  hour  of  the  second 
watch  of  the  night,  or  between  our  eleven  and  twelve  o'clock.  The  period  of  the 
year  was  the  vernal  equinox,  and  the  day  of  the  month  about  two  days  before  the 
full  of  the  moon ;  in  which  case  the  moon  would  be  now  not  very  far  past  her 
meridian,  and  the  night  would  be  enlightened  until  a  late  hour  towards  the  morn- 
ing."— Greswell. 

*  Mentioned  only  by  Luke  the  physician,  xxii.  44. 

*  Both  Matthew  and  Mark  use  the  strong  form  K(xrt(i)ikri<T€v  for  kissed  him. 


106        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

and  tlien  delivered  himself  up.  At  this,  all  the  disciples,  fearing 
capture  for  themselves,  forsook  him  and  fled.  Some  few,  how- 
ever, followed  him  afar  off",  amongst  whom  were  Peter  and  John, 
and  a  young  man  unnamed.  The  last,  approaching  too  near,  was 
almost  captured,  and  only  escaped  by  leaving  his  garment  in  the 
hands  of  the  soldiers. 

61.   Examination  of  Tesus  by  Annas  and  tbe  Sanbedrim. 

Peter  Denies  bis  IMCaster.     The  high-priest  at  this  time  was 

.  Caiaphas,  but  Annas,  his  father-in-law,  still  practi- 

xxvii.  2. '  cally  held  the  reins  of  authority.     Probably  both 

""^x^  L  ^"  ^*~  Annas  and  Caiaphas  resided  in  different  apartments 
Luke  xxii.  54-      of  the  same  official   palace,  and   looking  into  one 

xxiii.  1. 

Johnxviii.  court-yard.     Being  taken,  therefore,  before  Annas 

15-28.  ^Y&t,  he  was  by  him  sent  to  Caiaphas,^  who  informally 

asked  him  '  of  his  disciples  and  of  his  doctrine,'  and  summoned  a 
hasty  meeting  of  the  Sanhedrim.  This  council  having  been  speedily 
got  together,  witnesses  appeared  and  accused  him  of  declaring  his 
intention  to  destroy  the  temple  and  build  another.  Meanwhile, 
our  Saviour  said  nothing.  Finally,  the  high-priest,  as  president 
of  the  council,  asked  him  '  if  he  were  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the 
Blessed.'  To  this  our  Saviour  replied,  '  I  am,  and  hereafter  ye 
shall  see  the  Son  of  Man  sitting  on  the  right  hand  of  power,  and 
coming  in  the  clouds  of  heaven.'  At  this  outspoken  declaration 
of  his  Messiahship,  the  wrath  of  the  council  appears  to  have 
exceeded  all  bounds ;  the  high  priest  formally  rent  his  clothes, 
saying,  '  He  hath  spcken  blasphemy,'  and  the  council  unanimously 
condemned  him  to  death. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  court  of  the  palace,  Peter,  who  had  folk>wed 
with  John  afar  oflf,  and  who,  by  the  influence  of  John,  who  knew 
the  high  priest,  had  been  admitted  within  the  doors,  had  thrice 
denied  his  Master.'^    But  when,  at  the  third  denial,  our  Lord 

*  It  is  difficult  to  decide  as  to  whether  Annas  or  Caiaphas  was  the  high-priest 
mentioned  as  conducting  the  informal  examination  held  on  the  arrival  of  Jesus,  and 
described  in  John  xriii.  19-24.  From  ver.  24,  as  it  stands  in  A.  V.,  it  would  seem 
that  it  must  have  been  Caiaphas,  but  the  Greek  is  uncertain,  and  may  mean  (omitting 
the  now,  which  is  not  in  the  Greek),  '  Annas  sent  him  to  Caiaphas.' 

'  '  The  diflBcult  question  of  the  harmony  of  the  various  accounts  of  Peter's  denials 
cannot  here  be  fully  entered  into.  If  we  allow  ourselves  to  conceive  that  in  the 
narrative  of  St.  John  the  first  and  second  denials  are  transposed,  and  that  the  first 
took  place  at  going  out,  rather  than  coming  in,  there  would  seem  to  result  this  very 
natural  account— That  the  first  denial  took  place  at  the  fire  (Matt.  xxvi.  69,  Mark 
xiv.  66  sq.,  Luke  xxii.  56,  John  xviii.  25),  and  was  caused  by  the  fixed  recognition 
(Luke  xxii.  56)  of  the  maid  who  admitted  St.  Peter  ;  that  the  second  took  place  at 
or  near  the  door  leading  out  of  the  court,  to  which  fear  might  have  driven  the 
Apostle  (Matt.  xxvi.  71,  Mark  xiv.  68  sq.,  Luke  xxii.  58,  John  xviii.  17),  and  that 


PETER  DENIES  HIS  MASTER.  107 

turned  and  looked  on  him  (probably  from  the  council-chamber 
into  the  outer  court),  the  apostle  repented  and  went  out  and  wept 
bitterly. 

62.  Jesus  Is  taken  before  Pilate.    Judas  liangrs  bimself. — 

It  has  been  much  disputed  whether  the  Sanhedrim  had  the  power 
of  life  and  death,  and  this  question  is  fully  discussed     _,  ^ 

'  ^  -^  Matt.  xsTu. 

under  the  word  '  Council/  in  Section  4,  Either  the  2-io. 
council  was  not  able  to  punish  our  Lord  as  it  desired,  ^  ^  ^' 
or  did  not  wish  to  defile  itself  at  a  passover  season  by  a  capital 
punishment,  and  yet  dared  not  defer  execution  for  fear  of  the 
people.  Whichever  reason  operated,  it  was  determined  to  carry 
Jesus  before  the  Roman  Governor  (usually  resident  at  Caesarea, 
but  then  come  to  Jerusalem  for  the  passover),  and  accuse  Him 
before  him  of  setting  himself  up  as  a  King  of  the  Jews,  in  opposi- 

the  third  took  place  in  the  court  about  an  hour  afterwards  (Luke  rxii.  59)  before 
several  witnesses,  who  urged  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  Apostle's  harsh  Galilagan  pro- 
nunciation (see  Friedlieb,  Archdol.  §  25 ;  Sepp,  Leben  Chr.  vol.  iii.  p.  478  sq.),  and 
near  enough  to  our  Lord  for  Him  to  turn  and  gaze  upon  his  now  heart-touched  and 
repentant  follower.  Minor  discordances  as  to  the  number  and  identity  of  the  recog- 
nizers stiU  remain  ;  but  these,  when  properly  considered,  wiU  only  be  found  such  as 
serve  the  more  clearly  to  show,  not  only  the  independence  of  the  inspired  witnesses, 
but  the  living  truth  of  the  occurrence.'— Ellicott,  Lect.  vii.,  Note,  p.  333,  See  also  the 
life  of  Peter  in  Section  1.  The  following  passage  in  Mr.  Stock's  Lessons  on  the  Life 
of  our  Lord  may  also  be  consulted  with  advantage.    Lesson  xcii.  Note  6  : — 

'  The  apparent  discrepancies  in  the  four  accounts  of  Peter's  denials  are  easUy 
explained  if  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  three  denials  were  not  each  a  single  sentence 
addressed  to  one  accuser.  On  each  occasion  there  might  well  be  reiterated  charges 
and  reiterated  denials. 

'  a.  All  four  evangelists  agree  that  the  first  denial  was  elicited  by  a  maid,  Mark 
and  Luke  adding  that  it  occurred  by  the  fire,  and  John  stating  that  she  was  the 
portress,  who  recognised  Peter  as  having  come  in  with  him  (John). 

'  h.  From  Matthew  and  Mark  we  learn  that  the  second  denial  took  place  in  the 
"  porch."  Matthew  says  "  another  "  maid  accused  Peter ;  Mark  that  it  was  "  the 
maid"  (not  "  a  maid,"  as  in  our  version),  i.e.  the  same  who  spoke  before  ;  Luke 
that  it  was  "  another,"  the  word  being  masculine,  and  Peter  replying,  "  Man,  I  am 
not "  ;  while  John  combines  the  three  statements  by  relating  that  "  they  said  unto 
him." 

'  c.  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  agree  that  the  third  denial  was  provoked  by  the 
allusions  to  Peter's  proxdncial  dialect,  Luke  adding  that  it  occurred  after  about  an 
hour.  John  here  relates  a  different  and  no  doubt  simultaneous  incident,  the 
recognition  of  Peter  by  a  kinsman  of  Malchus. 

'  St.  Mark,  who  alone  relates  (xiv.  30)  that  Jesus  had  predicted  that  the  denials 
should  take  place  before  the  cock  crowed  twice,  alone  mentions  the  first  crowing. 
Probably  Peter  did  not  then  notice  the  sound,  but  the  fact  that  it  had  fallen  on  his 
ear  came  back  to  him  after  the  second  crowing  ;  and  no  doubt  it  is  his  personal 
reminiscence  which  Mark  records.  In  Luke  xxii.  55,  56,  the  word  "fire"  is  a 
rendering  for  two  different  Greek  words  {inip,  (|)a>s).  The  latter  is  properly  "  Ught," 
and  is  always  so  translated  elsewhere  ;  and  it  evidently  implies  that  Peter  was  recog- 
nized by  the  firelight  faUing  on  his  face  ;  "  a  certain  maid  beheld  him  as  he  sat  by 
the  light,  and  earnestly  looked  upon  him." 

'  The  Galilaean  provincialism  of  speech  consisted  of  an  inability  to  pronounce  the 
gutturals  properly,  and  in  a  habit  of  using  "  t "  for  "  s."  ' 


108       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

tion  to  the  Eoman  authority.  Judas,  seeing  what  was  determined, 
now  repented/  and  went  out  and  offered  the  money  back.  This 
money  being  refused,  he  cast  down  the  pieces  of  silver  in  the 
temple,  and  departing  went  and  hanged  himself.  The  true  story 
of  his  suicide  appears  not  to  have  become  known  until  afterwards, 
the  popular  opinion  being  that  he  had  been  destroyed  by  a  horrible 
accident,  and  this  may  have  given  rise  to  Peter's  remarks  upon  his 
death  in  Acts  i.  18.  The  priests,  however,  still  declined  to  receive 
the  money  for  the  temple  treasury,  and  bought  with  it  a  potter's 
field,  to  be  used  for  the  burial  of  strangers.  Hence  this  field  after- 
wards obtained  the  appellation  of  Aceldama,  or  the  jield  of  blood. 
These  circumstances  of  course  took  place  somewhat  later,  but  are 
here  mentioned  as  concluding  the  history  of  the  betrayal. 

63.  Jesus  before  Pilate  and  Herod. — An  acquaintance  with 
the  probable  position  of  the  buildings  at  Jerusalem  is  of  great 
Matt,  xxvii.  assistance  in  understanding  this  portion  of  our  Lord's 
M'^^k^^*  2-15  liistory,  and  in  removing  the  difiiculty  which  the 
Luke  xxiii.  "  apparent  crowding  of  so  many  incidents  into  a  short 
Joim.  xviii,  28-  period  is  apt  to  produce.  The  temple  enclosure 
^^'  1^'  (see  Temple  in  Section  4)  may  be  roughly  conceived 

of  as  a  large  square.  In  the  left-hand  upper  corner  of  this  square 
was  a  military  building,  called  the  Tower  of  Antonia.  Towards 
the  lower  part  of  the  square  was  the  temple  itself,  probably 
including  the  official  palace  of  the  high  priest.  Close  by,  and 
accessible  by  a  bridge  from  the  temple,  was  Herod's  palace. 
Either  here,  or  in  the  Tower  of  Antonia,  Pilate  was  at  the  time. 
Hence,  all  the  localities  of  the  various  trials  were  close  together, 
and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  transference  of  the 
prisoner  from  one  examination  to  another.  Our  Lord,  then,  was 
now  taken  before  Pilate.  The  priests,  for  fear  of  legal  defilement, 
remained  outside  (see  p.  102, 1.  4,  &c.),  while  Jesus  was  taken  into 
the  presence  of  the  Roman  Governor,  and  for  the  first  time  form- 
ally examined.  Mr.  Greswell  makes  the  following  excellent 
arrangement  as  to  the  incidents  of  the  examination  : — 
Pilate  comes  out  and  asks  what  accusation 

is  made John  xviii.  28-32. 

*  The  repentance  of  Judas  is  a  difficult  subject.  It  was  evidently  not  true  repent- 
ance, for  he  committed  suicide  and  went  to  his  own  place.  Some  have  thought  that 
he  had  not  fully  considered  that  death  would  be  the  punishment  inflicted  on  his 
Master.  It  is  possible  that  he  thought  .that  death  by  stoning  would  have  been  in- 
flicted by  the  Council,  and  had  not  expected  that  the  horrors  and  shame  of  death 
by  crucifixion  would  be  inflicted  by  Gentile  hands.  To  a  Jew  this  was  inexpressibly- 
fearful,  and  involved  a  legal  curse. 


JESUS  BEFORE  PILATE  A^D  HEROD.  109 

Pilate  retires  with  Jesus,  and  asks  him 
privately  of  his  doctrine.  Jesus  assures 
him  that  his  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world,  and  that  every  one  that  is  of  the 
truth  hears  his  voice    ....    John  xviii.  33-38. 

Pilate,  leaving  Jesus  within,  goes  out  and 
offers  to  release  Barabhas  to  the  priests. 
They  refuse John  xviii.  38-40. 

Pilate  then  causes  Jesus  to  be  scourged, 
and,  having  done  this,  brings  him  out, 
saying,  '  Behold  the  man,'  and  suggest- 
ing that  they  should  put  him  to  death 
themselves.  The  priests  declare  that  as 
He  has  made  himself  the  Son  of  God, 
He  ought  to  die.  Pilate,  being  afraid, 
again  takes  Jesus  within,  and  examines 
him  privately John  xix.  1-11. 

Pilate  comes  out  again  and  intercedes  for 

our  Lord's  release         ....    John  xix.  12. 

Failing  to  persuade  the  priests,  he  comes 
out,  and  solemnly  takes  his  place  on  the 
judgment-seat  in  the  Pavement.^  Here 
he  commences  his  public  trial 

Matt,  xxvii.  11-14 ;  Mark  xv.  2-5,  Luke  xxiii.  2-5. 

Galilee  having  been  mentioned  in  the 
course  of  the  trial,  Pilate  sends  Jesus 
across  the  bridge  to  Herod's'^  palace. 
Herod  sends  Jesus  back  again       .        .    Luke  xxiii.  6-12. 

Jesus  is  again  presented  to  the  people      .    John  xix.  14, 15. 

A  fifth  and  sixth  time  Pilate  vainly  inter- 
cedes for  the  release  of  Jesus 

Matt,  xxvii.  15-18  j  Mark  xv.  6-10 ;  Luke  xxiii.  13-17. 

Pilate's  wife  2  sends  him  a  message  not  to 

condemn  Jesus Matt,  xxvii.  19, 20. 

»  Probably  a  movable  piece  of  tesselated  work,  on  whteh  tlie  Bema,  or  official  chair 
of  judgment,  was  placed.    See  Judgment  Seat,  Sect.  4. 

»  This  Herod  was  Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  the  murderer  of  John  the 
Baptist. 

*  Traditionally  said  to  have  been  named  Procla. 


110       ESSENTIALS  OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

A  clamour  for  Barabbas  begins.     Pilate 
makes  a  final  intercession  on  bebalf  of 
Jesus  ...... 

Matt,  xxvii.  21,  23  ;  Mark  xv.  11-14 ;  Luke  xxiii.  18-23. 
Pilate  finally  delivers  Jesus  to  be  crucified 

Matt.  xxYii.  24-26;  Mark  xv.  15  ;  Luke  xxiii.  23-25  ; 
John  xix.  16. 

64.  Jesus  is    IMCocked  and   led   away  to  be  Crucified. — 

The  punishment  of  crucifixion   was  not  inflicted  upon  Roman 

„  ,         ..  citizens.     It  vp-as  preceded  by  severe  scourffine-,  and 

Matt.  xxvu.  x-u       ir     ri       1,    J  r  i,-  x     xi,       i 

27-32.  the  onender  had  to  carry  his  own  cross  to  the  place 

LukJSii.^'^^*    of  punishment.     Full  details  of  the  punishment  are 

26-31.  given  under  Cross  in  Section  4.     None  of  the  usual 

John  XIX.  16.        °         .         ,  _  .  ,  .  ,  , 

torturing  additions  to  the  punishment  were  spared 

in  our  Saviour's  case.  He  was  further  insulted  by  having  a  scarlet 
(or  purple  ?)  robe  and  a  crown  of  thorns  placed  upon  him,  in 
mockery.  Finally,  leading  him  out  to  execution,  they  found  him 
unable,  probably  from  exhaustion,  to  bear  his  own  cross,  and  com- 
pelled one  '  Simon,  a  Cyrenian,  the  father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus,' 
whom  they  found  accidentally  on  his  road  into  the  city  from  the 
country,  to  bear  it  for  him.  As  might  be  expected,  a  vast  number 
of  persons  attended  the  terrible  procession,  and  amongst  them  many 
women,  weeping.  To  them  our  Lord  turned  himself,  and  uttered 
these  solemn  words,  '  Daughters  of  Jerusalem,  weep  not  for  me, 
but  weep  for  yourselves  and  your  children ;  for  behold,  the  days 
are  coming  in  which  they  shall  say.  Blessed  are  the  barren,  and 
the  wombs  which  never  bare,  and  the  paps  which  never  gave  suck. 
Then  shall  they  begin  to  say  to  the  mountains,  Fall  on  us,  and  to 
the  hills,  Cover  us.  For  if  they  do  these  things  in  the  green  tree, 
what  shall  be  done  in  the  dry  ?  ' 

65.  Crucifixion  and  Seatli  of  our  Saviour. — The  appointed 
place  of  crucifixion  was  Calvary,  or  Golgotha,  a  spot  entirely  un- 
Matt.  xxvii  identified.      Neither  can  the  time   at  which   the 

33-56.  crucifixion  commenced  be  exactly  settled.     Mark 

Mark  XV.  22-41.  ,  _,^.     .  ,        ^  ^         -,  .    -,    ^ 

Luke  xxiii.  32-49.  says  (xv.  25)  it  took  place  at  the  third  hour,  i.e. 
John  xix.  17-37.    q  ^^^  .  j^-^^^  ^^^^  p-j^^^  ^^^^  sentence  about  the 

sixth  hour  (xix.  14),  which  would  be  12  noon.  Ellicot  suggests 
(and  Hengstenberg  supports  this  suggestion  by  the  argument  that 
the  Jewish  day  was  roughly  divided,  like  the  night,  into  four 
parts)  that  the  period  between  9  a.m.  and  noon  might  be  indifier- 
ently  called  either  the  third  or  the  sixth  hour,  as  the  writer 


CEUCrFIXION  AND  DEATH  OF  OUE  SAVIOUR.      Ill 

considered  the  nearer  or  farther  limit.  Probably  the  crucifixion 
actually  commenced  about  11  a.m.  With  our  Saviour,  two  robbers, 
possibly  followers  of  Barabbas,  were  also  crucified.  The  garments 
of  our  Lord  were  parted,  as  usual,  amongst  his  executioners,  but  in 
fulfilment  of  Ps.  xxii.  18,  his  outer  robe,  which  was  woven  in  one 
piece,  was  cast  lots  for.  Above  his  head  was  an  inscription  in 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew,  written  by  Pilate.  Each  evangelist 
gives  it  in  different  words  ;  thus : — 

Matthew       .     This  is  Jesus,  the  King  of  the  Jews. 

Mark     .         .     The  King  of  the  Jews. 

Luke     .        .    This  is  the  King  of  the  Jews. 

John     .        .     Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  King  of  the  Jews. 

Here  it  is  observable  that  the  titles  given  by  Matthew,  Mark,  and 
Luke  are  identical  as  regards  the  last  words,  and  that  John's  only 
differs  by  the  insertion  of  the  words  ^the  Nazarene'  after  '  Jesus.' 
It  is  further  stated  by  John  that  the  priests  complained  to  Pilate 
of  this  superscription,  and  desired  him  to  alter  it,  to  which  request 
he  answered,  '  What  I  have  written,  I  have  wiitten.'  It  is  pos- 
sible, however,  that  an  alteration  was  made  by  the  erasure  of  the 
word  *  Nazarene,'  and  that  the  final  title  stood  thus — 
ovrog  kariv  'Irjaovg 
6  BaaiXtvg  tSjv  'lovSaiojVj 

of  which  Mark  and  Luke  only  preserved  the  last  line.  A  difficulty 
has  been  further  raised  as  to  the  two  thieves.  Matthew  and  Mark 
seem  to  make  them  both  to  revile  Jesus,  Luke  speaks  of  one 
reviling  and  one  penitent.  But  we  may  easily  suppose  that  either 
one  repented,  or  else  Matthew  and  Mark  are  mentioning  a  general 
fact,  and  use,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  plural  for  the  singular. 
That  one  of  the  thieves  did  repent,  and  ask  to  be  received  into  our 
Lord's  kingdom,  is,  at  such  a  time,  a  most  remarkable  incident,  and 
the  gracious  answer  of  our  Lord,  '  To-day  shalt  thou  be  with  me 
in  Paradise,'  has  at  all  times  been  a  consolation  to  despairing  souls. 
Our  Lord  uttered  seven   Last   Words, ^   and  during  the   pro- 

*  (1)  'Father,  forgive  them,  for  th^  know  not  what  they  do,'  Luke  xxiii.  34. 
(2)  '  Verily,  I  say  nnto  thee,  to-day  shalt  thou  be  with  me  in  Paradise,'  Luke  xxiii. 
43.  (3) '  Woman,  behold  thy  Son  ;  Son,  behold  thy  mother,'  John  xix.  26, 27.  (4) '  Eli, 
Eli,  lama  sabacthani?'  Matt,  xxr^'ii.  46,  Mark  xv.  34,  from  Ps.  xxii.  1.  (5)  'I 
thirst,' John  xix.  28.  (6)  '  It  is  finished,' John  xix.  28.  (7)  '  Father,  into  thy  hands 
I  commend  my  spirit,'  Luke  xxiii.  46.  EUicott  says,  on  this  point,  '  We  must  cer- 
tainly maintain  that  the  words  of  Ps.  xxii.  were  not,  as  asserted  by  Milman  (Hist,  of 
Christianity,  toI.  i.  p.  364),  our  Lord's  "last  words,"  it  being  perfectly  clear  from  St. 
Matthew  that  after  "Eli,  Eli,"  our  Lord  uttered  at  least  another  cry  (xxvii.  50). 
The  received  opinion  seems  undoubtedly  the  right  one,  according  to  which  the  sixth 


112       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

gress  of  the  execution  was  twice  offered  an  intoxicating 
draught.^ 

At  the  foot  of  the  cross  stood  our  Lord's  mother,  his  mother's 
sister,  Mary  the  wife  of  Cleopas,  and  Mary  Magdalene.  The 
apostle  John  was  also  there,  for  our  Lord,  seeing  him,  delivered 
his  mother  into  his  charge,  and  we  read  that  ^  from  that  hour  that 
disciple  took  her  to  his  own  home.' 

At  the  sixth  hour  (i.e.  noon)  darkness  began  to  overspread  the 
land,  and  at  the  ninth  hour,  having  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  our 
Saviour  yielded  up  his  spirit.^  That  he  died  so  quickly,  not  from 
the  effects  of  the  crucifixion,  but  from  anguish  of  soul  and  exhaus- 
tion,^ is  evident  from  several  reasons.  Crucifixion  does  not  destroy 
life  at  once,  but  produces  a  lingering  death,  as  is,  indeed,  clear  from 
the  case  of  the  thieves,  who  remained  still  alive  after  our  Lord's 
death.  Further,  the  Jews  were  anxious  that  the  bodies  should  not 
be  left  on  the  cross  on  the  next  day,  which  was  a  specially  solemn 
sabbath,  and  they  therefore  requested  that  the  criminals  might  be 
killed  (as  was  not  uncommon)  by  having  their  legs  broken  as  they 
hung  on  the  cross.  Accordingly,  soldiers  were  sent  to  perform  this 
fearful  duty,  and  coming,  found  our  Saviour  dead.  One  of  the 
soldiers,  however,  apparently  fearful  lest  the  death  was  feigned, 
pierced  his  sacred  side,  '  and  forthwith  came  there  out  blood  and 
water,' — the  necessary  result  if  the  heart  had  been  ru^jtured.* 

The  scene  of  our  Saviour's  death,  and  its  attendant  circumstances, 
affected  even  the  Roman  centurion  in  charge  of  the  execution. 
Astonished  at  what  he  saw,  he  exclaimed,  '  Truly  this  was  a 
righteous  man ! '  and  again,  '  Truly  this  was  (a)  Son  of  God  ! ' 
Preternatural  circumstances  also  occurred.  Bodies  arose  from  the 
graves,  and,  entering  into  Jerusalem,  appeared  to  many,  and  the 
veil  which  divided  the  Holy  Place  in  the  Temple  from  the  Most 
Holy  was  rent  in  twain  from  the  top  to  the  bottom. 

66.  Burial  of  Jesus. — Nicodemus,  who  had  come  to  Jesus  by 

word  from  the  cross  was  "  It  is  fimshed,"  John  xix.  30,  the  last  words,  *  Father,  into 
thy  hands  I  commend  my  spirit "  (compare.  He  gave  up  the  ghost,  John  xix.  30)  as 
recorded  by  St.  Luke  (xxiii.  46).' 

'  See  under  Wine,  in  Section  4. 

'^  It  is  noticeable  that  our  Saviour  is  not  stated  by  any  evangelist  to  have  '  died. 
Matthew  says, '  yielded  up  the  ghost ' ;  Mark,  Luke,  and  John  say,  '  gave  up  the 
ghost.'  (In  the  Greek— Matthew,  a(i>rJKe  to  rrvsvixa  ;  Mark  and  Luke,  e^eni'evaev ; 
John,  napiSooKs  to  TrvfVfi.a.) 

^  Yet  onr  Lord,  at  the  moment  of  death,  '  cried  with  a  loud  voice.' 

*  See  Dr.  Stroud,  on  The  Physical  Causes  of  our  Lord's  Death  :— '  It  should  be  further 
noticed  that  two  prophecies — "  They  shall  look  on  Him  whom  they  pierced  " 
(Ps.  xxii.  16),  and  "A  bone  of  Him  shall  not  be  broken"  (Ps.  xxxiv.  20) — were  at 
the  same  time  fulfilled  in  this  way.' 


BURIAL  OF  JESUS.  113 

night,  and  Joseph  of  Arimathaea  (not  hitherto  mentioned)  now 
went  to  Pilate,  and  begged  the  body  of  Jesus.  ^^^^  ^^^ 
Ordinarily  the  bodies  of  criminals  were  left  to  rot  57-^6. 
or  be  devoured  by  animals  and  birds,  but  Pilate  Lukexxiiif^'' 
granted  the  request;  and  haying  taken  down  the  j^^^^/.  3g_^ 
body  from  the  cross,  they  wrapped  it  in  spices  and 
laid  it  in  a  new  tomb,  belonging  to  Joseph,  and  situated  in  a  garden 
near  to  Calvary.  That  it  should  be  a  new  tomb  is  not  unimport- 
ant, as  it  is  clear  that  the  body  which  came  forth  was  the  body 
that  went  in.  This  mode  of  burial  was  rendered  necessary  because 
of  the  nearness  of  the  Sabbath,  and  was  only  intended  to  be 
temporary.  Nor  were  the  friends  of  Jesus  the  only  persons 
interested.  A  deputation  from  the  priests  remembered  our  Lord's 
saying  respecting  rising  again,  and,  going  to  Pilate,  obtained  a 
guard  of  soldiers,  whom  they  set  at  the  sepulchre,  sealing  the  stone 
also  as  a  further  precaution.  Some  commentators  think  that  this 
was  not  done  until  Saturday  morning,  but  this  seems  improbable, 
as  the  unguarded  condition  of  the  tomb  on  Friday  night  would 
have  been  a  far  better  argument  than  to  plead  the  sleeping  of  the 
guard,  which  was  advanced  afterwards  as  an  explanation  of  the 
disappearance  of  our  Lord's  body. 

67.  Resurrection    of  our   Iiord. — The  next   day  being    the 
Sabbath,  all  persons  rested  '  according  to  the  commandment,'  but 
on  the  first  day  of  the  next  week  the  women  who  -^^^^  xxviii. 
followed  Jesus  went  early  to  the  sepulchre  and  found     i-^5. 
it  empty.      Very  considerable    difiiculties   arise    in  Luke xxiv.  1-11! 
making  out  a  connected  account  of  the  exact  order  ^"'^  ^'  ^~-^^- 
of  proceedings.     But  subjoined  is  a  scheme   derived   from   Dr. 
Benson's  '  Life  of  Christ,'  which  seems  to  answer  all  difficulties. 

1.  Early  in  the  morning,  just  at  sunrise,  and  while  it  is  yet  dark, 

on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  and  on  the  third  day  from  his 
death,  Jesus  is  raised.  His  resurrection  is  attended  by  an 
earthquake,  and  an  angel  descends,  who  rolls  away  the 
large  stone  ^  which  covers  the  mouth  of  the  sepulchre. 

2.  The  guards,  at  first  too  terrified  to  move,  after  a  short  time 

get  up  and  flee  into  the  city. 

3.  Early  in  the  dawn,  while  it  is  yet  dark,  Mary  Magdalen, 

'  Such  stones  were  often  shaped  like  millstones,  and  rolled  in  a  groove  sideways, 
so  as  to  cover  the  entrance  to  tombs.  (See  Funeral  Rite.i,  in  Section  4,  and  Para- 
graph 46  in  this  Section.)  It  must  be  remembered  that  our  Saviour  did  not  rise 
from  a  tomb  dug  in  the  earth,  but  probably  issued  from  one  excavated  out  of  the 
side  of  a  rock. 

I 


114       ESSENTIALS  OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Mary  the  motlier  of  James,  Salome,  Joanna  and  others, 
come  to  the  sepulchre,  bringing  sweet  spices  to  complete 
the  anointing  more  systematically,  and  find  the  stone  rolled 
away  and  the  sepulchre  empty. 

4.  Mary  Magdalene  leaves  the  sepulchre  immediately  and  hy 
herself,  and  departs  to  tell  Peter  and  John. 

6.  The  other  women  continue  at  the  sepulchre,  and  see  two 
angels.     One  of  them  says,  '  Be  not  afraid,'  &c. 

6.  The  women  hearing  this,  go  back  to  Jerusalem  and  tell  the 

disciples,  who  are  assembled  elsewhere.  When  the  disciples 
hear  they  do  not  believe. 

7.  Peter  and  John,  accompanied  by  Mary  Magdalen,  at  once  set 

off  for  the  sepulchre.  Being  fresher  and  stronger,  they 
come  before  her  to  the  sepulchre,  John  being  the  foremost. 
The  angela  are  vanished.^  Peter  enters  first ;  John  follows 
him,  and  sees  the  tomb  empty  and  the  line<n  clothes  lying. 
They  believe  that  their  Lord  is  risen,  and  depart  to  tell 
the  others. 

8.  Mary  Magdalen  now  comes  up,  just  as  Peter  and  John  are 

leaving.  She  stays  by  the  sepulchre ;  after  they  are  gone 
she  looks  in  and  sees  two  angels.  One  of  them  says  to  her, 
'■  Woman,'  &c.  She  says,  '  Because  they  have  taken 
away,'  &c.  Then  she  turns  round  and  sees  Jesus,  but  at 
first  supposes  him  to  be  the  gardener. 

9.  Mary  Magdalen,  being  undeceived,  goes  to  the  disciples,  but 

they  believe  her  not. 

10.  After  Mary  Magdalen  has  left  the  sepulchre,  the  other  women 

come,  and  also  see  Jesus. 

11.  The  soldiers,  recovering  their  presence  of  mind,   go  and  tell 

the  Pharisees. 

Observe  here,  that  Mark  expressly  says  (xvi.  9)  that  Jesus 
appeared  Jlrst  to  IMary  Magdalen.  Now  St.  John  bears  this  out, 
for  when  he  describes  the  interview,  it  is  evident  that  only  Jesus 
and  Mary  Magdalen  were  present  at  it.  And  Luke  also  bears  it 
out,  for  the  disciples  going  to  Emmaus  expressly  stated  that  the 
women  ^  had  seen  a  vision  of  angels  which  said  that  he  was  alive.' 
The  women  had  therefore  made  a  statement  to  the  disciples  which 
was  not  possible  if  they  had  seen  Jesus  at  the  first  visit. 

^  We  know  so  little  of  the  nature  of  angelic  appearances,  that  speculation  as  to 
reasons  why  angels  should  at  one  time  be  visible  and  another  invisible,  seems  almost 

useless. 


KESURRECTION  OF   OUR  LORD. 


115 


This  arrangement  is  tabulated  in  the  subjoined  form^  and  it  there 
appears  that,  with  the  exception  of  transposing  appearances  three 
and  one  by  Matthew,  each  evangelist  relates  the  events  actually  in 
chronological  order. 


Matthew  xxviii. 

Mark  svi. 

Luke  xxiv. 

John  xx. 

No.  of 

No.  of 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Verse 

Appearance 
in  the 

Verse 

Appearance 
in  the 

Verse 

Apoearance 
in  the 

Verse 

Appearance 
in  the 

Scheme 

Scheme 

Scheme 

Scheme 

1 

3 

2-3 

1 

1-4 

3 

1-3 

3 

1 

3 

3-7 

5 

5-7 

5 

4-7 

5 

2 

4 

8 

6 

8 

6 

8-11 

6 

3-10 

7 

9 

10 

9 

8 

12 

7 

11-17 

& 

11-15 

1 

11 

10-11 

9 

— 

— 

18 

9 

68.  Jesus  appears  to  two  disciples  grolng^  to  Emmaus  and 
others. — The  next  recorded  appearance  of  our  Lord  occurred  to 
two  disciples,  towards  evening  of  the  same  first  day  -^^^^  xxviii  16 
of  the  week.  They  were  on  the  road  to  Emmaus,  an  Mark  xvi.  12-14. 
unidentified  village  about  seven  and  a-half  miles  from  13-43. 
Jerusalem.  One  of  these  was  named  Cleophas,  the ''^°^^^' ■^"■^^' 
other  is  not  known.  As  they  were  conversing  together,  a  wayfarer 
joined  them  and  after  much  instructive  conversation  as  to  the  nature 
of  scriptural  teaching  with  respect  to  the  Messias,  they  requested 
him  to  remain  with  them  for  the  night.  He  consented  to  do  so ; 
then,  as  they  were  about  to  commence  their  evening  meal,  he  be- 
came suddenly  known  as  the  Lord,  and  vanished  out  of  their  sight. ^ 
Surprised  and  delighted,  they  immediately  returned  to  Jerusalem, 
and  there  found  the  eleven,^  gathered  together  (probably  at  sup- 
per) in  an  upper-room,  which  may  have  been  the  same  as  the  late 
paschal-supper  chamber,  and  the  doors  of  which  were  shut  for 
fear  of  the  Jews.  To  them  they  related  their  story,  but  '  they  be- 
lieved not ;' even  though  they  themselves  had  to  relate  that  the 
Lord  had  appeared  to  Simon  (Luke  xxiv.  34 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  5). 
Suddenly,  as  they  talked,  the  Lord  himself  stood  amongst  them. 
In  one  gospel  we  read  that  he  '  upbraided  them  with  their  unbelief 
and  hardness  of  heart'  (Mark  xvi.   14),  but  the  visit  was  not 

^  It  has  been  beautifully  suggested  that  our  Lord  became  known  to  these  disciples 
by  the  wounds  on  his  hands  becoming  visible  as  be  stretched  them  forth  to  take  the 
bread.  The  words  of  Luke  are,  '  As  He  sat  at  meat,  He  took  bread,  and  blessed 
(i.e.  gave  thanks),  and  brake  and  gave  it  to  them.    And  their  eyes  were  opened.' 

*  Eeally  only  ten.    In  1  Cor.  xv.  5,  they  are  caUed  by  the  official  name,  The  Twelve. 

i2 


116       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

intended  to  be  only  a  visit  of  reproof.  As  He  entered,  He  said, 
'  Peace  be  unto  you ' ;  then  graciously  showed  them  his  hands  and 
his  side,  and  breathing  on  them,  He  communicated  to  them  the 
Holy  Spirit.  1 

One  of  the  eleven,  Thomas,  called  Didymus  (or  the  twin),  was 
not  present  at  this  meeting,  and  either  from  a  sceptical  habit  of 
mind,  or  from  desponding  feelings,  declared  not  only  that  he 
did  not  credit  the  story,  but  that  he  would  not  credit  it,  unless  he 
should  himself  touch  the  wounds  of  his  master.  For  his  special 
instruction  our  Lord  again  appeared.  Again  the  eleven  were 
assembled,  '■  after  eight  days  '  (John  xx.  26). ^  Again  the  Lord, 
although  the  doors  were  shut,  appeared  in  the  midst  of  them,  and 
invited  Thomas  to  put  his  hand  on  the  nail  and  spear  marks  on  his 
sacred  body.  But  this  now  appeared  to  be  unnecessary,  and 
Thomas'  only  reply  was  to  say  '■  My  Lord  and  my  God.' 

69.  Jesus  appears  twice  in  G-alilee,  and  also  to  James. 
— After  this,  the  disciples  appear  to  have  left  Jerusalem  ^  and  re- 
turned to  their  usual  occupation  in  Galilee.     Here  a 

Matt.xxTiu.16.       ,  i-  It,         •  T  ^     1       1 

icor.  XV.  6.  solemn  re-appearance  oi  the  risen  Jesus  took  place. 
John  XXI.  1-28.  rpj^^  eleven  apostles  and  five  hundred  disciples,  being 
gathered  together  on  some  unnamed  mountain,  were  privileged  to 
see  their  master  again,  and  St.  Paul  declares  that  many  of  these 
brethren  lived  long  afterwards  and  testified  of  the  fact.  A  more 
private  appearance  occurred  shortly  after  to  Peter,  John,  and  five 
other  disciples  at  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Early  in  the  morning,  as 
they  returned  from  an  unsuccessful  voyage  on  the  lake,  they  di-ew 
near  to  land,  and  saw  a  stranger  on  the  beach.  He  inquired  as  to 
whether  they  had  any  food,  and  received  a  negative  reply.  Then 
he  said,  '  Cast  the  net  on  the  right  side  of  the  ship.'  *  This 
accordingly  they  did,  and  at  once  enclosed  a  vast  multitude  of 

'  This  may  only  have  been  symbolical  and  prophetic  of  the  future  Pentecostal 
outpouring,  as  the  baptism  with  water  was  then  typical  of  baptism  with  the  Spirit. 

'  Most  commentators  agree  that  this  day  was  again  the  first  day  of  the  week,  and 
that  our  Lord  appeared  again  on  that  day  to  do  honour  to  the  day  of  his  resur- 
rection.    (See  Sabbath,  in  Section  4.) 

^  The  changes  of  locality  in  the  several  appearances  of  our  Lord  are  very  natural. 
The  disciples  were  gathered  first  at  Jerusalem  in  order  to  keep  the  passover,  and 
shortly  afterwards  they  naturally  departed  to  Galilee,  their  own  home.  Again,  they 
would  go  up  to  Jerusalem  for  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  or  Pentecost,  and  there  accordingly 
we  find  them  at  the  Ascension,  ten  days  before  that  feast. 

*  A  persou  standing  on  the  beach,  and  seeing  the  water  at  a  less  direct  angle,  can 
often  detect  a  shoal  of  fish,  which  is  not  seen  by  the  fishermen  directly  over  it. 
Hence,  the  disciples  did  not  necessarily  attribute  any  supernatiiral  character  to  the 
stranger's  advice,  and  probably  saw  him  very  indistinctly  in  the  dusk.  In  his  other 
words  there  was  nothing  to  excite  attention,  no  enquiry  being  more  natural  than  to 
ask  persons  who_are  fishing  whether  they  have  caught  anything. 


JESUS  APPEAES  IN  GALILEE.  AND   TO  JAMES.    117 

fishes.  Some  suspicion  as  to  the  identity  of  this  stranger  may  have 
before  occurred  to  them,  but  now  John  recognised  him,  and  said, 
( It  is  the  Lord.'  Peter  on  this  cast  himself  into  the  sea  and  waded 
to  land,  while  the  others  followed  in  the  little  boat  belonging  to 
the  ship,  and  bringing  the  net  with  them.  In  the  interview  which 
now  followed,  our  Lord  first  demonstrated  the  reality  of  his 
appearance  by  partaking  of  the  fish  which  had  been  caught,^  and 
then  entered  into  a  deeply  interesting  conversation  with  Simon 
Peter,  to  whom,  on  his  reiterated  assertions  of  love,'^  he  com- 
mitted the  shepherding  of  his  flock,  and  whose  death  by  cruci- 
fixion he  prophesied.  Of  John's  future  he  refused  to  speak,  even 
though  interrogated  by  Peter,  only  saying  '  If  I  will  that  he  tarry 
till  I  come,^  what  is  that  to  thee  ?  ' 

After  this  our  Lord  also  appeared  to  James  (1  Cor.  xv.  7),  but 
no  particulars  are  given  of  this  appearance. 

70.  Jesus  ascends  Into  Heaven. — One  other  interview  was 
permitted  to  the  disciples.     Again  they  were  at  Jerusalem,  prob 
ably  for  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  and  again  our  Lord  Mark  xvi.  15-20. 
appeared  to  them.      On  this  occasion  He  seems  to  ""^^^s™^* 
have  given  them  much  instruction  as  to  the  meaning  ^cts  i.  4-i2. 
of  the  prophetic  Scriptures,  the  functions  and  duties  of  the  future 
church,  the  speedy  coming  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  their  own  duties 
as  evangelists  of  his  gospel.     Finally,  He  led  them  out  from  the 
city  to  the  neighbouring  Mount  of  Olives,  and  with  them,  probably 
conversing  as  they  went,  ascended  the  road  to  Bethany.     Then,  as 
they  came  to  the  summit  of  the  hill.  He  was  parted  from  them,  and 
went  up  into  heaven,  and  a  cloud  received  Him  out  of  their  sight. 

^  And  while  they  looked  steadfastly  toward  heaven  as  He  went 
up,  behold,  two  men  stood  by  them  in  white  apparel ;  which  also 
said,  "Ye  men  of  Galilee,  why  stand  ye  gazing  up  into  heaven  ? 
this  same  Jesus,  which  is  taken  up  from  you  into  heaven,  shall  so 
come  in  like  manner  as  ye  have  seen  him  go  into  heaven." ' 
'Even  so:  Come,  Lord  Jesus.' 

•  The  number  being  153.  Many  commentators  have  endearoured,  but  without 
much  success,  to  show  that  this  number  has  some  mystical  meaning.  Probably  our 
Lord  only  intended  to  show  that  the  number  of  his  people  is  definite  and  known  to  him. 

'  Attention  should  be  called  to  the  phraseology  employed.  In  the  thrice-repeated 
question,  'Lovest  thou  me?'  our  Lord  uses— 1.  dyanav;  2.  dyanav;  3.  <}>i.\e~iv. 
In  Simon  Peter's  answer,  Peter  uses— 1.  (^jtAeti/ ;  2.  (f>t\e2v ;  3.  ^iKtlv.  <E>tAeti/  is  a 
stronger  and  more  personal  term  than  dyanav.  Hence  Peter  at  once  uses  the  stronger 
term,  and  our  Lord  at  last  assents  to  it.  Again,  in  '  Feed  my  lambs,'  or  '  sheep,'  our 
Lord  uses— 1.  Bdo-Ke  =  provide  food  for  ;  2.  Uotjaaive  =  shepherd  ;  3.  Boo-xe.  Much 
instruction  may  be  derived  from  comparing  the  commissions  given  to  Peter,  origi- 
nally as  a  Fisher,  and  now  as  a  Shepherd. 

'  See  page  19,  in  Life  of  St.  John. 


118        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


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CHRONOLOaiCAL  SUMMAKY   OF   GOSPEL  HISTORY.     119 


(N         CO  lO  -^ 

O        i-(  o  o 
1—1         O*  TO  -^ 


1   .:a 


g  ill  ^^^ 

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ft  33  23  .   P-i    *  c  ."S  « 


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s 
,  2  a 


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iaS' 


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C0J2  M-ijt-5'^3  tcO« 
1-3         1-3  t-3 


r<    to    CO  ,d 


Ft  .a 


o 

o 

a"is, 


rt  b-23 


tta2 


3   CO   g   2^ 
1-3         1-3 


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CO  'e3 

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3         O  .a 

3  ^  S  " 

c3  ^   3   =*  S 
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120       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 


'U    ^7^' 


>    W 


3  7 


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5  S  .2  .to  if 


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CHEONOLOGICAL  SUTOIAEY  OF  GOSPEL  HISTOEY.     121 


§2 


OC  QO 


t-  rH  O 


I  i-l      I 


CO  h  ■*  tH  rtH  o 
"x  «  V.  'X  X  X 


.a    .;o  in    us «?  -n  es 


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go 


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122        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


(M      in 


.a   .a 


.a  • 


7t   t 


3  2 


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CHEONOLOGICAL  SUMMARY   OF   GOSPEL  HISTORY.      123 


«D         CO 
ir>         T^         lO 


«         '3    « 


I  O         1-1 

S    T    ti 


O  c3 

II 


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124       ESSENTIALS  OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


1"? 

CO  tH 


00  •>* 
<M  CO 

o  o> 


(MOO 
T-H         >-l         C< 


CO      ;::; 


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CHEONOLOGICAL  SUMMAEY  OF  GOSPEL  HISTORY.      125 


eo  CO  TtH    r 


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|lZOog 

1-3         < 


Jerusaleu 
Ditto, 

Tlic     snpi 

Ditto . 
Ditto. 

Ditto . 

3dnesday, 
April  5 

lursday, 
April  6 

lursday 
evening 

p    ft 


p    p 


126        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


-■n 
«  « 


CO  s^ 


^5 


If 


•II 


CO 


aj    .  a;  CO  _,    . 

SI  ^3  sa 


CO  o  a 

<D    S    0)    >»  ^ 
«     03    rj  ■""    d 


3    TO    p 


-     •^' 


O^        ^ 


S  cc  o 
O   cc  ^ 

o  b  to 


WPh 


S'S  CO  gS 

S  oj  CO  g*; 
oi  o  oj  ^  S 


■^ 


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2  ft 
o  I 


O)   f2  Ti   O   CD   cs     p 
P    O    f-l    Je    CO  r-t      <M 

H      Ph      »^ 


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be  i: 

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t-  00         (31  O 


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S  (>  -g  S  p. 


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CHRONOLOGY   OF  THE  ACTS. 


127 


2.  Chronology  of  the  Acts. 


A.D. 
30 

Emperors  of  Rome 

Events  in  Palestine 

Sacred  History- 

Tiberius    . 

Pontius  Pilate  Procu- 

Ascension of  our  Lord, 

rator 

and  outpouring  of 
the  Holy  Spirit 

36 

MarceUus  Procurator 

Martyrdom  of  Stephen. 
Conversion  of  Saul 

87 

Caligula   . 

Maryllus     appointed 
Hipparch 

39 

. 

Saul  escapes  from  Da- 

mascus,    and    visits 

Jerusalem 

40 

Herod     Agrippa     I. 
King  of  Judcea  and 
Samaria 

41 

Claudius   . 

Peter  visits  Cornelius. 

44 

Herod  Agrippa  I.  dies 

James  beheaded  and 
Peter  imprisoned. 
Barnabas  and  Saul 
visit  Jerusalem,  with 
alms  from  the  Church 
at  Antioch 

45 

Cuspius  Fadus  Pro- 
curator 

46 



Tiberius    Alexander 
Procurator 

47 



Yentidius    Cumanus 
Procurator 

48 

Paul  and  Barnabas  set 
apart  as  apostles. 
They  commence  their 
first"  missionary  jour- 
ney 

49 

Herod    Agrippa    II. 

Eang  of  Chalcis 

50 



«... 

Paul's  second  visit  to 
Jerusalem.  Council 
at  Jerusalem 

51 

Antonius  Felix  Pro- 

Paul   commences    his 

curator 

second  missionary 
journey 

52 

Decree    of   Claudius 
banishes    all    Jews 
from  Eome 

54 

Xero 

Eevolt  headed  by  an 

Paul's  third  missionar}' 

Egyptian 

journey  begins 

58 

Paul  arrested  at  Jeru- 
salem and  imprisoned 
at  Cjesarea 

60 

Porcius  Festus  Pro- 

Paul     before    Festiis 

curator 

appeals  to  Caesar 

61 

Embassy  from  Jeru- 

Paid arrives  in  Eome. 

salem  to  Bome 

Epistle  of  James  ( .=) 

63 

Albinus  Procurator 

128       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


A.I). 

Emperors  of  Eome 

Events  in  Palestine 

Sacred  History 

64 

67 

68 
69 

70 

79 
91 

95 

First  Roman  persecu- 
tion, in  consequence 
of  a  great  fire   at 
Rome 

Galba 

Otho,   Yitellius    and 
Vespasian 

Titus 

Domitian.        Second 
persecution 

Gessius  Florus   Pro- 
curator. Bej:2;inning 
of  the  Jewish  war 

Vespasian  General  in 
Palestine 

Destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Titus 

Epistles  of  Jude  and 
Peter  (?) 

Martyrdom  of  Paul  (?) 

John  writes  his  Gospel, 
Epistle,  and  Revela- 
tion (?) 

A  cubit 


3.  Tables  of  Weight  and  Measurt 
a.  Length. 


Miles.    Paces.    Feet. 
.    0  0      1-824. 


400 

Stadium  or  furlong    .... 

2,000 

5 

Sabbath-day' 

s journey 

4,000 

10 

2 

Mile       , 

0      145      4-6 

0  729      3-0 

1  403       1-0 


j8.  Liquid  Measure. 

Galls.  Pints. 
Caph 0    0-625 


n 


16 


32 


96 


960 


log "  .        .        .0  0-833 

cab 0  3-333 

12           3       bin 12 

24           6           2       seah 2  4 

18           6           3      bath  (/^aro?)      ...  7  4 

30      "hT    I  corns     homer,!  ^^  ^ 
I     or  chomer     ' 


(20 


180 


60 


TABLES  OF  WEIGHT  AND  MEASURE. 


129 


y.  Dry  Measure. 


Gachal 


29 


120 


360 


1,800 


,600 


cab 


1-8  '  omer  or  gomer 
seah 


18 


90 


10 


50 


180 


100 


15 


30 


ephah 


10 


leteeh 


Pecks.  Galls.  Pinte. 
0      0      0-1416 

0 

0 

1 

3 

16 


2-8333 

5-1 

1 

3 

0 


|chonier,ho-)3Q      ^ 
t  mer,orcorus  J 


Gerah 


c?.    Weight. 


10 

beka     . 

shekel    . 

20 

2 

• 

1,200 

120 

60 

maneh    . 

60,000 

6,000 

3,000 

50 

talent 


Troy.    lb.    oz.    dwt.    gr. 
0       0       0     10-38 


0  0  0  13-5 

0  0  9       3 

2  3  7  12 

lU  0  15      0 


Gerah 


10 


20 


1,000 


60,000 


beka 


100 


,000 


f.  Money. 


shekel 


50 


3,000 


A  talent  of  srold 


maneh  . 


60 


talent 


£  s.        d. 

0  0  1-2687 

0  1  1-6875 

0  2  3-575 

5  14  0-75 

312  3  9 

5,475  0  0 


130        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


Z.  Greek  and  Roman  Money. 

Mite  (Xen-ToV),  Mark  xii.  42 , 

farthing  (/coSpai/TTj?) 

as  (aVo-apioi'),  Matt.  x.  29  . 


40 


160 


I     8,000  ■     4,000 


10 !  penny  {hnivapLov) 


20' 


1,000  i     100 


[480,000  j240,000  |60,000  ;  6,000 


didrachm,  Matt.  xvii.  24 

stater,  Matt.  xvii.  27         , 
Attic  rcina 
m    I  Attic  talent 


50 


3,000 


1,500 


Roman  libra  or  pound 


£  s.  d. 

0  0  0^ 

0  0  Oi^6 

0  0  O^i- 

0  0  73 

0  1  3^ 

0  2  7 

3  4  7 

193  15  0 

3  2  6 


Other  Measures. 


Sextarius  (le'arrjs),  Matt.  vii.  4,  '  pot '  . 
Choenix  (xotV t^),  Rev.  vi.  6,  '  measures ' 
Metretes  (jueTpijrvjs),  John  ii.  6,  '  firkin  '  =  bath 


I5  pint 

n  „ 

7i  galls. 


1].   Time. 
Jewish  Months  arranged  in  order  of  the  Sacred  Year. 


Order 
in  the 
Civil 
Year 

Hebrew  Names 

Syro-Macedonian 
Names,  as  used  by 

Roman  Names 

Josephus 

7 

Nisan  or  Abib 

Xanthicus      . 

March  and  April 

8 

Zif  or  lyar    . 

Artemisius     . 

April  and  May 

9 

Sivan     . 

DiKsius  . 

May  and  June 

10 

Tammuz 

Panemus 

June  and  July 

11 

Ab          .         .         . 

Lous 

Jtily  and  August 

12 

Elul       . 

Gorpiaeus 

August  and  September 

1 

Tisri  or  Ethanim  . 

HyperberetEeus 

September  and  October 

2 

Marchesvan  or  Bui 

Dius       . 

October  and  November 

3 

Chisleu  . 

Apellseus 

November  and  December 

4 

Tebeth  . 

Audvujfius 

December  and  January 

5 

Sebat    . 

Peritius 

January  and  February 

6 

Adar     . 

Dystrus 

February  and  March 

The  Hebrew  montlis  were  lunar,  and  consisted  alternately  of 
twenty-nine  and  thirty  days,  and  the  year  of  twelve  lunar  months. 
The  year,  therefore,  consisted  of  354  dayS;  M^hich  is  eleven  days 


TIME.  131 

too  short.  Hence,  as  often  as  was  necessary,  a  thirteent-li  month, 
called  Veadar,  was  added,  at  the  end  of  the  ecclesiastical  year. 
The  modern  Jews  still  use  a  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  called  the 
Metonic  cycle,  and  established  by  Rabbi  Hiliel,  about  a.d.  360. 
In  this  cycle  there  are  twelve  common  years  of  twelve  months, 
and  seven  intercalary  years  of  thirteen  months,  being  the  3rd,  6th, 
8th,  11th,  14th,  17th  and  19th  of  the  cycle. 


k2 


132 


SECTION    IV. 

DICTIONARY    OF   DIFFICULTIES. 


The  Latin  word  or  words,  afifixed  to  the  several  titles  of  the  articles,  is  the 
Vulgate  rendering  of  the  Greek  word  or  words. 


PART     I. 


WORDS   AND   PHRASES    REQUIRING    EXPLANATION,    BUT    NOT    BEING 
THE  NAMES    OF   PERSONS   OR   PLACES. 

Abba,  the  Greek  form  of  5<3f?  =  father,  an  expression  first  used 
by  our  Lord  in  his  agony  in  the  Garden  (Mark  xiv.  36),  and 
afterwards  appropriated  to  all  believers  through  the  Spirit  of 
adoption  (E.om.  viii.  15 ;  Gal.  iv.  6). 

iLbratiam's  Bosom.     Sae  Paradise. 

iidoptiou.  In  several  passages  of  St.  Paul's  epistles  (Rom. 
viii.  15,  23 ;  ix.  4 ;  Gal.  iv.  5  ;  Eph.  i.  5),  believers  are  said  to  be- 
come children  of  God  by  adoption.  Adoption  being  recognised  by 
the  Roman  law  as  a  solemn  legal  process,  the  notion  conveyed  by 
the  word  in  New  Testament  times  was  necessarily  stronger  than 
at  present.  The  eifect  of  adoption  by  the  Roman  law  was  in  fact 
to  create  the  relationship  of  father  and  son  between  the  parties 
concerned.  The  adopted  child  took  the  name  of  the  adopting 
parent,  and,  in  case  of  intestacy,  became  his  heir. 

Alleluia.  'A/\X?/AoiVja,  the  Greek  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew 
n ^^17? n  =  praise  ye  Jehovah  (see  Psalm  civ.  35,  &c.)  It  is  only 
found  in  Rev.  xix.  1,  3,  4,  6,  where  it  is  the  burden  of  the  song  of 
the  Church  triumphant  in  heaven.  Elliott  supposes  that  the  use 
of  a  Jewish  form  of  praise  on  this  occasion  indicates  that  the  Jews 
will  be  the  first  to  join  in  the  song. 

Aloe,  ciXor],  aloe,  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  hundred-weight 
of  spices  which  Nicodemus  bought  for  the  burial  of  our  Lord 
(John  xix.  39).  Various  aromatic  woods  go  by  this  name,  and  it 
is  uncertain  which  is  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  passage. 

Alpba,  TO  A,  the  name  of  the  first  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 


ABBA— AMEN.  133 

and  hence  used  for  the  "beginning  of  anything.  Hence  our  Lord  in 
the  Apocalypse  four  times  calls  himself  the  '  Alpha  and  the  Omega, 
the  beginning  and  the  end '  (Eev.  i.  8,  11  j  xxi.  6 ;  xxii.  13). 

Altar,  Bvffiaarijpiov,  altare^  properly  a  place  of  sacrifice,  being 
derived  from  Qvoj,  I  sacrifice.  It  is  applied  in  New  Testament  to 
(1)  the  altar  Q3ujix6g,  here  only)  to  the  unknown  God  which  St.  Paul 
saw  at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  23) ;  (2)  the  altars  both  of  burnt  offer- 
ing and  of  incense  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  (Matt.  v.  23,  24 ; 
xxiii.  18,  19,  20,  35 ;  Luke  i.  11  (altar  of  incense)  ;  xi.  51 ;  1  Cor. 
ix.  13 ;  X.  18 ;  Heb.  vii.  13)  ;  (3)  the  altar  on  which  Abraham 
offered  Isaac  (James  ii.  21),  and  the  altars  on  which  in  the  time  of 
Elijah  sacrifices  had  been  offered  to  Jehovah  in  Israel  (Rom. 
xi.3);  (4)  the  altar  of  the  Temple  seen  in  Apocalyptic  vision 
(Rev.  vi.  9  ;  viii.  3-5  ;  ix.  13  ;  xi.  1 ;  xiv.  18  ;  xvi.  7).  Finally,  in 
Heb.  xiii.  10,  occur  the  words  '  We  have  an  altar,  whereof  they 
have  no  right  to  eat  that  serve  the  tabernacle.'  Various  solutions 
of  this  are  proposed,  of  which  two  are  here  given :  (aj  the  altar  = 
the  cross  of  Christ ;  so  that  the  text  means  ^  they  who  serve  the 
Jewish  tabernacle  (i.e.  Jews)  have  no  right  to  eat  our  spiritual  meat, 
i.e.  the  flesh  of  Christ,  which  by  faith  we  Christians  spiritually  eat. 
(b)  We  =  we  Jews  ;  we  have  =  there  is  amongst  us  Jews  ;  so  that 
the  text  means  '  There  is  a  sacrifice,  of  which  the  priests  have  no 
right  to  eat  (as  they  have  of  other  sacrifices)  ; '  the  sacrifice  in 
question  being  the  sin-offering  referred  to  in  the  verse  following, 
and  the  inference  being  that  (as  stated  in  the  verse  preceding)  it  is 
not  necessary  to  eat  of  a  sacrifice,  in  order  that  it  may  profit. 

Amen,  'Aui]r,  amen,  the  Greek  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  |D5< 
=  truly,  verily,  which  was  commanded  to  be  said  by  the  worship- 
pers at  the  end  of  certain  prayers  (Num.  v.  ^2;  Deut.  xxvii.  15). 
It  is  used  in  several  ways.  (1)  As  an  initiatory  ejaculation,  to 
call  special  attention  to  what  follows,  and  in  this  sense  is  used 
singly  by  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  in  many  passages,  always 
repeated  by  St.  John.  Here  A.  V.  translates  '  verily.'  (2)  As  a 
conclusion  to  a  prayer  or  ascription  of  praise,  expressing  the 
concurrence  of  other  worshippers.  In  this  sense  it  is  found  first 
in  Matt.  vi.  13,  at  the  end  of  the  doxology  there  appended  to  the 
Lord's  prayer,  but  N  and  other  important  manuscripts  do  not 
admit  this  doxology.  In  a  similar  sense  the  word  is  found  in 
1  Cor.  xiv.  16;  Rev.  v.  14;  xix.  4;  xxii.  20.  (3)  As  a  formula, 
adding  strength  to  an  expression.  Thus  in  2  Cor.  i.  20,  it  is  said 
of  Jesus  Christ,  that  '  all  the  promises  of  God  in  him  are  yea  and 
in  him  Amen,   (but  X  ^  wherefore  also  by  him  tJiey  are  Amen,') 


134       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

and  in  Rev.  i.  18,  ^  I  am  alive  for  evermore,  Amen.'  (4)  As  a  title 
of  the  Lord  Jesus,  equivalent  to  the  assertion  that  he  not  only  says^ 
hut  is  the  Truth.  'These  things  saith  the  Amen'  (Rev.  iii.  14). 
On  all  these  points,  Brown  and  Fausset's  remarks  are  good.  '  The 
saints  used  Amen  at  the  end  of  prayer,  or  in  assenting  to  the  word 
of  God ;  but  none,  save  the  Son  of  God,  ever  said,  '  Amen,  I  say 
unto  you ; '  for  it  is  the  language  peculiar  to  God,  who  avers  iy 
himself.  The  New  Testament  formula,  '  Amen,  I  say  unto  you,'  is 
equivalent  to  the  Old  Testament  formula, '  as  Hive,  saith  Jehovah.' 

iLmetliyst.     See  Jewel. 

Anathema,  ardOffia,  anathe^na,  a  thing  accursed,  i.e.  devoted  to 
perdition.  A.  V.  gives  the  word  this  meaning,  or  cognate  mean- 
ings, in  Acts  xxiii.  14  ;  Rom.  ix.  3 ;  1  Cor,  xii.  3 :  Gal.  i.  8.  But 
in  1  Cor.  xvi.  22,  occurs  the  passag-e  '  If  any  man  love  not  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  let  him  "be  Anathema  Maranatha.'  This  latter  word 
is  now  generally  understood  to  be  the  Syriac  (written  in  Greek 
letters)  for  '  The  Lord  cometh,'  and  should  be  separated  from  the 
preceding  word  by  a  colon  or  full  stop,  the  intention  being  to  add 
emphasis  by  the  prospect  of  the  Lord's  speedy  return  to  the  curse 
pronounced  upon  such  as  love  him  not. 

Anatbema-maranatlia,  ava0f/^a,  [xapap  dOa,  Anathema  Maran 
Atha  :  see  Anatheona. 

Angrel.  It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  to  discuss  the 
'■  nature  of  angels,'  referred  to  in  Heb.  ii.  16,  a  full  and  most  inte- 
resting discussion  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  Faber's  Many 
Mansions.     In  the  New  Testament  the  term  is  applied  to 

1.  Good  spirits,  dwelling  and  serving  God  in  heaven,  but  also 
executing  the  divine  will  elsewhere.  Such  angels  are  distinguished 
from  evil  angels  by  being  called  '  angels  of  light '  (2  Cor,  xi.  14). 
Their  existence  is  spiritual  (Heb.  i.  7),  and  their  appearance,  at 
any  rate  when  visible  on  earth,  is  not  uniform ;  sometimes  being 
similar  to  that  of  a  man,  as  in  the  case  of  the  angels  which 
appeared  at  the  ascension  (Acts  i.  10),  but  at  other  times,  as  at  the 
resurrection,  terrible  '  with  a  countenance  like  lightning '  (Matt, 
xxviii.  3).  They  have  a  language  of  their  own  (1  Cor.  xiii.  1). 
Their  number  is  very  great,  our  Lord  speaking  of  more  than  twelve 
legions  (36,000)  of  angels  being  at  his  disposal  (Matt.  xxvi.  53),  and 
St.  Paul  referring  to  them  as  '  an  innumerable  company  '  (Heb.  xii. 
22);  comp.  also  Heb.  i.  6.  An  archangel,  named  Michael,  is 
regarded  as  their  leader  (Jude  9).  They  are  immortal  (Luke  xx, 
36),  and  unisexual  (Matt.  xxii.  30;  Mark  xii.  25).  God  does  not 
confide  to  them  a  knowledge  of  his  intlentions  (Matt.  xxiv.  36  j 


AMETHYST— AI^aEL.  135 

Mark  xiii.  32),  but  they  earnestly  desire  to  look  into  the  plan  of 
salvation  (1  Peter  i.  12),  and  there  is  joy  in  their  presence  over 
even  one  repentant  sinner  (Luke  xv.  10).  Their  inferiority  to  the 
Eternal  Son,  as  created  and  not  eternally-begotten,  is  pointed  out 
in  Heb.  i.  5,  6,  13 :  ii.  5,  and  referred  to  in  1  Peter  iii.  22.  Some 
countenance  is  given  in  the  New  Testament  to  the  idea  that 
guardian  angels  are  appointed  to  God's  people.  Thus  we  read 
that  ^iri  heaven  their  (i.e.  children's)  angels  always  behold  the 
face '  of  God,  and  this  is  adduced  as  a  reason  for  not  causing  them 
to  stumble  (Matt,  xviii.  10),  and  from  Heb.  i.  14,  we  learn  that 
they  are  '  ministering  spirits  sent  forth  to  minister  for  them  who 
shall  be  heirs  of  salvation.'  That  the  early  Christians  held  such 
an  opinion  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  when  Peter,  delivered 
miraculously  from  prison,  first  appeared  to  the  disciples,  they  said 
^it  is  his  angel '  (Acts  xii.  15).  Throughout  the  book  of  Reve- 
lation, angels  are  seen  employed  as  the  agents  by  which  God's 
will  is  accomplished,  and  at  the  last  day,  when  the  Son  of  Man 
comes  back  in  glory,  the  voice  of  the  archangel  will  awake  the 
dead  (1  Thess.  iv.  16),  and  the  'holy  angels'  will  surround  our 
Lord,  and  assist  him,  severing  the  wicked  from  the  just  (Matt, 
xiii.  39-41;  xvi.  27;  xxiv.  31;  xxv.  31;  Mark  viii.  38;  xiii.  27; 
Luke  ix.  26 ;  xii.  8-9 ;  2  Thess.  i.  7).  Of  the  particular  appear- 
ances of  angels  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  only  two  are 
directly  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament,  viz.  the  coming  of  the 
angels  to  Abram  and  to  Lot,  and  their  being  entertained  '  un- 
awares '  (Heb.  xiii.  2),  but  the  appearance  to  Moses  in  the  bush  is 
referred  to  by  St.  Stephen  as  'the  angel  in  the  bush  '  (Acts  vii. 
35),  and  the  same  person  at  the  same  time  speaks  of  the  angel 
'who  spoke  to  Moses  in  Mount  Sinai'  (Acts  vii.  38).  This  last 
statement  (with  which  compare  Heb.  ii.  2)  is  in  precise  accord- 
ance with  Exodus  xiv,  19,  xxiii.  20-23,  and  Is.  Ixiii.  9  (compare 
also  Josephus,  Ant.  15. 15.  3),  and  the  former  opens  up  an  interest- 
ing question,  but  too  lengthy  to  be  discussed  here,  as  to  the 
identity  of  the  second  person  of  the  Trinity  with  the  visible  glory 
of  the  bush,  and  with  the  angel  of  the  wilderness.  Many  par- 
ticular appearances  of  angels  are  related  in  the  New  Testament,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  list.  1,  To  Zacharias,  predicting  the 
birth  of  John  the  Baptist  (Luke  i.  11,  13,  19).  2.  To  Mary,  pre- 
dicting the  birth  of  Jesus  (Luke  i.  26,  30,  35;  ii.  21).  3.  To 
Joseph,  directing  him  to  marry  Mary,  and  after  the  birth  of  Jesus, 
for  his  guidance  on  several  critical  occasions  (Matt.  i.  20,  24 ;  ii. 
13;  19).     4.  To  the  shepherds  near  Bethlehem,  announcing  the 


136        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

birth  of  Christ  (Luke  ii.  9,  10,  13,  15).  5.  To  our  Lord,  after  the 
temptation,  ministering  to  him  (Matt.  iv.  11 ;  Mark  i.  13).  6.  At 
the  pool  of  Bethesda,  where  '  an  angel  went  down  at  a  certain 
season  into  the  pool  and  troubled  the  water :  whosoever  then  first 
after  the  troubling  of  the  water  stepped  in  was  made  perfectly 
whole '  (John  v.  4,  but  55  and  other  good  manuscripts  omit  this 
verse).  7.  To  Jesus,  or  at  any  rate  supposed  by  the  bystanders  to 
speak  to  him  (John  xii.  29).  8,  To  Jesus  in  the  garden,  strength- 
ening him  (Luke  xxii.  43).  9.  At  the  resurrection  (Matt,  xxviii. 
2-5;  John  xx.  12;  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  10.  At  the  ascension  (Acts  i.  10). 
11.  Delivering  the  apostles  from  prison  (Acts  v.  19).  12.  Direct- 
ing Philip  the  deacon  in  his  interview  with  the  eunuch  (Acts  viii. 
26).  13.  Directing  Cornelius  to  send  for  St.  Peter  (Acts  x.  3-7,  22 ; 
xi.  13).  14.  Delivering  Pet^r  from  prison  (Acts  xii.  8,  9,  10,  11). 
15.  Smiting  Herod  Agrippa  with  a  fatal  disease  (Acts  xii.  23).  16. 
Standing  by  St.  Paul  on  board  ship,  and  predicting  his  safe  arrival 
at  Rome.  17.  In  the  parable  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  angels 
carry  Lazarus  when  dead  into  Abraham's  bosom  (Luke  xvi.  22). 

2.  Chief  ministers  of  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia  (Rev.  ii.  1, 
8,  12,  18  ;  iii.  1,  7,  14).  This  designation  arises  from  the  original 
meaning  of  the  word  dyyeXoe,  viz.  messenger. 

3.  Wicked  Spirits.  Of  these  the  Devil  is  the  chief,  and  with 
them  he  will  be  finally  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  (Matt.  xxv.  41 ; 
Rev.  xii.  7,  9).  These  angels  were  once  good  angels,  but  'kept 
not  their  first  estate,'  and  being  '  not  spared,'  as  the  human  race  is, 
'  are  reserved  in  chains  under  darkness  unto  the  j  udgment  of  the 
great  day'  (2  Pet.  ii.  4;  Jude,  6).  These  angels  are  probably 
referred  to  in  Rom.  viii.  38,  '  Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love 
of  Christ?     Shall  .  .  .  angels?' 

4.  Messengers.  This  is  the  original  meaning  of  the  word,  and 
it  is  translated  with  respect  to — 1.  Messengers  sent  by  John  the 
Baptist  to  Jesus  (Luke  vii.  24)  ;  2.  The  Angel,  or  Messenger,  of 
the  Covenant,  as  a  title  of  John  the  Baptist,  in  accordance  with 
the  prophecy  in  Mai.  iii.  1  (Matt.  xi.  10 ;  Mark  i.  2  ;  Luke  vii.  27). 

3.  The  disciples  sent  by  our  Lord,  on  his  last  journey,  into  the 
villages  and  towns  where  He  Himself  would  come  (Luke  ix.  52). 

4.  The  bodily  infirmity  which  hindered  Paul,  called  '  a  messenger 
of  Satan  '  (2  Cor.  xii.  7).  5.  The  messengers  of  Joshua,  received 
by  Rahab  at  Jericho,  alluded  to  in  Jas.  ii.  25. 

Some  difiicult  texts,  not  coming  satisfactorily  under  either  of 
the  above  heads,  are  subjoined: — i.  'Who  have  received  the  law 
by  the  disposition  of  angels  (tlq  liarayuQ  a. -at  the  injunction  of 


ANGEL.  137 

angels),  and  have  not  kept  it?  '  (Acts  viii.  53).  So  Matt.  xii.  41, 
'  They  repented  {elg  to  Ktjpvyna  'I.)  at  the  preaching  of  Jonas.' 
This  regards  the  law  as  having  been  given  by  God,  but  announced 
by  means  of  angels.  As  already  seen,  this  is  in  accordance  with 
a  careful  examination  of  the  Old  Testament  on  the  subject. 

ii.  '  Know  ye  not  that  we  shall  judge  angels  ?  '  (1  Cor.  vi.  3). 
This  refers  to  the  position  of  believers  at  the  last  day  as  judges, 
along  with  Christ  (see  Matt.  xix.  28  ;  Luke  xxii.  30 ;  John  iii.  18, 
where  the  Greek  is  Kpiverai  =  is  j  udged,  and  not  '  is  condemned,' 
as  A.  V.  translates).  At  that  great  day  bad  angels  will  be  judged 
(see  above)  by  our  Lord,  and  therefore  also  by  his  people. 

iii.  '  For  this  cause  ought  the  woman  to  have  power  (t^ovaiav) 
on  her  head,  because  of  the  angels  '  (did  tovq  dyyiXovc),  1  Cor. 
xi.  10.  Here  are  three  difficulties — (a)  one  as  to  the  mean- 
ing of  '  power  5'  (&)  the  other  as  to  the  meaning  of  ^  angels  ; ' 
(c)  the  third  as  to  the  connection,  (a)  It  is  pretty  generally 
conceded  now  that  in  some  way  or  other  —  whether  as  the 
sign  of  poiver,  or  a  symbol  of  her  hushmuVs  j^ower,  or  as  an 
actual  verbal  equivalent  of  T*!!,  a  veil — the  word  power  here 
means  a  veil.  But  Mr.  Cox,  in  an  elaborate  article  in  the 
^  Sunday  Magazine,'  vol.  vii.  p.  365,  argues  that  the  power  is  the 
woman's  unshorn  hair,  (b)  The  angels  are  by  some  supposed  to 
be  the  ministers,  by  others  bad  angels,  whose  lustful  passions  might 
be  excited  by  unveiled  women;  and  lastly,  good  angels,  who 
delight  in  order  and  decency,  and  themselves  veil  their  faces  in  the 
presence  of  God.  That  the  ministers  can  be  intended  seems  im- 
probable, as  nowhere  but  in  Revelation  do  they  go  by  this  name, 
nor  would  their  presence  require  veiling  if  no  other  reason  existed. 
That  lustful  angels  should  need  the  protection  of  a  veil  to  restrain 
their  passion  seems  untenable,  if  only  for  the  reason  that  this 
argument  would  require  the  perpetual  veiling  of  women,  a  thing 
manifestly  impossible,  (c)  The  connection,  therefore,  seems  to 
lie  in  the  exainple  of  decency  and  humility  set  by  good  angels. 

iv.  ^  Let  no  man  beguile  you  of  your  reward  in  a  volun- 
tary humility  and  worshipping  of  angels  '  {9sXwi>  iv  rainivo-- 
(ppoavvy  Kal  OptjaKsia  twv  ayysXwr),  Col.  ii.  18.  Under  pretence 
of  humility,  or  as  if  they  did  not  dare  to  go  directly  to  God  through 
Christ,  many  early  heretics  actually  worshipped  angels.  Thus, 
Chrysostom  (quoted  by  Olshausen)  says,  *  There  are  some  who  say 
that  it  is  not  right  to  draw  nigh  through  Christ,  but  through  the 
angels.' 

V.  ^  It  (i.e.  the  law)  was  ordained  by  angels  (^i'  ayykXiov)  in  the 


138        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

hand  of  a  mediator  '  (Gal.  iii.  19).     This  is  explicable  on  the  prin- 
ciples already  just  referred  to  in  i. 

vi.  '  The  elect  angels '  (1  Tim.  v.  21).  Elect  in  contradistinction 
to  the  angels  who  lost  their  first  estate.  But  others  regard  the  term 
'  elect '  as  simply  an  epithet  applicable  to  all  angels.  So  Calvin, 
^  Electos  vocat  angelos,  non  tantum  ut  a  reprobis  discernat,  sed 
excellentise  causa.' 

vii.  ^  Angels,  which  are  greater  in  power  and  might,  bring  not 
railing  accusation  ((SXacrpinov  Kplaiv)  against  them  (i.e.  dignities) ' 
(2  Pet.  ii.  11).  Here  the  reference  is  to  Michael,  the  archangel, 
who  brought  no  railing  accusation  against  even  Satan,  remember- 
ing that  the  Lord  is  the  judge,  and  that  evil  words  befit  not  the 
servants  of  God  (see  Jude  9).  The  warning  is  not  only  against 
blasphemy  directed  against  God,  but  also  against  a  careless  and 
light  and  blasphemous  mode  of  speech  regarding  the  powers  of 
darkness. 

Anise,  avnGop,  anethum.  A  herb  referred  to  by  our  Saviour,  in 
Matt,  xxiii,  23,  '  Ye  (i.e.  ye  Scribes  and  Pharisees)  pay  tithe  of 
mint  and  anise  and  cummin.'  Either  the  Anethum  (p-aveolens  or 
the  Pimpernella  anisum  may  be  meant.  The  former  is  still  culti- 
vated in  the  East,  for  the  sake  of  its  seeds,  which  possess  carmina- 
tive properties,  and  the  seeds  of  the  other  are  commonly  sold  in 
England  as  possessing  similar  qualities.  Both  are  members  of  the 
same  family,  and  of  the  natural  order  of  the  TJmhelliferce.  The 
Talmud  mentions  that  ^  the  seeds,  the  leaves,  and  the  stem  of  dill 
are  subject  to  tithe.' 

Anointing:.     See  Olive. 

Antichrist,  6  avTixpK^TOQ,  Antichristus,  a  term  only  used  by  St. 
John  in  his  epistles  (I,  ii.  18,  22 ;  iv.  3  ;  II.  7).  Hence  we  learn 
(1)  that  there  was  an  expectation  that  the  Antichrist  would  come 
in  the  last  days  ;  (2)  that  many  Antichrists  had  already  come  in 
St.  John's  days ;  (3)  that  not  confessing  the  Incarnation  is  of 
Antichrist.  This  would  afford  only  slight  indication  of  the 
apostle's  meaning,  and  a  difficulty  exists  even  in  the  word  itself, 
which  is  equivalent  either  to  '  a  substitute  for  Christ,'  or  ^  an 
adversary  to  Christ.'  But  it  is  usually  considered  that  the  '  Man 
of  Sin,  the  son  of  perdition,'  of  2  Thess.  ii.  3,  is  identical  with 
Antichrist.  Of  him  it  is  said  that  '  he  opposeth  and  exalteth  him- 
self above  all  that  is  called  God,  or  that  is  worshipped,  so  that  he, 
as  God,  sitteth  in  the  temple  of  God,  shewing  himself  that  he  is 
God,'  and  that  his  coming  and  a  great  falling  away  from  all  religion 
shall  precede  the  last  days.     To  this  agree  the  description  in 


ANISE— APOSTLE.  139 

Dan.  vii.  25,  of  the  final  kingdom  which  shall  arise  out  of  the  ten 
horns  of  the  fourth  beast,  and  the  description  of  the  beast  in  Eev. 
xiii.  The  ancient  fathers  unanimously  looked  for  a  personal 
Antichrist  to  fulfil  all  these  predictions.  Roman  Catholic  writers 
have  considered  Pagan  Rome  or  JProtestantism  to  be  indicated, 
and  others  have  regarded  Mohammed  as  the  Antichrist.  But  it  is 
not  a  little  remarkable  that  Gregory  the  Great,  who  was  Pope 
from  A.D.  590  to  a.d.  604,  declared  that  '  whoever  shall  call  him- 
self, or  desire  to  be  called,  Universal  Bishop,  is  the  forerunner  of 
Antichrist.'  In  defiance  of  this,  Gregory's  immediate  successor, 
Sabinianus,  received,  in  a.d.  606,  from  the  Greek  emperor  Phocas, 
this  very  title.  It  should  also  be  noticed  that  the  title  assumed 
by  the  Pope,  of  ^  Vicar  of  Christ,'  is  really  equivalent  to  Anti- 
christ, taking  the  word  in  the  sense  of  '  a  substitute  for  Christ.' 

.apostle,  cnv6(TTo\oc,  apostolus.  This  word  really  means  '  one 
who  is  sent,'  and  in  this  sense  it  is  applied  to  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  himself  (Heb.  iii.  1),  to  Epaphroditus  (Phil.  ii.  25,  where 
A.  V.  translates  'messenger'),  to  certain  brethren  (2  Cor.  viii.  23), 
to  Barnabas  (Acts  xiv.  4,  14),  and  generally  (John  xiii.  16,  where 
A.  V.  translates  it  'he  that  is  sent').  Certain  false  teachers  are 
also  charged  (Rev.  ii.  2)  with  saying  that  they  were  '  apostles.' 
But  the  title  is  usually  resti-icted  to  those  twelve  persons  whom 
our  Lord  selected  as  his  companions  upon  earth,  and  to  St.  Paul, 
who  was  directly  called  to  be  an  apostle  by  special  miracle  (Acts 
xxii.  21).  The  names  of  the  twelve  apostles  are  examined  in 
detail  in  Section  2,  p.  70.  On  the  death  of  Judas  a  selection  was 
made  of  one  to  fiU  his  place.  The  qualifications  for  the  office 
were  to  be  that  he  should  be  '  of  those  men  who  have  companied 
with  us  all  the  time  that  the  Lord  Jesus  went  in  and  out  among  us,' 
and  also  in  a  position  to  be  '  a  witness  of  his  resurrection  '  (Acts  i. 
21, 22).  Matthias  was  chosen,  and  was  numbered  with  (avyKamp)]- 
(piaBi]')  the  twelve  apostles,  but  no  mention  of  him  as  an  apostle  is 
afterwards  made.  Since,  therefore,  we  find,  in  Rev.  xxi.  14,  that 
the  heavenly  Jerusalem  has  twelve  foundations,  '  and  in  them  the 
names  of  the  twelve  apostles  of  the  Lamb,'  and  it  is  further  obvious 
that  Judas  could  not  be  reckoned  in  the  twelve,  it  seems  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  St.  Paul  succeeded  Judas,  and  made  up  the 
twelfth  of  the  apostolical  company.  During  the  lifetime  of  the 
apostles  they  were  regarded  with  the  greatest  veneration,  and  as  a 
distinct  order  of  ministers,  whom  God  had  '  first '  set  in  the  church 
(1  Cor.  xii.  28),  men  endowed  with  the  power  of  working  miracles 
(Acts  ii.  43,  V.  12  5  2  Cor.  xii.  12),  as  well  as  a  divinely-given 


140       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

knowledge  of  doctrine  (Eph.  iii.  5)  and  Christian  practice  (2  Pet. 
iii.  2).  For  the  lives  and  labours  of  individual  apostles,  see  their 
names  in  Section  5, 

Arclian^el.  The  chief  of  the  angels.  Only  one  person  is  so 
named  in  the  Bible,  viz.  Michael.  He  will  accompany  our  Lord 
at  his  second  coming  (1  Thess.  iv.  16).  For  his  history,  see  under 
Michael,  in  Section  5  -,  and  for  angelic  characteristics  generally^ 
see  Angel. 

Asp.     See  Serpent. 

Ass,  ovot;,  asinus.  The  ass  in  Syria  is  not  the  degenerate 
animal  which  he  too  frequently  is  in  this  country.  A  hot  climate 
is  suitable  to  its  development,  and  great  care  is  exercised  in  the 
east  both  in  its  breeding  and  maintenance.  Our  Lord  rode  upon  a 
young  ass  in  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  its  mother  being 
apparently  led  with  it.  This  had  been  prophesied  of  by  Zechariah 
(ix.  9), '  Rejoice  greatly,  0  daughter  of  Zion ;  shout,  0  daughter 
of  Jerusalem  j  behold  thy  king  cometh  unto  thee;  he  is  just  and 
having  salvation  {marg.  saving  himself)  ;  lowly,  and  riding  upon 
an  ass,  and  upon  a  colt  the  foal  of  an  ass.'  The  ass  of  Balaam, 
miraculously  enabled  to  speak,  is  also  referred  to  in  2  Peter  ii.  16. 
Further,  our  Lord  refers  to  the  legality  of  pulling  out  from  a  pit 
on  a  Sabbath  day  an  ass  fallen  into  it,  as  a  justification  of  doing 
well  on  the  Sabbath  day  (Luke  xiv.  5),  and  similarly  justifies  the 
healing  of  a  sick  woman  on  the  Sabbath  day  by  the  universally 
allowed  legality  of  loosing  the  ass  on  that  day  from  his  stall  and 
leading  him  away  to  watering  (Luke  xiii.  15).  The  wdld  ass  is 
not  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament. 

Band,  (nnlpa,  cohors.  The  technical  designation  of  a  tenth 
part  of  the  Roman  legion.  If,  therefore,  the  legion  contained 
4,000  men,  the  cohort  contained  400.  But  this  division  was 
merely  nominal,  and  cohorts  often  contained  1,000  men.  Two 
'bands'  are  referred  to  by  name  in  the  New  Testament,  the 
'  Italian  band  {cnrelpa  r)  KaXovfikvr]  'IraXiKij),'  Acts  X.  1,  to  which 
Cornelius  belonged,  and  the  'Augustan  band  ((nrelpa  HefiaaTii),'' 
Acts  xxvii.  1,  which  escorted  St.  Paul  to  Rome.  Conybeare 
and  Howson  suggest  that  the  '  Italian  band  '  was  a  corps  of  Italian 
volunteers,  and  refer  to  Akerman's  Numismatic  Illustrations  of  the 
New  Testament,  p.  34,  to  show  that  such  a  band  did  serve  in 
Syria.  The  same  writers  (chap,  xxii.)  regard  the  'Augustan  band' 
as  part  of  the  Imperial  guard,  and  possibly  the  same  as  the 
'  Italian.'     A  third  '  band  '  is  referred  to  as  in  charge  of  the  temple 


AKCHANGEL— BAPTISM.  141 

at  Jerusalem,  and  under  the  command  of  a  chiliarcli,  or  captain 
over  a  thousand  men,  named  Claudius  Lysias  (Acts  xxi.  31). 

Bank,  Tpn-Kila,  mensa,  properly  the  money-lender's  table. 
Institutions  resembling  modern  banks  were  unknown  in  New 
Testament  times,  but  borrowing  and  lending  was  common  enough. 
The  legal  rate  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  was  twelve  per  cent,  per 
annum.  The  money -changers  (rpmrsi^irai)  of  Matt.  xxv.  27,  were 
money-lenders  as  well  as  money-changers. 

Baptism,  (idTrTKyjia,  haptismus.  The  ceremony  of  baptising. 
Beyond  the  fact  that  baptism  involves  the  use  of  water  (Matt.  iii. 
11,  &c.),  no  data  exist  in  the  New  Testament  for  determining 
whether  total  or  partial  immersion  was  practised  by  the  early 
Christians.  In  one  passage  (Heb.  vi.  2)  baptism  is  unquestionably 
referred  to,  not  by  the  usual  term  (Sd-nrKTua,  but  by  the  term. 
(5a7r-L(ri.i6c,  and  this  is  used  of  the  '  washing '  of  dishes,  platters, 
pots  and  cups,  in  Mark  vii.  4,  8.  Neither  does  the  verb  jScltztco 
( =  J  dip)  necessarily  imply  total  immersion,  as  is  evident  from  its 
use  in  John  xiii.  26  (for  the  '  sop '  could  not  have  been  totally 
immersed  without  soiling  the  fingers) ;  and  even  the  word  ^aTrrt^w 
itself  is  used  in  Mark  vii.  4  ('  except  they  wash  (lit.  baptise)  they 
eat  not '),  and  therefore  has  not  always  this  strict  meaning.  The 
difficulty  of  baptising  by  immersion  the  3,000  converts  of  Pente- 
cost, and  the  jailor  at  Philippi  in  the  dead  of  night,  is  likewise  con- 
spicuous. On  the  other  hand,  the  New  Testament  offers  no  objection 
to  total  immersion.  The  entire  covering  of  the  body  by  water  in 
this  fashion  is  doubtless  a  strong  symbol  of  the  being  'buried  with 
Christ  by  baptism  into  death '  (Rom.  vi.  4 ;  Col.  ii.  12 ;  comp. 
also  Rom.  vi.  3).  As  to  the  prepositions  in  the  phrases  '  in 
Jordan '  (Matt.  iii.  6),  ^  into  the  water '  and  '  out  of  the  water ' 
(Acts  viii.  38,  39),  they  are  really  capable  of  the  meanings  'near,' 
'  towards,'  and  '  from,'  respectively,  and  serve  neither  side  of  the 
argument. 

Baptism  first  appears  in  the  New  Testament  as  characteristic  of 
the  mission  of  John  the  Baptist  or  Baptizer.  But  washing,  as  a 
typical  ceremony,  had  long  been  familiar  to  the  Jews,  and  the 
Pharisees  derived  an  argument  for  it  from  the  conduct  of  Jacob, 
on  his  return  to  Bethel  ('  Jacob  said  to  his  household^  put  away 
the  strange  gods  that  are  among  you,  and  be  dean/  &c.,  Gen.  xxxv. 
2),  and  the  commandment  to  Moses  at  the  delivery  of  the  law 
('  the  Lord  said  unto  Moses,  Go  unto  the  people  and  sanctify  them 
to-day  and  to-morrow,  and  let  them  zcash  their  clothes/  Ex.  xix.  10). 


142       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Washings  were  also  familiar  to  the  Mosaic  law  as  cleansing  from 
ceremonial  pollutions  (Lev.  xi.  25,  xvii.  15,  and  many  other  places), 
as  fitting  the  priests  to  enter  upon  their  duties  (Exod.  xxx.  20), 
and  especially  as  the  initial  ceremony  in  the  consecration  of  the 
high-priest  (Exod.  xxix.  4  ;  Lev.  viii.  6).  Proselytes  of  righteous- 
ness (see  Proselyte)  were  also  said  to  be  admitted  into  the  Jewish 
church  by  circumcision,  baptism,  and  a  sacrifice,  or  (in  the  case  of 
females)  by  the  two  last ;  and  although  the  description  of  the  ad- 
mission of  proselytes,  in  which  this  is  stated,  undoubtedly  belongs 
to  a  later  date,  yet  in  the  Mishna,  which  is  the  oldest  portion  of 
the  Talmud  (see  Pharisee)^  an  account  is  given  of  a  dispute 
between  two  doctors  as  to  whether  a  proselyte  might  eat  the 
passover  on  the  night  of  his  baptism,  and  this,  of  course,  pre- 
supposes the  occurrence  of  baptism  as  a  familiar  ceremony.  The 
baptism  of  proselytes  was  by  total  immersion,  and  their  children 
were  baptised  with  them. 

It  may  therefore  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  use  of  baptism 
as  a  rite  initiatory  to  discipleship  was  not  regarded  by  the  disciples 
of  John  the  Baptist  as  anything  extraordinary.  His  baptism, 
according  to  his  own  statement,  was  simply  external  ('  I  indeed 
baptise  you  with  water,'  Matt.  iii.  11),  and  syinholical  of  the  cleans- 
ing of  sin  by  repentance. 

Vast  numbers  of  persons  flocked  to  John  the  Baptist  for  baptism, 
and  among  them  our  Lord.  He  explained  his  wish  for  baptism 
by  the  words,  '  Thus  it  becometh  us  to  fulfil  all  righteousness ' 
(Trpk-itov  t'jiMV  TrXrjpwaat  iraaav  SiKuioffvvr]v)j  Matt.  iii.  15.  By 
this  he  may  have  meant  either  that,  as  a  man  and  '  born  under  the 
law,'  he  desired  to  fulfil  every  possible  demand,  but  more  probably, 
he  underwent  baptism  as  the  initiatory  rite  of  the  High  Priest's 
office,  continued  by  the  anointing  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  com- 
pleted by  the  sacrifice  of  himself.  Thus  having  been  himself 
baptised,  our  Lord  also  adopted  baptism  (performed  indirectly  by 
the  agency  of  his  disciples,  John  iv.  2)  as  a  rite  of  admission  to  dis- 
cipleship to  himself ;  but  no  record  of  any  particular  baptism  exists. 

Baptism  comes  next  into  view  as  having  been  directed  by  our 
Lord  previous  to  his  ascension  {'  Go  ye  therefore,  and  teach 
(j.iaQi]Ttv(jart  =  disciple')  all  nations,  baptising  them  in  (tiQ  =  into) 
the  name  of  the  Father,  and  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,'  Matt. 
xxviii.  19 ;  and  '  Go  ye  into  all  the  world  and  preach  the  gospel 
to  every  creature.  He  that  believeth  and  is  baptised  (6  TnaT^vaaQ 
Kal  ISaTTTiaOtk)  shall  be  saved'  (Mark  xvi.  16).  In  accordance 
with  this  commandment,  baptism  was  regularly  practised  in  the 


BAPTISM.  143 

case  of  converts.  Thus  the  3,000  Pentecostal  converts  (Acts  ii. 
38-41),  Simon  Magus  and  others  at  Samaria  (Acts  viii.  12,  13),  the 
eunuch  of  Candace  (Acts  viii.  36-38),  Saul  (Acts  ix.  18,  xxii.  16), 
Cornelius  and  his  friends  (Acts  x.  47, 48),  Lydia  and  her  house- 
hold (Acts  xvi.  15),  the  jailor  and  '  all  his'  (Acts  xvi.  33),  many 
of  the  Corinthians  (Acts  xviii.  8),  among  whom  were  Crispus, 
Gains,  and  Stephanas'  household  (1  Cor.  i.  15,  16),  the  Ephesian 
believers  (Acts  xix.  5),  were  baptised.  In  some  of  these  cases  the 
Holy  Spirit  did  not  at  once  come  upon  those  who  were  baptised, 
as  at  Samaria  (Acts  viii.),  in  others  the  Holy  Spirit  descended 
before  the  baptism,  and,  as  it  were,  invited  the  performance  of 
the  ceremony.  But  in  nearly  all  the  cases  mentioned,  an  eiFusion 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  also  mentioned,  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
phecy of  John  the  Baptist,  ^  He  shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy 
Spirit  and  with  fire.'  This  clearly  separates  Christian  baptism  from 
John's  baptism,  and  is  especially  seen  in  the  case  of  the  Ephesian 
believers,  who  had  been  baptised  unto  John's  baptism,  but  had  not 
heard  of  or  received  the  Holy  Spirit.  Being  re-baptised  '  in  the 
name  {elg  to  bv.  =  into  the  name)  of  Jesus,  the  Holy  Ghost  came 
upon  them  (Acts  xix.  3-6).  Into  other  differences,  it  is  not  the 
business  of  this  work  to  enter. 

Infant  baptism  is  not  expressly  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  arguments  for  it  rest  upon — 1,  The  high  probability  of 
the  three  households  baptised  including  infants  ;2.  The  likeness 
of  baptism,  as  a  Christian  initiatory  rite,  to  circumcision,  the  Jewish 
initiatory  rite,  which  was  regularly  administered  to  children  (a 
likeness  expressly  declared  by  Col.  ii.  11,  12) ;  3.  The  promise  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  being  '  to  you  and  to  your  children '  -,  4,  The 
practical  difficulty  of  deciding  at  what  age  baptism,  if  to  be  based 
upon  personal  belief,  should  be  administered ;  5.  The  right  of 
Christian  parents  to  have  their  children  numbered  amongst  the 
visible  church;  6.  The  invitation  of  Christ  to  bring  children 
(infants)  to  Him ;  for  if  He  said  '  Of  such  are  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,'  is  it  to  be  supposed  that  He  really  meant  to  exclude 
infants  ?     7.  The  practice  of  early  Christians. 

Various  allusions  to  baptism  now  remain  to  be  considered. 

1.  In  Matt.  XX.  22,  Mark  x.  38,  39,  our  Lord  speaks  of  his 
future  sufi'erings  as  '  a  baptism.' 

2.  In  1  Cor.  x.  1,  2,  the  passage  of  the  Israelites  through  the 
Red  Sea  and  under  the  cloud  is  called  a  baptism  '  unto  Moses.' 
For  by  these  means  they  entered  into  a  visible  covenant  with  God, 
and  became  his  church  under  the  law  (i.e.  Moses). 


1-14        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

3.  '  Why  are  they  then  baptised  for  the  dead '  (inrsp  rwv  vtKpuiv)  ? 
1  Cor.  XV.  29.  Alford  translates,  '  What  will  become  of  those  who 
are  in  the  habit  of  being  baptised  for  the  dead  ?  '  and  refers  to  a 
practice  of  being  baptised  vicariously  on  behalf  of  friends  who  had 
died  without  baptism.  He  also  gives  a  multitude  of  other  expla- 
nations, for  which  see  his  note  on  the  passage. 

4.  In  Eph.  V.  25, 26,  we  read,  '  Christ  also  loved  the  church,  and 
gave  himself  for  it^  that  he  might  sanctify  and  cleanse  it  with  the 
washing  of  (the)  water  with  the  word'  (iv  pr]naTi).  If  ptjfia  here 
refers  to  the  Holy  Spirit  (see  under  Scripture)  then  the  reference 
to  baptism  is  clear.  A  similar  union  of  outward  baptism  and 
inward  grace  appears  in  Titus  iii.  5,  '  He  saved  us  by  the  washing 
of  regeneration  and  renewing  of  the  Holy  Ghost.' 

6.  In  1  Peter  iii.  21,  we  read,  '  iJj  (or  o)  Kai  ri^dg  avTiTvirov  vvv 
awZti  /3a7rrt(T//ff,'  A.  V.  '  the  like  figure  whereunto  baptism  doth 
also  now  save  us.'  If  o  be  taken  instead  of  oj,  the  meaning  is 
'  Which  (i.e.  which  water,  ver.  20)  also  as  a  type  doth  now  save  us, 
viz.  baptism.'  Either  way,  the  passage  is  difficult,  but  it  probably 
means  that  as  water  was  formerly  destructive  to  the  world  and 
yet  floated  the  ark,  so  the  water  of  baptism  now  saves  believers. 

Barley,  kplQi)^  hordeum.  This  well-known  cereal  forms  the 
larger  proportion  of  the  bread  used  by  the  poor  of  Palestine,  and 
is  the  universal  food  of  horses  and  asses.  It  is  only  mentioned 
in  the  miracle  of  the  feeding  of  the  5,000,  where  the  five  loaves 
which  our  Lord  multiplied  are  stated  to  have  been  '  barley  loaves ' 
(John  vi.  9-13)  ;  and  in  Rev.  vi,  6,  where  the  voice  from  amongst 
the  four  beasts  says,  '  A  measure  of  wheat  for  a  penny,  and  three 
measures  of  barley  for  a  penny,'  The  comparative  values  of  wheat 
and  barley  are  well  suggested  in  this  verse. 

Bear,  dpKroc,  ui'sus.  Only  mentioned  in  Rev.  xiii.  2.  The 
Syrian  bear  is  very  nearly  akin  to  the  European  brown  bear, 
but  lighter  in  colour.  It  is  omnivorous,  although  commonly  feed- 
ing on  vegetables,  and  still  abounds  in  Lebanon  and  Hermon, 
though  rare  in  other  parts  of  Palestine.      See  Leopard  and  Lion, 

Beast.  This  title  is  variousl}*  given  in  the  New  Testament  to 
(1)  beasts  of  burden  {ktyivoq).  So  the  good  Samaritan  set  the 
rescued  traveller  on  his  own  '  beast '  (Luke  x.  34),  Paul  was  carried 
on  '  beasts  '  to  Csesarea  (Acts  xxiii.  24),  the  fiesh  of  '  beasts '  is 
spoken  of  as  a  diotinct  thing  (1  Cor.  xv.  39),  and  *  beasts'  are 
enumerated  amongst  the  wealth  of  the  mystic  Babylon  (Rev.  xviii. 
13).  (2)  Wild  animals  (Onpiov).  Thus  our  Lord  before  the  tempta- 
tion was  with  the '  wild  beasts '  (Mark  i.  13),  the  sheet  which  Peter 


BARLEY— BEE.  145 

saw  in  a  trance  was  filled  with  *  wild  beasts/  and  the  term  'heast' 
is  applied  in  the  Apocalypse  to  certain  mystic  opponents  of  the 
Most  High,  especially  in  chaps,  xiii.-xx.  In  this  sense,  the  viper 
which  Paul  shook  off  into  the  fire  is  called  a  '  beast '  (Acts  xxviii. 
5) ;  and  any  '  beast '  touching  Sinai  was  to  be  destroyed  (Heb.  xii. 
20).  (3)  Any  living  creatures  {ZG)ov).  Thus  the  word  is  applied 
to  animals  slaughtered  for  sacrifice  (Heb.  xiii.  11),  to  animals  as 
distinguished  from  human  beings  and  therefore  called  *  hrute  b., 
aXoya  ^wa '  (2  Peter  ii.  12 ;  Jude  10),  and  to  the  four  living  creatures 
described  in  Rev.  iv.,  v.,  vi.,  as  being  in  the  midst  of  the  throne 
and  round  about  the  throne.  The  term  ^wov  being  applied  to 
these  creatures  as  contrasted  with  Oripiov,  in  chaps,  xiii.-xx.  (see 
above)  is  supposed  to  symbolise  the  contrast  between  heavenly  and 
earthly  power.  These  four  '  beasts  '  have  been  supposed  to  repre- 
sent Matthew  (the  lion),  Mark  (the  ox),  Luke  (the  man),  and 
John  (the  eagle),  answering  to  the  royal,  patient,  sympathetic, 
and  towering  character  of  Christ,  as  presented  by  these  several 
evangelists.  Others  regard  the  four  as  symbolising  the  redeemed 
church  of  God,  in  the  capacity  of  king-priests  over  all  the  earth 
(V.  8-10),  man  being  the  head  of  the  human  family,  the  lion  of 
wild  beasts,  the  ox  of  tame  beasts,  and  the  eagle  of  birds  and  fishes. 

Bed.  The  Eastern  bed  is  merely  a  padded  quilt,  and  no  better 
method  of  conveying  a  sick  person  can  be  found  than  to  carry  him 
upon  it.  This  explains  how  the  sick  were  brought  to  Jesus  and 
his  apostles  in  beds,  and  how  they  were  able  to  execute  the  com- 
mand to  '  take  up  '  their  beds  after  being  cured. 

Bee*  The  bee  itself  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  the  honey  which  it  produces  is  occasionally  alluded  to.  Thus 
the  food  of  John  the  Baptist  in  the  wilderness  is  said  to  have 
consisted  of  ^  locusts  and  wild  honey ;'  and  when  our  Lord,  after 
his  resurrection,  stood  by  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  asked  his  disciples 
for  food,  it  is  recorded  that  they  gave  him  ^  a  piece  of  broiled  fish, 
and  of  an  honeycomb  '  (Luke  xxiv.  42).  The  sweetness  of  honey 
is  also  referred  to  in  Rev.  x.  9,  10,  where  the  little  book  received 
by  the  Apostle  from  the  hand  of  an  angel,  with  a  command 
to  eat  it,  is  said  to  have  been  in  his  mouth  '  sweet  as  honey.' 
(Comp.  Ps.  xix.  10,  and  Ezek.  iii.  3.) 

The  Hive  Bee  is  very  common  in  Palestine,  where  its  Hebrew 
designation  (Deborah)  formerly  aiForded  a  woman's  name,  and 
whence  the  land  derived  the  character  of  '  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey.'  In  a  wild  state  it  abounds  in  the  crevices  of  the  limestone 
rocks,  especially  in  the  wilderness  of  Jud£ea,   and  many  Arabs 


146        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

obtain  a  living  by  seeking  and  selling\tlie  honey.  In  Galilee  bees 
are  extensively  kept,  the  usual  hives  being  rough  earthenvt^are 
cylinders,  like  chimney-pots,  closed  with  clay  at  each  end.  These 
cylinders  are  laid  horizontally  one  above  another,  and  are  easily 
emptied  by  removing  the  clay.  Dr.  Tristram  says  that  he  has 
counted  seventy-eight  such  cylinders  laid  together  in  one  heap, 
the  whole  plastered  with  mud  to  keep  the  bees  cool. 

Beelzebub.     See  Devil. 

Benefactors,  eutpysratf  bene/ici,  a  word  only  used  in  Luke  xxii. 
'20f  '  They  that  exercise  authority  upon  them  are  called  benefac- 
tors.' The  sense  seems  clearer  if  the  subject  and  predicate  are 
inverted,  so  that  the  sentence  may  read,  '  Those  are  called  bene- 
factors who  exercise  authority  over  them.'  Alford  illustrates 
(from  Wetstein)  by  quoting  the  surname  Euergetes  affixed  to  one 
of  the  Ptolemies. 

Beryl.     See  Jewel. 

Betrothal.     See  Marriage  Rites. 

Bier.     See  Funeral  JRites. 

Bishop,  k-iaKOTtoc,  episcopus.  A  word  rendered  ^bishop'  in 
A.  v.,  except  in  Acts  xx.  28,  where  A.  V.  renders  'overseers,'  but 
Vulgate  '  episcopi.'  This  rendering  of  A.  V.  may  probably  arise 
from  the  fact  that  the  persons  so  designated  are  called  in  Acts  xx. 
17,  the  'elders'  (7rp£(T/3i;rspouc  =  presbyters).  In  1  Pet.  ii.  25,  the 
term  is  referred  to  our  Lord  himself,  as  the  '  shepherd  and  bishop ' 
(i.e.  overseer)  of  our  souls.  The  three  other  places  where  the 
word  is  used  are  Phil.  i.  1 ;  1  Tim.  iii.  2  ;  Tit.  i.  7.  In  Phil.  i.  1, 
we  have  salutation  sent  by  Paul  and  Timotheus  to  'the  saints 
which  are  at  Philippi,  with  the  bishops  and  deacons.'  In  I  Tim. 
iii.  1,,2,  we  read,  '  If  a  man  desire  the  office  of  a  bishop,  he  desire th 
a  good  work.  A  bishop  then  must  be,  &c.' ;  and  in  v.  8,  we  also 
read,  'Likewise  must  the  deacons  be  grave,'  no  mention  being 
made  of  presbyters.  In  Tit.  i.  5-7,  we  read,  '  For  this  cause  left  I 
thee  in  Crete,  that  thou  shouldest  .  .  .  ordain  elders  (rrpeafiuTs- 
povc)  in  every  city,  as  I  had  appointed  thee  :  If  any  be  blameless,  the 
husband  of  one  wife,  having  faithful  children,  not  accused  of  riot 
or  unruly.  For  a  bishop  must  be  blameless,  as  the  steward  of 
God,'  &c.  It  will  next  be  desirable  to  examine  the  cognate  words 
iTTinKowr]  and  k-iaKOTc'iw.  'EmnKoirr]  is  translated  thus  in  A.  V.  : 
Luke  xix.  44,  '  Thou  knewest  not  the  time  of  thy  visitation  ;'  Acts 
i.  20,  '  His  bishopric  (referring  to  the  apostleship  of  Judas)  let 
another  take ;'  1  Tim.  iii.  1,  '  If  any  man  desire  the  office  of  a  bishop ;' 
1  Pet.  ii.  12,  'That  they  may  by  your  good  works  which  they 


BEELZEBUB— BOTTLES.  147 

shall  behold,  glorify  God  in  the  day  of  visitation.^  'EiriaKOTrkoi 
occurs  only  in  Heb.  xii.  15,  '  Looking  diligently  lest  any  man  fail 
of  the  grace  of  God/  and  in  1  Pet.  v.  1,  2,  '  The  elders  {ivpta(iv- 
rkpovg)  which  are  among  you  I  exhort,  who  am  also  an  elder  ((rvjit- 
7rpto(3vr6poQ),  and  a  witness  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  also  a 
partaker  of  the  glory  which  shall  be  revealed :  feed  the  flock  of 
God,  taking  the  oversight  thereof,  not  by  constraint,  but  willingly.' 

From  these  passages  (and  there  are  no  others  in  the  New 
Testament  in  which  sttiWotto^  or  its  cognates  are  used)  it  is  mani- 
fest that  in  the  New  Testament  the  words  Trpta^vTipoq  and  iTriaKorrog 
are  used  interchangeably.  The  argument  for  episcopal  government 
must  be  therefore  based  upon  other  considerations,  as  is,  indeed,  sug- 
gested by  the  words  in  the  preface  to  the  English  Ordinal,  '  It  is 
evident  unto  all  men  diligently  reading  the  Holy  Scripture,  and 
ancient  authors,  that  from  the  apostles'  time  there  have  been  these 
orders  of  ministers  in  Christ's  church — Bishops,  Priests,  and 
Deacons.'  And  without  entering  into  a  discussion  of  the  point 
from  post-Scriptural  authors  (which  it  is  not  the  province  of  this 
work  to  undertake)  it  may  be  stated  that  it  is  abundantly  evident 
that  the  offices  of  Bishop  and  Presbyter  were  at  an  early  time 
separated.  Thus  Theodoret  says,  '  The  same  persons  were  anciently 
called  promiscuously  both  bishops  and  presbyters,  whilst  those  who 
are  noiv  called  bishops  were  called  apostles.' 

The  duty  of  the  bishop  may  be  seen  from  the  passages  above 
referred  to,  and  their  contexts.  It  involved  '  feeding  (i.e.  shep- 
herding) the  church  of  God,'  '  taking  care  of  the  church  of  God/ 
and  'hospitality.' 

Bishoprick.     See  Bishop. 

Soat.     See  Ship. 

Bondwoman,     See  Slave. 

Bosom  of  Abraham.     See  Paradise. 

Bottles  in  the  East  are  usually  manufactured  out  of  the  whole 
skins  of  sheep  or  goats,  the  legs  and  tail  being  cut  ofl:'  and  the 
apertures  closed.  The  hair  is  not  ordinarily  removed  from  such 
bottles,  and  an  old  one  may  be  known  by  having  the  hair  rubbed. 
Only  one  reference  to  such  bottles  is  found  in  the  New  Testament, 
^  No  man  putteth  new  wine  into  old  bottles,  else  the  bottles  perish, 
but  put  new  wine  into  new  bottles  and  both  are  preserved '  (Matt, 
ix.  17 ;  Mark  ii.  22  ;  Luke  v.  37,  38).  The  usual  explanation  is 
that  fermenting  wine  will  burst  old,  and  therefore  iveak,  bottles ; 
but  it  has  been  ably  argued  that  to  enclose  fermenting  wine  in 
either  new  or  old  bottles  would  burst  the  bottles,  and  that  the  true 

l2 


148       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

meaning  is  that  new  (i.e.  unfermented)  wine  must  be  put  into  new 
(i.e.  cleaii)  bottles,  and  so  be  preserved  from  fermenting. 

Bramble.     See  Thorn  3. 

Bride,  Bridegroom,  Bridecbamber.     See  Marriage  Rites. 

Briers.     See  Thorn  2. 

Burial.     See  Funeral  Rites. 

Basb.     See  Tho7'n  3. 

Camel,  Kani'jXoc,  camelus.  The  form  and  habits  of  the  camel  are 
too  well  known  to  require  description.  In  the  New  Testament  the 
use  of  its  hair  is  referred  to  in  the  case  of  John  the  Baptist,  whose 
'  garment  was  of  camel's  hair '  (Matt.  iii.  4 ;  Mark  i.  6).  This  hair 
comes  chiefly  from  the  hump  and  back,  is  rough  in  texture  and 
black  in  colour,  and  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  formed  the  usual 
'  rough  garment '  of  a  prophet,  and  therefore  to  have  been  adopted 
by  the  Baptist.  Among  the  many  proverbs  derived  from  camels, 
which  are  common  in  the  East,  our  Lord  used  two — '  It  is  easier 
for  a  camel  to  go  through  the  eye  of  a  needle,  than  for  a  rich  man 
to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God '  (Matt.  xix.  24 ;  Mark  x.  25  ; 
Luke  xviii.  25),  and  '  Ye  blind  guides,  which  strain  at  a  gnat,  and 
swallow  a  camel '  (Matt,  xxiii.  24).  Some  have  supposed  that  the 
'  camel '  in  the  former  passage  was  really  a  large  rope,  or  cable ; 
and  others,  that  the  '  eye  of  a  needle  '  was  a  low  and  narrow  gate- 
way so  called.     But  these  opinions  lack  confirmation. 

Candle,  Candlestick.  The  words  thus  translated  {^vx^oc, 
Xvxvia)  do  not  indicate  any  light-producing  apparatus  similar  to  that 
in  modern  use,  the  arrangement  referred  to  under  this  name  being 
that  of  the  ancient  lamp,  viz.  a  small  flat-shaped  and  covered 
vessel  for  the  oil,  with  a  spout  at  one  side  through  which  the  wick 
passed,  and  a  handle  at  the  other — much  like  a  flat- shaped  earthen- 
ware tea-pot.  But  it  is  worth  notice,  and  full  of  meaning,  that  in 
the  verses,  '  The  light  of  the  body  is  the  eye  '  (Matt.  vi.  22  ;  Luke 
xi.  34)  ;  '  We  have  a  more  sure  word  of  prophecy  ;  whereunto  ye 
do  well  that  ye  take  heed,  as  unto  a  light  that  shineth  in  a  dark 
place '  (2  Pet.  i.  19)  ;  '  The  Lamb  is  the  light  thereof,'  the  word 
elsewhere  translated  '  candle  '  is  used.  The  word  '  candlestick '  is 
further  used :  (I)  In  Heb.  ix.  2,  where  reference  is  made  to  the 
golden  candlestick  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple.  This  candlestick 
is  described  in  Exod.  xxv.  31-37 ;  xxxvii.  17-24,  as  being  made 
of  pure  beaten  work  of  gold,  having  three  branches  on  each  side, 
so  as  altogether  to  uphold  seven  lamps,  and  employing  a  talent  of 
gold,  valued  from  4,000Z.  to  6,000/.  This  candlestick  was  placed 
in  the  outer  of  the  two  apartments  int-o  which  the  tabernacle  was 


BRAIVIBLE— CASTLE.  149 

divided  (Exod.  xxvii.  21),  and  apparently  was  kept  continually 
burning  (Exod.  xxvii.  20,  '■  to  cause  the  lamp  to  hum  always  ;'  but 
margin,  Ho  ascend  up'').  Kalisch  says,  ^In  order  to  make  it 
literally  a  "perpetual  light,"  and  because  no  sky  light  fell  into  the 
structure,  it  seems  to  have  been  customary  in  the  service  of  the 
temple  that  one  light  at  least  was  always  burning  (comp.,  however, 
1  Sam.  iii.  3).'  It  stood  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  sanctuary, 
and  rested  on  a  base,  probably  of  the  shape  of  a  chest,  with  three  feet 
under  it.  What  became  of  this  candlestick  is  not  known.  The 
corresponding  arrangement  in  Solomon's  temple  consisted  of  ten 
golden  candlesticks,  which  were  carried  to  Babylon,  and  that  in  the 
temple  of  Herod  of  one,  which  was  taken  to  Rome  by  Titus.  A 
representatior  of  this  on  the  arch  of  Titus  shows  that  it  also  had  six 
branches  and  seven  lights.  It  was  afterwards  taken  to  Carthage  by 
Genseric  (a.d.  455),  recovered  by  Belisarius,  carried  to  Constanti- 
nople, and  thence  to  Jerusalem  (a.d.  533),  where  it  was  deposited 
in  the  Christian  church  at  Jerusalem.  Dean  Stanley  says,  '  The 
declaration  "  I  am  the  light  of  the  world  "  has,  with  great  proba- 
bility, been  referred  to  the  colossal  candlestick  in  the  same  festival ; 
the  more  remarkable  in  the  profound  darkness  which  then,  as  now, 
reigned  through  the  night  of  an  Oriental  town '  ('  Sinai  and  Pales- 
tine,' chap.  13).  (2)  Metaphorically,  to  indicate  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia,  in  Rev.  i.  12.  Here  we  read  that  the  apostle  John 
saw  '  seven  golden  candlesticks,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  seven 
golden  candlesticks  one  like  unto  the  Son  of  Man.'  Trench  observes 
on  this  that  the  candlestick  is  not  itself  light,  but  the  bearer  of 
light,  which  the  church  receives  from  the  Lord.  The  candlestick 
stood  in  the  Holy  Place,  because  that  is  the  type  of  the  Church  on 
earth,  as  the  Holiest  is  the  type  of  the  church  in  heaven.  (3)  Pro- 
phetically, in  Rev.  xi.  4,  where  the  two  witnesses  are  called  '  the 
two  olive  trees,  and  the  two  candlesticks  standing  before  the  God 
of-the  earth.'  Compared  with  Zech.  iv.,  it  would  seem  that  these 
two  candlesticks  indicate  the  two  churches  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  New  Testament  dispensations,  which  bear  witness  on  earth  to 
God,  fed  by  the  oil  of  his  Spirit. 

Castle,  //  7rapeni3o\ri,  castra.  '  The  tower  of  Antonia  was  situated 
at  the  corner  of  two  cloisters  of  the  court  of  the  temple :  of  that  on 
the  west,  and  that  on  the  north ;  it  was  erected  upon  a  rock  of 
fifty  cubits  in  height,  and  was  on  a  great  precipice ;  it  was  the 
work  of  king  Herod.  ...  The  inward  parts  had  the  largeness  aiid 
form  of  a  palace,  it  being  parted  into  all  kinds  of  rooms  and  other 
conveniences,  such  as  courts  and  places  for  Lathing,  and  broad 


150       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEAV   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

spaces  for  lamps.  ...  It  contained  also  four  other  distinct  towers 
at  its  four  corners.  .  .  .  and  it  bad  passages  down  to  the  two 
cloisters,  through  which  the  guard  (for  there  always  lay  in  this 
tower  a  Roman  legion)  went  several  ways  amongst  the  cloisters, 
with  their  arms,  on  the  Jewish  festivals.'  (Josephus  B.  J.  5.  5.  8.) 
This  was  the  '  castle  '  of  Acts  xxi.-xxiii.  Here  St,  Paul  was  de- 
tained, after  being  rescued  from  the  mob  in  the  temple,  and  hence 
he  was  sent  in  the  night  to  Csesarea.     See  Jerusalem,  in  Section  5. 

Cattle,  Opspfiara,  pecora,  applied  apparently  in  Luke  xvii.  7,  and 
John  iv.  12,  to  any  domesticated  animal,  including  sheep  and  goats. 
Oxen  and  sheep  were  driven  out  of  the  temple  with  a  scourge  of 
twisted  rushes  by  our  Lord  in  his  first  cleansing  (John  ii.  14, 15),  and 
the  use  of  oxen  for  treading  out  the  corn  is  referred  to  by  St.  Paul 
in  1  Cor.  ix.  9,  and  1  Tim.  v.  18,  in  both  of  which  passages  the  law 
against  muzzling  an  ox  so  engaged  (Deut.  xxv.  4),  is  quoted  as  an 
argument  for  the  right  of  Christian  ministers  to  a  maintenance. 
In  1  Cor.  ix.  9,  St.  Paul  adds  '  Doth  God  take  care  for  oxen  ?'  a 
.question  which  indicates  that  the  true  reason  of  the  Mosaic  law  is 
not  a  mere  consideration  for  the  comfort  of  the  animal  employed, 
but  is  the  application  to  his  particular  case  of  a  deeper  general  law 
intended  for  the  welfare  of  all  God's  creatures. 

The  present  breed  of  oxen  in  southern  Palestine  much  resembles 
the  Scotch  horned  cattle,  but  with  shorter  horns.  It  is  shaggy, 
and  short-legged,  in  colour  generally  black  or  brown.  In  central 
Palestine  horned  cattle  of  any  kind  are  scarce.  In  Galilee  a  large 
breed  is  found,  known  as  the  Armenian  breed,  and  in  the  Ghor  or 
Jordan  valley,  the  black  Indian  buffalo  displaces  the  common  ox. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  two  heathen  deities,  sometimes  called  the 
Dioscuri,  and  fabled  as  the  twin- sons  of  Jupiter  and  Leda.  They 
were  regarded  as  the  tutelary  deities  of  sailors,  and  their  use  as 
the  figure-heads  of  vessels  (placed  in  ancient  ships  both  at  the 
bow  and  stern)  was  therefore  not  uncommon.  The  ship  of  Alex- 
andria, which  wintered  in  the  Isle  of  Melita,  and  carried  St.  Paul 
and  his  companions  thence  to  Puteoli,  had  the  ^  sign  of  C.and  P.' 
(napaaiiixt^  Aioaicovpotg  =  w^th  the  sign  of  the  Dioscuri,  Acts 
xxviii.  11). 

Centurion,  ^KarSvrapxocy  KEvrvpiiov,  Centurio.  The  Roman  army 
was  divided  into  'legions,'  answering  to  modern  'regiments,'  and 
containing  from  three  to  six  thousand  men.  These  legions  were 
subdivided  into  ten  cohorts  (in  the  New  Testament,  '  bands '),  each 
cohort  into  three  maniples,  and  each  maniple  into  two  centuries. 
Hence  sixty  centuries  =  thirty  maniples  ^  ten  cohorts  =  one  legion, 


CATTLE- CHAMBERLAIN.  151 

and  if  the  le^on  contained  6,000,  the  century  would  contain  100  men. 
The  leader  of  the  centur}'  was  called  a  centurion.  He  had  double  the 
pay  of  an  ordinary  private  soldier,  and  was  distinguished  by  wear- 
ing- a  short  tunic,  having  letters  on  the  crest  of  his  helmet,  and 
carrying  a  staff  made  of  vine  wood  and  called  vitis,  with  which  he 
was  at  liberty  to  chastise  the  men  under  his  orders.  Several 
centurions  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  (1)  A  centurion 
residing  at  Capernaum,  whose  servant  was  healed  by  Christ  in 
answer  to  his  faith,  and  who  afterwards  became  a  believer  (Matt, 
viii.  5-13;  Luke  vii.  1-10).  (2)  The  centurion  in  charge  of  the 
crucifixion,  who,  when  he  had  seen  the  wonderful  events  which 
followed  the  death  of  our  Lord,  is  reported  by  St.  Mark  (xv.  39) 
to  have  said  '  Truly  this  was  the  Son  of  God '  (ovtoq  vVoq  ijv  Geov), 
and  by  St.  Luke  (xxiii.  47)  to  have  '  glorified  God,  saying.  Cer- 
tainly this  was  a  righteous  man.'  (3)  Cornelius  of  Caesarea,  to 
whom  St.  Peter  was  sent  from  Joppa :  see  Acts  x.  (4)  Centurions 
at  the  tower  of  Antonia,  who  assisted  in  rescuing  St.  Paul  from 
the  Jews.  Of  these  centurions,  one  appears  to  have  been  entrusted 
with  the  superintendence  of  the  scourging  of  the  apostle,  another 
was  called  by  St.  Paul  and  entrusted  with  a  message  to  the  chief 
captain,  and  two  others  had  charge  of  the  troop  of  400  infantry 
and  70  horsemen  which  conducted  St.  Paul  to  Caesarea  (Acts  xxi. 
S2;  xxii.25,  26;  xxiii.  17-23).  (5)  A  centurion  to  whom  Felix 
at  Csesarea  delivered  Paul  to  be  kept  in  what  was  called  liberty' 
(ai'£(Tt(.),  which  some  consider  to  be  *  free  custody '  or  without 
fetters,  and  others  merely  a  slight  relaxation  from  the  usual  rigours 
of  military  custody.  (6)  A  centurion  of  Augustus'  band,  named 
Julius,  who  conveyed  St.  Paul  into  Italy,  and  there  delivered  him 
over  to  the  captain  of  the  guard.  See  Band  in  this  Section,  and 
Julius  in  Section  5. 

Cbalcedony.     See  Jewel. 

Chamberlain.  This  title  is  ascribed  in  A.  V.  to  two  very 
diflPerent  officials.  (1)  Blastus  is  called  the  '  chamberlain '  of 
Herod  Agrippa  the  elder  (Acts  xii.  20 j.  But  the  Greek  is  6  ittI 
rod  KoiTMvoc  =  the  superintendent  of  the  bedchamber  or  cubtcularius. 
This  official  was  really  in  charge  of  the  sovereign's  person,  and, 
having  charge  of  the  sleeping  room  and  ordinary  living  rooms, 
lived  in  close  intimacy  with  his  master.  Originally  the  cuhicularii 
were  slaves,  but  in  later  times  the  office  was  held  by  persons  of 
high  rank.  (2)  Erastus,  the  ^  chamberlain '  {oIkov6}j.oc,  arcarius) 
of  Corinth  (Rom.  xvi.  23).  This  official  was  really  the  Public 
Treasurer.     The  same  Greek  word  is  translated  in  many  passages 


152        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

^  steward/  as  in  '  There  was  a  certain  rich  man,  which  had  a 
steward  '  (Luke  xvi.  1).  See  also  Luke  xii.  42 ;  1  Cor  iv.  1,  '  steivards 
of  the  mysteries  of  God '  j  Titus  i.  7,  '  as  the  stetvard  of  God,'  and 
elsewhere. 

Cbangrers.     See  Bank. 

Chief  of  Asia.     See  Theatre. 

Chief-Priest.     See  Priest. 

Christ,  o  xp^^'^^c,  Christus.  A  term  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  D'^S^D  (Greek  utaaiag^  see  John 
i.  42,  '  We  have  found  the  'Messiah,  which  is,  being  interpreted, 
the  Christ,'  and  comp.  John  iv.  25),  and  English  anointed.  It  is 
derived  from  the  verb  xp/w,  /  anoint,  just  as  D^^D,  comes  from 
riK^lp,  he  anointed.  It  properly  refers  to  any  one  anointed  with  the 
holy  oil,  which  was  regularly  the  case  with  kings  (1  Sam.  ii.  10,  &c.), 
and  with  the  high  priest  (Lev.  iv.  3,  5,  16),  but  prophets  were 
also  occasionally  anointed,  as  in  the  case  of  Elisha  (1  Kings  xix. 
16).  The  term  came  to  be  used  in  New  Testament  times  of  that 
great  prophet  (o  ipxonevoQ  =  The  Coming  One)  who  was  expected 
by  the  Jews  (see  the  enquiry  of  the  wise  men,  Matt.  ii.  4),  and  as 
to  their  identity  with  whom  both  John  the  Baptist  and  our  Lord 
himself  were  questioned.  John  expressly  denied  the  title  for 
himself,  and  claimed  it  for  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (John  i.  19-28;  iii  -S8), 
but  Jesus  himself  on  many  occasions  declared  himself  to  be  '  the 
Christ,'  or  accepted  the  title  from  others  (see  Matt.  xvi.  16 ;  xxiii. 
8  ;  xxiv.  5  ;  Mark  viii.  29 ;  ix.  41 ;  Luke  ix.  20  ;  xxiii.  2  ;  xxiv. 
26 ;  John  xi.  27 ;  xvii.  3),  although  at  times  he  desired  not  to 
be  known  by  the  name  (Matt.  xvi.  20).  The  assumption  of  the 
title  by  our  Lord  was  indeed  so  notorious  that  the  Pharisaic 
party  determined  to  excommunicate  any  man  who  '  should 
confess  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ '  (John  ix.  22),  and  the  name 
was  cast  in  his  teeth  both  in  the  Prretorium  and  at  the  crucifixion 
(Matt.  xxvi.  68 ;  Luke  xxiii.  35-39).  In  the  Acts  and  Epistles, 
the  word  obtains  a  broader  use,  generally  being  united  with  the 
word  Lord  or  Jesns  or  Lord  Jesus  as  a  title  of  honour,  sometimes 
being  used  simply  as  an  equivalent  for  the  name  Jesus  (Acts  viii. 
5;  Romans  v.  6 ;  1  Peter  ii.  21,  &c.,  &c.),  and  very  often  as  a 
short  description  of  the  condition  of  the  believer  as  spiritually 
united  to  his  Saviour,  and  one  with  him  (comp,  the  phrases  'To 
me  to  live  is  Christ/  Phil.  i.  21 ;  'I  count  all  things  but  dung  that 
I  may  win  Christ,'  Phil.  iii.  8  ;  *  Christ  is  all/  Col.  iii.  11 ;  and  the 
constantly  recurring  expression  'in  Christ').  A  distinction  has 
sometimes  been  suggested  between  Jesus  Christ,  and  Christ  Jesus, 


CHANGEKS— CHURCH.  153 

the  former  order  being  observed  when  the  design  is  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  personality,  and  the  latter  when  the  design  is  to  call 
attention  to  the  official  character,  of  our  Lord,  but  this  distinction 
can  hardly  be  held  as  established. 

The  expression  *  false  Christs/  (\pevS6xpi(Troi,pseudoc7iristi)  (Matt, 
xxiv.  5,  24  ;  Mark  xiii.  6, 22  ;  Luke  xxi.  8),  used  by  our  Lord,  to 
indicate  the  pretenders  to  the  Messiahship  which  should  after- 
wards arise,  will  now  explain  itself.  This  prophecy  is  usually 
referred  to  Theudas,  Simon  Magus,  Barchochab,  the  Egyptian 
prophet  at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  and  others ;  but  Alford  regards 
it  as  having  a  general  reference  to  the  last  days. 

Cbristian,  xi"tf^'"'«»'of?  Christianus.  A  name  first  given  to  the 
followers  of  Jesus  Christ  at  Antioch  in  Syria,  about  a.d.  44  (Acts 
xi.  26),  and  apparently  at  once  adopted  as  their  fitting  designation, 
as  we  find  Felix  saying  to  St.  Paul,  '  Almost  thou  persuadest  me 
to  be  a  Christian  '  (Acts  xxvi.  28),  and  St.  Peter  using  the  expres- 
sion, 'If  any  man  suffer  as  a  Christian'  (1  Peter  iv.  16,  with 
which  comp.  James  ii.  7).  Before  this  date,  the  followers  of 
our  Lord  went  by  various  names,  such  as  '  the  brethren/  '  the 
saints,'  'disciples/  'Nazarenes,' ' Galilseans,' Hhis  way,'  'believers.' 
Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  the  origin  of  the  term,  some  suppos- 
ing it  to  have  been  originally  a  nickname,  while  others  regard  it  as 
having  been  given  by  ofiicial  authority  of  the  church.  The  text  in 
Acts,  'the  disciples  were  called  (xpnt^ariam)  Christians  first  in 
Antioch,'  favours  the  latter  notion,  xP^I^"^'^^^  having,  in  later 
Greek,  the  sense  of  '  to  bear  a  name  officially '  (see  Eom.  vii.  3, 
where  alone  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament  the  word  is  used). 
And  in  Isaiah  Ixv.  15,  we  read,  '  Ye  shall  leave  your  name'. 
(i.e.,  say  interpreters  of  this  opinion,  the  name  of  Jews)  '  for  a 
curse  unto  my  chosen ;  for  the  Lord  God  shall  slay  thee,  and  call 
his  servants  hy  another  name.'' 

Cbrysolite.     See  Jewel. 

Chrysoprasus.     See  Jewel. 

Churcb,  EKK'Syjaia,  ecclesia.  A  word  only  found  in  two  places  in 
the  Gospels,  viz.  Matt.  xvi.  18,  '  On  this  rock  I  will  build  my 
church,'  and  Matt,  xviii.  17,  '  Tell  it  to  the  church,  and  if  he  shall 
neglect  to  hear  the  church.'  The  word  ecclesia  was  originally 
used  to  designate  the  assembly  of  burghers  in  a  Greek  state,  and, 
when  thus  used,  pointed  to  the  nature  of  such  an  assembly,  as 
summoned  by  lawful  proclamation,  and  not  gathered  by  fortuitous 
concourse.  Ordinarily,  however,  it  simply  =  '  congregation,'  and 
is  so  employed  in  1  Chron.  xiii.  2,  and  possibly  in  Acts  vii.  38. 


154       ESSENTIxlLS   OF  NEW    TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Obviously  and  indeed  expressly,  our  Lord  used  the  word  prolepti- 
cally  :  no  Christian  congregation  or  body  existed  at  the  time  when 
the  words  were  uttered,  and  to  apply  them  to  a  Jewish  synagogue 
renders  them  nearly  meaningless.  Immediately  after  the  Ascension, 
however,  the  '  Church/  as  might  be  expected,  comes  into  view.  In 
Acts  ii.  47,  St.  Luke  applies  the  term  for  the  first  time  to  an  actu- 
ally existing  institution,  viz.  the  congregation  of  believers  of  whom 
we  read  in  v.  42-45,  that  '  they  continued  steadfastly  in  the  apostles' 
doctrine  and  fellowship  and  in  breaking  of  bread  and  in  prayers,' 
&c.  ...  *  were  together  and  had  all  things  common ;  and  sold 
their  possessions  and  goods,  and  parted  them  to  all  men,  as  every 
man  had  need.'  After  this,  the  word  occurs  very  frequently  and 
with  several  shades  of  meaning,  indicating  (I)  The  whole  body  of 
Christ's  followers,  regarded  as  a  corporation.  Thus  in  Eph.  v.  25, 
*  Christ  loved  the  church,  and  gave  himself  for  it ; '  Col.  i.  24,  '  For 
his  body's  sake,  the  church  ;'  and  in  the  phrases '  church  of  God,'  as 
in  1  Cor.  xv.  9,  ^  I  persecuted  the  church  of  God  ;'  and  in  1  Tim.  iii. 
15,  Hhe  church  of  the  living  God:  the  pillar  and  ground  of  the 
truth.'  (2)  Particular  congregations.  Thus  we  read  in  Rev.  ii.  of 
the  churches  of  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Perga,  Thyatira,  Sardis, 
Philadelphia,  Laodicsea,  and  in  other  places  of  '  the  church  at 
Antioch  '  (Acts  xiii.  1),  *  the  whole  church  '  (at  Jerusalem)  (Acts 
XV.  22),  Uhe  church  in  their  (Priscilla  and  Aquila)  house'  (Rom. 
xvi.  6 ;  1  Cor.  xvi.  19),  '  the  church  of  God  at  Corinth '  (1  Cor.  i. 
2),  'no  church  communicated  with  me.  .  .  .  but  ye  (Philippians) ' 
(Phil.  iv.  15),  *  the  church  in  Nymphas'  house '  (Col.  iv.  15),  '  the 
church  in  thy  (Philemon)  house  '  (Philem.  2),  *  the  church  at 
Babylon  '  (1  Peter  v.  13),  the  churches  of  '  Galatia '  (1  Cor.  xvi. 
1),  '  Asia '  (1  Cor.  xvi.  19),  &c.,  &c.  (3)  The  assembly  of  believers 
for  worship.  Thus,  '  When  ye  come  together  in  the  church  '  (1 
Cor.  xi.  18),  '  He  that  prophesieth  edifieth  the  church  '  (1  Cor. 
xiv.  4  ;  see  also  ver.  5, 19,  23,  35),  '  Let  the  women  keep  silence  in 
the  churches'  (1  Cor.  xiv.  34). 

The  constitution  of  the  church  in  New  Testament  times  was 
arranged  by  gradual  development.  For  the  first  seven  years  after 
the  Ascension,  the  apostles  appear  to  have  been  the  only  officers. 
Seven  secular  officers  (probably  identical  with  the  deacons,  but 
never  so  called)  were  then  appointed.  Further  on,  '  elders '  or 
presbyters,  and  '  overseers '  or  '  bishops,'  are  found,  and  these  terms 
appear  to  have  been  indifferently  used  to  designate  the  same  per- 
sons (see  JBishop).  The  apostles  still  continued  as  the  recognized 
rulers,  and  Timothy  and  Titus  evidently  held  an  authority  supe- 


CINNAIVION— COALS.  155 

rior  to  that  of  the  ordinary  '  elder.'  Finally,  yarious  offices 
existed  which  are  now  disused.  Thus  in  1  Cor.  xii.  28,  we  read 
*  God  hath  set  some  (ovg  fiev)  in  the  church ;  first,  apostles ; 
secondarily,  prophets  (preachers  ?)  ;  thirdly,  teachers ;  after  that, 
miracles ;  then  gifts  of  healing,  helps  {dvTi\i]\p(ir),  governments, 
{Kvl3tpvi)<Teic),  diversities  of  tongues  (ysj'??  yXwo-o-wj^),'  Similarly,  in 
Eph.  iv.  11,  12,  '  He  gave  some,  apostles ',  and  some,  prophets ; 
and  some,  evangelists ;  and  some,  pastors  and  teachers ;  for  the 
perfecting  of  the  saints,  for  the  work  of  the  ministry,  for  the  edify- 
ing of  the  body  of  Christ.' 

Cinnamon,  Kiivdfiojuov,  cinnamoimim,  enumerated  amongst  the 
merchandise  of  the  mystic  Babylon  (Rev.  xviii.  13).  The  cinna- 
mon tree  is  not  a  native  of,  nor  cultivated  in,  Palestine,  but  is 
grown  in  various  parts  of  the  East  Indies.  It  is  a  species  of 
laurel,  attains  the  height  of  thirty  feet,  and  has  a  white  blossom. 
The  cinnamon  of  commerce  is  the  inner  bark  dried. 

Cleansing:.     See  PuriJicatio7i. 

Clerk.     See  Toxvnclerh. 

Cloak,  (j:e\6vr],  2^enula  (2  Tim.  iv.  13)  ;  Ijitnrto?',  tunica  (Matt.  v. 
40  ;  Luke  vi.  29)  :  itpotpaaiQ,  excusatio  (John  xv.  22 ;  1  Thess.  ii.  o, 
occasio)  ;  l-n-LKaXvufxa,  velamen  (1  Pet.  ii.  16).  On  these  passages 
it  may  be  noticed  that  (1)  the  penula  of  2  Tim.  iv.  is  regarded  by 
Conybeare  and  Howson  as  '  a  travelling-case  (for  carrying  clothes, 
books,  &e.)  or  a  travelling-cloak ;  the  former  is  more  probable ' 
(chap,  xxvii.).  On  the  other  hand,  Gaussen,  in  his  '  Theopneustia,' 
calls  attention  to  the  life-like  touch  given  to  the  letter  by  this 
request  of  the  apostle,  then  lying  in  a  chilling  dungeon  at  Rome, 
and  much  needing  such  protection  as  would  be  afforded  by  a  thick 
cloak ;  (2)  the  cloak  of  Matt.  v.  and  Luke  vi.  was  not  only  dis- 
tinguished from  the  'coat'  (^irwi/),  as  an  outer  is  distinguished 
from  an  inner  garment,  but  as  being  the  more  valuable  and  ex- 
pensive, so  that  the  command  '  Him  that  taketh  away  thy  coat 
(xirwi-),  forbid  not  to  take  thy  cloak  Qhcitwv)  also,'  has  a 
deeper  meaning  than  at  first  appears. 

Cloke.     See  Cloak. 

Coals,  afire  of,  dvQpaKia,  prunes  (John  xviii.  18,  xxi.  9).  The 
fires  kindled  in  the  court  of  the  high  priest's  palace,  on  the  night 
of  our  Lord's  arrest,  and  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Tiberias,  when  our 
Lord  appeared  there  to  his  disciples,  are  so  described.  The 
material  was  in  all  probability  charcoal,  and  the  expression  takes 
this  form  to  indicate  a  lighted  fire,  as  distinguished  from  an  un- 
lighted  one.     Unlighted  coal  is  dvOpa^. 


156        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Cock,  Cock-crowing'.  Domestic  fowls  seem  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Palestine  after  the  return  from  Babylon,  and  in 
New  Testament  times,  as  in  our  own,  they  were  probably  very 
familiar  objects  in  Jerusalem.  The  Jewish  night  appears,  at  any 
rate,  to  have  been  divided  into  four  watches  of  three  hours  each, 
one  of  which  was  distinguished  by  the  term  '  cock-crowing.'  Thus 
we  read,  '  Ye  know  not  when  the  master  of  the  house  cometh,  at 
even,  or  at  midnight,  or  at  coch-crowi7igj  or  in  the  morning '  (Mark 
xiii.  35).  But  although  the  period  from  midnight  to  3  a.m.  was 
known  by  this  name,  cock-crowing  to  most  people  represented  the 
hour  of  dawn,  when  the  cock  crows  again,  although  in  reality  for 
the  second  and  not  the  first  time.  This  explains  the  apparent 
difference  between  Mark  xiv.  30,  where  our  Lord  warns  Peter 
that  before  the  cock  shall  crow  twice,  he  should  deny  him  thrice, 
and  the  parallel  passages  in  Matt.  xxvi.  34  ;  Luke  xxii.  34  ;  John 
xiii.  38,  where  it  is  simply  said  '  Before  the  cock  crow.'  For  in 
point  of  fact,  the  second  cock-crowing  (spoken  of  by  Mark)  was 
identical  with  that  usually  regarded  as  the  first.  See  '  Stier's 
Words  of  Jesus,'  vol.  vii.  p.  197. 

The  affection  of  the  hen  for  her  offspring  is  referred  toby  Christ. 
'  How  often  would  I  have  gathered  thy  children,'  said  He,  weep- 
ing over  Jerusalem,  '  as  a  hen  gathereth  her  chickens  under  her 
wings  '  (Matt,  xxiii,  37  ;  Luke  xiii.  34). 

Colony,  KoXojvia,  colonia.  The  Roman  colony  was  not,  as 
colonies  with  us,  a  merely  voluntary  assemblage  of  emigrants,  but 
was  a  formal  and  legal  transfer  of  Roman  citizens  to  a  foreign 
country  or  town.  Such  colonies  were  often  set  on  foot  as  a  means 
of  providing  for  veteran  soldiers,  and  the  colonists  were  regarded 
as  Roman  citizens,  and  continued  to  be  enrolled  in  some  one  of 
the  tribes  of  Rome.  Their  chief  magistrates  were  called  Duum- 
viri or  Quattuorviri,  and  a  council  or  senate  shared  the  governing 
power.  Several  towns  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  were 
colonies  (such  as  Antioch  in  Pisidia),  but  the  only  colony  referred 
to  as  ^  a  colony '  in  the  New  Testament  is  Philippi,  in  Macedonia. 
This  town,  which  had  been  founded  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  was 
made  a  colony  by  Augustus,  and  its  full  name  altered  to  Colonia 
Augusta  Julia  Philippensis.  In  accordance  with  these  characteristics 
of  Philippi,  we  find  the  magistrates  there  designated  by  the  term 
arpaTTjyoi  (Greek  equivalent  of  prcetores,  Acts  xvi.  20,  22,  35,  36, 
38),  and  their  officers  as  pajSSovxoi  (A.  V.  '  sergeants,'  but  the  Greek 
equivalent  of  lictores^  Acts  xvi.  35-38). 

Colt,  ttCjXgq,  pullus.     The  young  of  the  ass,  upon  which  our 


COCK— COUNCIL.  157 

Saviour  rode  in  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem  (Matt.  xxi. ; 
Mark  xi. ;  Luke  xix. ;  John  xii.)  In  Matt.  xxi.  5,  where  A.V. 
says  '  A  colt,  the  foal  of  an  ass/  the  Greek  -  a  colt,  the  son  of  a 
beast  of  burden  (^vlbv  vrrnZvyiov'). 

Communion.     See  Lord's  Supper. 

Concision,  Kararofxi],  concisio  =  amputation,  a  term  of  contempt 
for  mere  ceremonial  Tnpironv,,  or  simple  circumcision  (Phil,  iii.  2). 

Corban,  l^lf:?,  KopjSay,  Corhcai.  '  Such  as  dedicate  themselves 
to  God  as  a  corban,  which  denotes  what  the  Greeks  call  a  gift, 
when  they  are  desirous  of  being  freed  from  that  ministration,  are 
to  lay  down  money  for  the  priests  '  (Josephus,  Ant.  4.  4. 4.)  The 
word  is  used  in  Lev.  ii.  I ;  Num.  v.  15  ;  Ezek.  xx.  28,  and  many 
other  places  in  the  same  books,  and  there  =  sacrifice  or  oiFering, 
either  bloody  or  unbloody.  But  the  word  was  also  applied  by 
Rabbinical  writers  to  anything-  which  had  been  vowed  to  the 
service  of  God,  and  in  this  sense  was  even  applied  to  the  sacred 
treasure  of  the  temple  (Josephus,  B.  J.  2.  9.  4),  or  to  anything 
from  the  use  of  which  a  person  interdicted  himself  (e.g.  wine) 
from  religious  motives.  The  misuse  of  this  custom  by  persons 
who  pretended  to  devote  their  property  to  sacred  uses,  in  order  to 
save  themselves  from  the  demands  made  upon  it  on  behalf  of 
their  aged  parents,  is  reprimanded  by  our  Lord  in  Matt.  xv.  5,  and 
Mark  vii.  11. 

Council,  (Tvvf^ptor,  concilium.  The  supreme  Jewish  court  of 
justice,  ordinarily  called  the  Sanhedrim  (a  Hebraised  form  of  the 
Greek  word).  It  consisted  of  seventy-one  members,  and  included 
the  high-priest  and  ex-high-priests,  and  the  heads  of  the  twenty- 
four  priestly  courses,  together  with  elders  and  scribes.  The  president 
was  styled  Nasi,  and  was  not  necessarily  the  high  priest,  although 
frequently  that  official  was  chosen  to  fill  the  chair.  Its  sessions 
were  ordinarily  held  in  a  hall  situated  within  the  precincts  of  the 
Temple,  but  occasionally,  as  in  the  case  of  the  trial  of  Jesus,  at 
the  high  priest's  palace.  The  members  of  the  court  occupied 
seats  arranged  in  a  semicircle,  with  the  president  in  the  middle 
seat,  and  having  at  his  right  hand  the  oldest  member,  entitled 
Hhe  father  of  the  house  of  judgment.'  Whether  this  body 
possessed  under  the  Roman  government  the  power  of  life  and 
death  is  a  disputed  point.  The  common  opinion  that  it  did  not 
possess  the  power  is  based  upon  John  xviii.  31,  'It  is  not  lawful 
for  us  to  put  any  man  to  death,'  and  the  apparent  exception  in  the 
case  of  Stephen  is  explained  by  regarding  the  execution  of  that 
holy  man  as  iiTegular  and  unlawful,  and  by  referring  to  Josephus, 


158        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

who  stigmatises  the  act  of  the  Sanhedrim  in  putting  St.  James  to 
death  (Ant.  20.  9.  1)  as  ^  a  breach  of  the  laws.'  The  Talmud  is 
also  quoted  by  Selden  and  others  to  the  effect  that  '  forty  years 
before  the  Temple  was  destroyed,  judgment  in  capital  cases  was 
taken  away  from  Israel.'  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  argued  that 
Pilate  said,  '  Take  ye  Him  (Jesus),  and  judge  Him  according  to 
your  law ;'  the  expression  of  the  Jews  above  quoted  is  held  to  mean 
that  ^  it  was  not  lawful  to  put  a  man  to  death  at  the  festival  of  the 
passocer  ;'  the  words  of  Josephus  are  taken  to  mean  that  the  death 
of  James  was  not  inflicted  by  an  incompetent  court,  but  after  an 
unrighteous  j  udgment ;  and  the  Talmud  quotation  to  signify,  not 
that  capital  punishment  was  altogether  disused,  but  that  it  was 
less  frequently  inflicted,  by  the  Sanhedrim.  With  the  latter  view 
of  course  Stephen's  death  agrees,  and  John  v.  18 ;  vii.  32,  51 ; 
viii.  5,  7 ;  xi.  53 ;  xii.  10,  are  easily  explicable. 

Before  this  council  our  Saviour  was  brought,  and  by  its  act 
taken  before  the  Roman  governor  Pontius  Pilate  (Matt.  xxvi.  59  ; 
Mark  xiv.  55  j  xv.  1  j  Luke  xxii.  66;  John  xi.  47).  Before  the 
same  council  Peter  and  John  were  brought  after  healing  the  lame 
man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Temple  (Acts  iv.  5),  and  again 
all  the  apostles  (Acts  v.  21,  27).  By  this  council  Stephen  was 
apprehended  and  condemned  (Acts  vi.),  and  before  the  same  body 
St.  Paul  was  brought  when  arrested  at  Jerusalem  by  the  chief 
captain.  On  this  occasion  the  apostle,  not  knowing  that  the 
president  was 'the  high  priest  (see  above),  resented  the  injustice 
committed  by  striking  him,  but  afterwards,  being  informed  as  to 
the  real  character  of  the  president,  expressed  his  readiness  to  keep 
the  law,  and  his  desire,  in  accordance  with  it,  not  to  revile  '  the 
ruler  of  the  people.' 

Course  of  Abia.     See  Priests, 

Cross,  oravpoc,  crux.  Death  by  exposure  on  a  cross  was  a 
Roman  punishment,  possibly  derived  from  the  Carthaginians,  and 
restricted  to  slaves.  The  criminal,  after  being  scourged,  was  com- 
pelled to  carry  his  cross  to  the  place  of  execution.  Here  he  was 
stripped  entirely  naked,  and  fastened  to  the  cross  (laid  upon  the 
ground  to  receive  him)  either  by  nails  through  the  hands  and  feet 
(sometimes  only  one  nail  through  both  feet),  or  by  ropes.  The 
latter  was  the  more  cruel  method,  as  the  culprit  lived  longer.  No 
support  was  placed  under  the  feet,  as  sometimes  represented  in 
pictures,  but  the  whole  weight  of  the  body  had  to  be  borne  upon 
the  hands  and  feet  and  on  a  small  projecting  piece  of  wood  which 
passed  between  the  legs  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  body.     The 


COUESE— CUMMIN.  159 

cross  having  been  then  lifted  upright,  and  fastened  into  the  ground, 
the  sufferer  was  left  to  die.  Death,  however,  did  not  ordinarily 
ensue  for  a  long  time,  notwithstanding  the  intense  agony  arising 
from  hunger,  thirst,  the  unnatural  position  and  strain  upon  the 
muscles,  the  wounds  (when  inflicted)  in  the  hands  and  feet,  and 
the  lacerations  produced  by  the  previous  scourgings.  To  the  third 
or  fourth  day  was  a  common  time  for  persons  to  survive,  but 
instances  are  known  of  persons  having  survived  nine  days.  It 
was,  therefore,  in  order  to  produce  a  speedy  death,  that  orders  were 
issued  to  break  the  legs  of  our  Lord  and  of  the  thieves  who  were 
crucified  with  him. 

There  were  several  sorts  of  crosses,  one  in  the  form  of  an  X, 
another  in  the  form  of  the  letter  T;  and  a  third  formed  by  two  pieces 
of  wood  laid  over  each  other  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  so  as  to 
allow  a  small  portion  of  the  longer  piece  to  project  at  the  top. 
This  was  used  when  a  superscription  was  to  be  exhibited,  and  was 
no  doubt  the  form  employed  at  our  Saviour's  crucifixion.  In 
height  the  cross  was  only  eight  or  nine  feet  above  the  ground,  just 
so  much  as  to  prevent  the  criminal's  feet  from  resting  there. 

The  details  of  our  Lord's  crucifixion  are  dwelt  upon  in  Sec- 
tion 2.  It  remains  to  notice  several  references  to  the  cross  in 
the  epistles,  besides  those  in  which  'the  cross  of  Christ'  is 
equivalent  to  '  the  death  of  Christ.'  Death  by  crucifixion  being 
regarded  by  the  Jews  as  cursed  (Deut.  xxi.  23),  and  by  the 
Romans  as  shameful,  St.  Paul  refers  to  our  Lord  as  having 
become  '  a  curse  '  for  his  people  (Gal.  iii.  13),  and  again,  as  having 
become  '  obedient  unto  death,  even  tlie  death  of  the  cross '  (Phil. 
ii.  8).  So  in  another  place  he  speaks  of  the  '  offence  of  the  cross  ' 
(Gal.  V.  11).  Using  other  images  drawn  from  the  same  source, 
the  same  apostle  represents  our  Lord  as  ^nailing  to  his  cross'  tha 
handwriting  of  the  law  against  us  (Col.  ii.  14),  and  continually  de- 
scribes the  endeavours  of  believers  to  subdue  their  natural  sinful 
lusts  as  ^crucifying'  them  (Ptom.  vi.  6  ;  Gal.  ii.  20  ;  v.  24,  &c.J. 

In  Rev.  xi.  8,  Jerusalem,  ^  where  our  Lord  was  crucified,'  is 
styled  spiritually  'Sodom  and  Egypt.' 

Crucify,  Crucifixion.     See  Cross. 

Cummin,  kv}.uvov,  cyminum.  A  herb  something  like  fennel, 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  seeds,  which  are  used  as  a  spice.  It 
has  carminative  properties,  and  an  ancient  opinion  concerning  it 
attributed  to  it  the  power  of  producing  paleness  of  the  countenance. 
Its  botanical  name  is  Cuminum  satimm.  Our  Lord  refers  to  it, 
along  with  mint  and  anise,  in  Matt,  xxiii.  23.     See  Ajiise. 


160       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Curious  arts,  to.  rrf piepya,  curiosa.  The  magic  used  at  Ephesus, 
and  so  overthrown  bj  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  in  that  city, 
that  '■  many  who  used  curious  arts  brought  their  books  together, 
and  burned  them  before  all  men,  and  they  counted  the  price  of 
them,  and  found  it  fifty  thousand  pieces  of  silver '  (Acts  xix.  19). 
The  especial  sort  of  magic  practised  at  Ephesus  was  connected  with 
certain  mystic  symbols,  termed  the  '  Ephesian  letters/  which  were 
engraven  on  the  crown,  feet  and  gir'B.le  of  the  image  of  Diana. 
These  letters  were  conceived  to  act  as  a  charm  when  pronounced, 
and  were  written  on  scrolls  and  carried  about  as  amulets.  The 
study  of  them  was  an  elaborate  science,  and  the  books  necessary 
for  this  study  were  very  valuable,  and  no  doubt  were  among  the 
books  referred  to  in  Acts  xix.  19.  See  *  Conybeare  and  Howson,' 
chap.  xiv. 

Beacon,  SiaKovoc,  minister,  diaconus  (but  in  Phil.  i.  1,  the  abl. 
is  diaconibus).  The  literal  meaning  of  this  term  is  *  servant,' 
and  in  this  sense  it  occurs,  together  with  the  cognate  words 
SiaKoi'ia,  service  or  ministry,  and  diaKorth',  to  serve  or  to  minister, 
nearly  ninety  times.  Thus  '  the  angels  ministered  unto  him ' 
(Mark  i,  13) ;  *  If  any  man  will  serve  me '  (John  xii.  26)  ;  '  As 
everv  man  hath  received  the  gift,  even  so  minister  the  same  one  to 
another '  (1  Peter  iv.  10)  ;  '  the  ministry  of  condemnation '  (2  Cor. 
iii.  9)  ;  '  I  know  thy  works  and  charity  and  service  '  (Rev.  ii.  19)  ; 
*  He  that  is  greatest  amongst  you  shall  be  your  servant '  (Matt, 
xxiii.  11).  But  that  the  Diaconus  soon  became  a  recognised 
official  of  the  church  is  obvious  from  1  Tim.  iii.  8-13  :  '  Likewise 
must  the  deacons  be  grave,  not  double-tongued  ....  and  let  these 
first  be  proved  and  then  let  them  use  the  office  of  a  deacon  (Siuko- 
viirwaaj').  .  .  .  Let  the  deac-ons  be  the  husbands  of  one  wife.  .  . 
For  they  that  have  used  the  office  of  a  deacon  well  (<a\wc  Slukov- 
r](rai'rec)  purchase  to  themselves  a  good  degree  (fSaOfiov).^  In 
Phil.  i.  1,  we  also  read,  '  Paul  and  Timotheus  .  ...  to  the  saints 
which  are  at  Philippi,  with  the  bishops  and  deacons  (J-TTiaKowou: 
Kal  SiaKoroii;),'  where  it  is  clear  that  the  Diaconi  were  recognised 
officers.  In  Rom  xvi.  1,  the  title  is  applied  to  a  woman  : '  1  com- 
mend unto  you  Phebe  our  sister,  which  is  a  servant  {ovaav 
SiaKovov)  of  the  church  which  is  at  Cenchrea,'  and  indistinct  allu- 
sions to  the  same  office  are  found  in  Rom.  xv.  25,  and  Eph.  vi.  21. 

It  has  been  assumed  that  the  '  seven  men  of  honest  report,  full 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  wisdom,'  who  were  elected  by  the  whole 
multitude  of  Christians,  and  set  apart  by  the  apostles  with  laying 
on  of  hands,  for  the  'serving  of  tables  (Siukovuv  Tpan-s'CaiQ)  '  in  the 


CURIOUS  ARTS— DEVIL.  161 

dispute  about  the  Hellenist  widows  of  Acts  vi.  were  the  first 
deacons.  They  are  never  actually  called  by  this  name,  but  it  is 
clear  from  the  use  of  '  SiaKovia — iimiistration  '  (yer.  1),  and  of  '  Sia- 
Kovtiv — sei've '  (ver.  2),  that  their  work  was  a  diaconate,  and  that 
they,  therefore,  were  deacons.  Whether  the  early  official  deacon 
fulfilled  similar  duties  is  not  certainly  known. 

Deputy,  avdhTraroc.^'proconsid.  The  Roman  provinces  under  the 
emperors  from  Augustus  to  Nero  were  divided  into  two  classes. 
One  class  was  supposed  to  be  under  the  government  of  the  Senate, 
and  the  governor  of  these  was  termed  a  proeonml.  The  proconsul 
governed  for  a  year  only,  and  had  lictors  and  fasces,  but  was  desti- 
tute of  military  power.  In  the  other  class  were  the  provinces 
which  were  subject  to  the  emperor.  These  were  governed  by  a 
propra^tor^  whose  office  continued  during  the  emperor's  pleasure, 
and  who  had  military  authority.  In  conformity  with  this  we 
find  the  governors  (^  deputies,'  A.V.)  of  Asia  (Acts  xix.  38),  and 
Achaia  (Gallio,  Acts  xviii.  12)  termed  proconsides^  these  provinces 
being  described  by  Strabo  and  Dio  Cassius  as  senatorial  provinces. 
Dio  Cassius  also  states,  that  Cyprus,  although  at  first  among  the 
Imperial  provinces,  was  restored  to  the  Senate  by  Augustus,  and  a 
coin  (engraved  in  Conyb.  and  Howson,  end  of  chap,  v.)  still  exists, 
having  on  its  reverse  the  title  of  a  Cyprian  proconsul.  Hence 
Acts  xiii.  7,  8,  which  represents  Sergius  Paulus  as  the  jjroconsul  of 
Cyprus,  is  minutely  correct. 

Devil,  cL-^i^oXoc.,  diaholus.  One  of  the  titles  of  the  chief  of  tha 
evil  spirits,  derived  from  his  function  as  an  'accuser'  of  God's 
people  (ota/3«X/\w  =  I  accuse).  The  following  points  are  brought 
forward  in  the  New  Testament  as  to  his  history  and  character. 
He  is  a  personal  spirit,  having  power  over  subsidiary  spirits  (Matt. 
XXV.  41,  '  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels  ' ;  compare  Matt, 
xii.  26 ;  Mark  iii.  23,  26 ;  Luke  xi.  18)  ;  was  formerly  in  favour 
with  God,  but  through  ^^ride  fell  from  his  first  estate  (Jude  6,  'The 
angels  which  kept  not  their  first  estate,'  and  1  Tim.  iii.  6,  '  Not  a 
novice,  lest,  being  uplifted  with  pride,  he  fall  into  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  devil '),  contended  with  Michael  the  archangel  for  the 
body  of  Moses  (possibly  in  order  to  make  it  an  object  of  idolatrous 
worship,  and  so  lead  Israel  from  the  faith,  Jude  9),  personally 
tempted  our  Lord  (Matt.  iv.  1,  Luke  iv.  2),  endeavoured  to  'have' 
St.  Peter,  but  failed  (Luke  xxii.  31),  succeeded  in  entering  into 
Judas,  and  inducing  him  to  betray  Jesus  (Luke  xxii.  3 ;  John  vi. 
70,  xiii.  2,  27),  was  beheld  by  our  Lord  '  as  lightning  fall  from 
heaven '  (Luke  x.  18),  is  employed  in  taking  away  the  word  sown 

M 


162        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Toy  the  Son  of  Man  in  tlie  heart  (Mark  iv,  15),  in  producing  human 
infirmity  and  watching  for  opportunities  of  tempting  men  to  sin 
(LvJre  xiii,  16,  '  Whom  Satan  hath  hound  these  eighteen  years  ' ; 
Acts  V.  3,  '  Why  hath  Satan  filled  thy  heart  to  lie  to  the  Holy 
Ghost  ? '  Acts  X.  38,  '  healing  all  that  were  oppressed  with  the 
devil ' ;  1  Cor.  vii.  5,  ^  that  Satan  tempt  them  not  for  their  incon- 
tinency  ' ;  2  Cor.  xii.  7,  '  a  thorn  in  the  flesh,  a  message  of  Satan 
to  buffet  me  ' ;  1  Thess.  ii.  18,  '  Satan  hindered  us ' ;  Eph.  iv.  27, 
'Neither  give  place  (i.e.  afford  an  opportunity)  to  the  devil'; 
Eph.  vi.  11,  'that  ye  may  be  able  to  stand  against  the  wiles  of  the 
devil ' ;  1  Tim.  iii.  7,  '  Lest  ye  fall  into  the  snare  of  the  devil ' ; 
1  Tim.  V.  15,  'Some  are  already  turned  after  Satan';  2  Tim.  ii. 
20,  '  that  they  may  recover  themselves  out  of  the  snare  of  the 
devil,  who  are  led  captive  by  him  at  his  will ' ;  James  iv.  7,  '  Ke- 
sist  the  devil ' ;  1  Peter  v.  8,  '  your  adversary  the  devil,  as  a  roaring 
lion,  walketh  about,  seeking  whom  he  may  devour  ' ;  Rev.  xx.  10, 
'  the  devil  that  deceived '),  dwells  habitually  in  hell  (Rev.  ii.  13, 
'  Satan's  seat,  where  Satan  dwelleth'),  has  power  in  the  world  over 
abandoned  men  and  worldly  possessions  (Luke  iv.  6,  '  All  this 
power  will  I  give  thee,  and  the  glory  of  them ;  for  that  is  delivered 
unto  me  '  ;  John  xii.  31 ;  xiv.  30 ;  xvi.  11,  '  The  Prince  of  this 
world  '  ;  Eph.  ii.  2,  '  The  prince  of  the  power  of  the  air  ' ;  John 
viii.  44,  '  Ye  are  of  your  father  the  devil ' ;  Acts  xiii.  10,  '  Thou 
child  of  the  devil ' ;  Eph.  ii.  2,  '  The  spirit  that  now  worketh  in  the 
children  of  disobedience  ' ;  1  Cor.  v.  5,  '  To  deliver  such  a  one  to 
Satan  ' ;  1  Tim.  i.  20,  '  Whom  I  have  delivered  unto  Satan  ' ;  Rev. 
ii.  9 ;  iii.  9,  '  Synagogue  of  Satan  '),  will  be  cast  into  the  bottom- 
less pit  (Heb.  ii.  14^  '  That  he  might  destroy  him  that  had  the 
power  of  death,  that  is,  the  devil';  Matt.  xxv.  41,  'Everlasting 
fire,  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels ' ;  Jude  6,  '  Reserved 
.  .  .  unto  the  judgment  of  the  great  day';  Rev.  xx.  10,  'The 
devil  .  .  .  was  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  and  brimstone'). 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  work  to  trace  the  history  of 
the  devil  as  related  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  say  that  the  facts  there  stated  are  in  complete  accordance  with 
the  New  Testament,  representing  the  devil  as  an  individual  person, 
and  as  an  accuser,  tempter,  and  origin  of  evil.  For  an  exhaustive 
discussion  of  the  subject,  see  Faber's  Many  Mansions. 

In  addition  to  the  titles  of  Satan  (^aravac,  from  Hebrew  |dI^  = 
an  adversary).  Prince  of  this  icorld,  Prince  of  the  poiver  of  the 
air,  and  Devil,  as  above  mentioned,  the  evil  spirit  is  also  called 
Beelzehuh  (3it\'Ctjiov\,  of  uncertain  meaning.  Matt.  x.  25;  xii.  24; 
Mark  iii.  22 ;    Luke  xi.  15),  Belial  (fi-om  the  Hebrew  ^T^"!  = 


DEVILS.  163 

worthlessness,  "but  taken  as  a  proper  name  "by  A.  V.  in  2  Cor.  vi. 
15,  ^  What  concord  hath  Christ  with  Belial  ?'),  the  Wicked 
One  (o  TTovrjpoij,  Matt.  v.  37,  '  Whatsoever  is  more  than  these, 
(yea  and  nay)  cometh  of  (the)  Evil ' ;  Matt.  vi.  13  and  Luke  xi.  4, 
'  Deliver  us  from  (the)  Evil ' ;  Matt.  xiii.  19,  '  Then  cometh  the 
Wicked  One' ;  Matt.  xiii.  38,  'The  tares  are  the  children  of  the 
Wicked  One ' ;  John  xvii.  15,  '  I  pray  not  that  thou  shouldest 
take  them  out  of  the  world,  but  that  thou  shouldest  keep  them 
from  the  Evil ' ;  1  John  iii.  12,  '  Cain,  who  was  of  that  Wicked 
one ; '  1  John  v.  18,  ^  He  that  is  bom  of  God  keepeth  himself,  and 
that  wicked  One  toucheth  him  not.')  The  Tempter  (6  Trnpa^iot, 
Matt.  iv.  3  •  1  Thess.  iii.  5). 

Devils,  daifiovia,  Saifioveg  (only  five  times),  clcemonia^  dcemones ; 
adj.  caifioviZoiievoc,  ^aijxovifrPitiQ  =  oppressed  with  devils,  dcsmonnwi 
Jiahens,  dcBmonio  veXatus.  Except  in  the  cases  mentioned  under  the 
word  devil^  possession  by  a  '  devil '  is  not  attributed  in  the  New 
Testament  to  the  chief  evil  spirit,  but  to  inferior  fiends  or  daemons. 
The  instances  of  such  possessions  and  of  their  cure  are  too  many  to 
particularise,  and  the  whole  subject  is  too  extensive  to  be  here 
dealt  with  satisfactorily.  Archbishop  Trench,  in  his  Notes  on  the 
Miracles,  No.  5,  examines  the  question  at  length,  and  a  synopsis  of 
his  views  is  here  subjoined.  He  regards  demoniacal  possession 
as  not  having  been  identical  with  any  known  form  of  ordinary 
disease,  but  as  the  effect  of  '  alien  spiritual  might,'  although 
apparent  disease  might  be  a  conjoint  effect  of  the  possession.  Thus, 
one  who  was  dumb  (Matt.  ix.  32),  and  again,  one  who  was  blind 
and  dumb  (Matt.  xii.  22),  were  brought  to  Jesus,  and  on  being  dis- 
possessed recovered  their  faculties ;  but,  on  another  occasion,  one 
who  was  deaf  and  dumb  was  healed  without  any  suggestion  that 
his  defect  arose  from  demoniacal  possession  (Mark  vii.  32).  The 
nature  of  the  possession  may  be  regarded  as  the  seizure  of  the 
sufferer's  will  by  the  will  of  the  evil  spirit,  acting  through  his 
inferior  ministers.  It  may  be  said,  Why  are  there  not  demoniacs 
now  ?  but  to  this  it  may  be  replied  that  there  probably  are  many 
such.  Cases  of  delirium  tremens  are  not  unlike  demoniacal  pos- 
sessions, and  various  maladies,  such  as  the  dancing  mania  of  tlie 
middle  ages,  and  many  cases  of  mania  and  epilepsy,  may  be  regarded 
as  analogous.  Moreover,  '  the  might  of  hell  has  been  greatly 
broken  by  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  God  in  the  fiesh.' 

Connected  with  the  subject  of  possession  is  the  kindred  subject 
of  exorcism.  The  verb  '  to  exorcise  {l^opKlCui)  '  occurs  in  the  New 
Testament  in  Matt.  xxvi.  63  only  Q I  adjure  thee  by  the  living 

M  2 


164       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

God,  that  thou  tell  us  whether  thou  be  the  Christ'),  and  the  subst. 
'  exorcist  (l^opKttrrtjg)  '  is  only  used  of  certain  Jews,  who  took  upon 
them  to  call  over  the  demoniacs  at  Ephesus  the  name  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  (Acts  xix.  13).  But  the  practice  of  exorcism  was  very 
common  amongst  the  Jews,  and  our  Lord  both  gave  power  to  his 
disciples,  when  Himself  on  earth,  to  cast  out  devils  (Matt.  x.  8 ; 
Luke  X.  17-19),  and  promised  that  this  power  should  be  one  of  the 
signs  which  should  follow  those  that  believe  (Mark  xvi.  17).  Ac- 
cordingly, many  instances  of  the  power  being  exerted  are  recorded 
(Acts  V.  16;  viii.  7 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  10). 

Dinner,  dpiarov,  prandium.  The  mid-day  meal  was  thus 
denominated,  being  distinguished  from  the  ofnrvov^  or  '  supper,' 
which  was  the  main  meal,  and  took  place  later  in  the  day.  Thus, 
in  the  parable  of  the  Wedding  Feast,  the  feast  is  called  a  *  dinner,' 
while  the  feast  in  the  cognate  parable  is  termed  a  '  supper.'  The 
guests  at  a  meal  were  accustomed  to  recline  on  couches,  three  of 
which  were  arranged  on  three  sides  of  a  square,  the  table  being 
placed  in  the  middle  and  the  fourth  side  left  open.  The  sandals 
were  usually  removed  before  reclining,  and  water  was  brought  by 
attendants  and  poured  over  both  hands  and  feet.  Thus  our  Lord 
says  to  Simon  the  Pharisee,  '  Thou  gavest  me  no  water  for  my 
feet '  (Luke  vii.  44),  and  thus  the  feet  of  a  guest  could  be  easily 
approached  by  a  bystander,  such  as  the  woman  who  was  a  sinner, 
and  Mary  of  Bethany. 

Divorce.     See  Marriage. 

Dog-,  KVMv,  cams.  The  dog  is  spoken  of  in  the  N.  Test,  only  in  con- 
tempt. '  Give  not  that  which  is  holy  (rb  liyiov  =  the  consecrated 
food)  unto  the  dogs,'  says  our  Lord  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
(Matt.  vii.  6).  So  again  to  the  Syrophoenician  woman,  '  It  is  not 
meet  to  take  the  children's  bread  and  cast  it  to  dogs  (Gr.  little 
dogs) ',  to  which  her  answer  is  well  known  (Matt.  xv.  26,  27  ;  Mark 
vii.  27,  28).  So  impure  persons,  addicted  to  filthiness,  unchastity, 
and  evil  passions,  are  called  '  dogs  '  in  Phil.  iii.  2  and  Pev.  xxii.  15. 
Moreover,  in  the  parable  of  Lazarus  and  the  Rich  Man,  the  dogs 
are  represented  as  licking  the  poor  man's  sores,  and  it  is  generally 
supposed  that  this  is  intended  as  an  indication  of  the  depth  of  that 
misery  and  poverty  whose  only  alleviation  was  so  degrading.  All 
this  is  in  conformity  with  the  Mosaic  law,  which  regarded  the 
dog  as  an  abomination  (Deut.  xxiii.  18),  and  with  present  Eastern 
feeling.  Only  one  breed  of  dogs  is  now  common  in  Palestine, 
being  of  the  shepherd  dog  type,  not  unlike  the  jackal.  This  breed 
abounds,  and  in  the  towns  performs  the  office  of  scavengers. 


DINNER— EAGLE.  165 

Z>ove,  TTipinrtpa^  columha.  Many  varieties  of  this  bird  are  met  with 
in  the  Holy  Land.  The  commonest  are  the  tame  pigeon,  the  rock 
pigeon,  the  wood  pigeon,  and  the  turtle-dove.  These  birds  were 
much  used  for  sacrifice,  being  expressly  allowed  to  persons  of  small 
means  (Lev.  v.  7;  xii.  8;  xiv.  22),  and  sellers  of  them  even  occupied 
the  Temple  court,  and  were  driven  out  by  our  Lord  on  two  occa- 
sions (John  ii.  16 ;  Matt.  xxi.  12  ;  Mark  xi.  15).  Our  Lord's 
parents,  at  the  purification  of  Mary,  could  only  offer  two  doves,  and 
from  this  circumstance  alone  their  humble  position  in  life  might 
have  been  safely  inferred.  The  gentle  and  harmless  character  of 
the  dove  fits  it  as  an  emblem  of  Christian  gentleness,  and  hence 
our  Lord  instructs  his  disciples  to  be  '  wise  as  serpents,  but  harm- 
less as  doves '  (Matt.  x.  16).  One  other  reference  to  the  dove  is 
made  in  Matt.  iii.  16 ;  Mark  i.  10  ;  Luke  iii.  22  ;  John  i.  32,  wherer 
the  Holy  Spirit  is  said  to  have  descended  upon  our  Lord,  as  He 
came  from  the  water  at  his  baptism,  '  as  a  dove,'  or  '  in  bodily 
shape  like  a  dove.'  Some  writers,  but  clearly  against  the  plain 
words  of  Scripture,  regard  this  statement  as  indicating  only  a  com- 
parison of  the  manner  of  descent  to  that  of  the  dove,  or  as  intended 
to  indicate  that  'the  fulness  of  the  spirit  of  purity  and  sincerity 
was  imparted  to  Jesus '  (Olshausen). 

a>rag-on,  SpciKwi^,  draco.  This  word  really  =  a  serpent.  It  is 
only  applied  in  the  New  Testament  to  Satan,  whose  deeds  under 
this  form  are  described  in  E,ev.  xii.,  xiii.,  xvi.  and  xx.  This 
application  of  the  word  shows  that  the  beast  in  Rev.  xiii.  11,  with 
horns  like  a  lamb,  and  speech  like  that  of  ^  a  dragon,'  may  be 
understood  to  signify  one  speaking  Satanically.     See  Sayent. 

z:ag:le,  cietoq,  aquila.  It  is  not  certain  what  species  of  bird 
is  signified  by  this  word  in  the  New  Testament.  Many  birds 
of  prey  are  still  found  in  Palestine,  and  notably  the  grifiin- 
vulture.  No  carcase  can  be  left  in  the  open  air  without  these 
birds  coming  up  with  marvellous  rapidity  from  every  point  of  the 
compass,  far  beyond  human  sight.  This  is  the  characteristic 
referred  to  by  our  Lord  in  Matt,  xxi  v.  28  and  Luke  xvii.  37, 
'  Wheresoever  the  carcase  is,  thither  will  the  eagles  be  gathered 
together.'  Although  the  Roman  standards  bore  eagles  on  the  top, 
probably  no  allusion  is  intended  to  this.  Our  Lord  had  been 
speaking  concerning  his  final  coming,  and  when  the  disciples 
asked,  '  Where  '  his  presence  should  be.  He  gave  the  above  answer, 
in  all  probability  meaning  that,  as  birds  of  prey  were  found  at  once 
where  the  carcase  was,  so  wherever  the  dead  body  of  sin  may  be, 
there  the  coming  of  the  Lord  will  be.     The  strensth  of  flisht  of 


166        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

eagles  is  also  referred  to  in  Rev.  xii.  14,  and  among-  the  four 
'  beasts '  of  Rev.  iv.,  one  (probably  representing  the  evangelist 
John)  has  the  appearance  of  an  eagle,  indicating  the  noble 
character  of  the  life  of  our  Lord  as  related  by  the  fourth 
evangelist.    See  Beast. 

Easter.     See  Feast,  under  Pnssover. 

Elder,  TrptcriSurfpnt;,  senior.  This  title,  derived  originally  (like 
ytpovaia  and  senatus)  from  priority  of  age,  was  applied  as  an  official 
title  to  the  members  of  the  Sanhedrim,  or  great  Jewish  council. 
In  this  sense  it  occurs  in  many  passages  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts, 
find  in  Revelation  it  has  a  cognate  sense  in  reference  to  the  appa- 
rent leaders  of  the  Church  Triumphant  (Rev.  iv.  4,  &c.).  Of  these 
last  there  were  twenty-four,  probably  in  reference  to  the  leaders 
of  the  twenty-four  courses  of  the  Israelitish  priesthood.  The  Chris- 
tian Church  soon  adopted  a  similar  arrangement.  The  'eiders'  first 
appear  in  Acts  xi,  30,  where  we  read  that  the  disciples  at  Antioch 
sent  a  donation  for  the  poor  brethren  of  Judaea  to  '  the  elders '  at 
Jerusalem.  That  these  were  not  merely  the  apostles  appears  from 
the  phrase  '  apostles  and  elders '  found  in  Acts  xv.  2, 4,  6,  22.  The 
appointment  of  elders  for  other  churches  followed.  In  Acts  xiv. 
23,  we  find  Paul  and  Barnabas  engaged  in  this  work  throughout 
the  churches  of  South  Asia  Minor.  Our  A.  V.  translates,  *  When 
they  had  ordained  {xttporov^oavTeo)  them  elders  in  every  church, 
and  had  prayed  with  fasting,  they  commended  them  to  the  Lord,' 
but  others,  '  When  they  had  chosen  by  show  of  hands  elders  for 
themselves,' &c.  In  Acts  xv.  Hlie  apostles  and  elders'  jointly 
discuss  and  with  the  whole  church  determine  upon  the  matters 
submitted  by  the  Church  at  Antioch.  In  Tit.  i.  5,  Titus  is  enjoined 
to  '■  ordain  {KaranTi^aaC)  elders  in  every  city.'  In  1  Tim.  iv.  14 
Timothy  is  exhorted  not  to  'neglect  the  gift  that  is  in  thee,  which 
was  given  thee  by  prophecy,  with  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of 
the  presbytery  (7Tpfai3vTipiuv)  ',  i.e.  the  associated  body  of  elders 
(comp.  Luke  xxii.  66,  where  irpfadvTspiov  =  elders,  and  Acts  xxii.  5, 
where  it  ^estate  of  the  elders).  Again,  in  2  Tim.  i.  6,  we  read  of 
'  the  gift  of  God,  which  is  in  thee  by  the  putting  on  of  my  hands.' 
No  further  statement  is  made  in  the  New  Testament  as  to  the 
method  of  selecting,  or  mode  of  setting  apart,  elders. 

It  is  clear  from  the  passages  quoted  under  Bishop  that  in  the 
New  Testament  bishop  and  elder  were  convertible  terms,  or  at  any 
rate  that  every  hishop  was  an  elder,  if  not  every  elder  was  a  bishop. 
'I'hus,  even  the  apostles  Peter  and  John  designated  themselves 
'  elders  '  (1  Pet.  v.  1  j  2  John  1  ;  3  John  1). 


EASTER— FEAST.  167 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  feminine  form  is  found  in  1  Tim. 
V.  2  C  the  elder  loomen  (TrpenjSvrfpac)  as  mothers ')  ;  also  that  in 
Heb.  xi.  2,  the  word  signifies  the  saints  of  the  Old  Testament; 
and  again,  in  1  Pet.  v.  5,  our  A.  V.  translates,  ^Likewise,  ye 
younger,  submit  yourselves  unto  the  elder,'  where  the  Greelc  is 
vTTordyTjTi  7rpf(yj3vripoi(;  —  he  subject  to  elders. 

The  duty  of  *  elders '  may  be  gathered  from  St.  Paul's  address 
at  Miletus  to  the  elders  of  Ephesus  (Acts  xx.  28,  35),  and  from  the 
qualifications  regarded  as  necessary  for  the  bishop,  which  are 
detailed  in  1  Tim.  iii.  and  Tit.  i. 

Emerald.     See  Jewel. 

Epicureans.     See  Philosophers. 

Espoused.     See  Marriage. 

Euroclydon,  or  Euroaquilo,  a  violent  wind  which  encountered 
the  vessel  in  which  St.  Paul  was  sailing  off  the  coast  of  Crete,  and 
which  proved  the  commencement  of  the  tempest  in  which  it  was 
lost.  Conybeare  and  Howson  discuss  its  direction,  and  decide  that 
it  was  an  E.N.E.  wind. 

Evangelist,  ihay^tkiariiv,  evangelista.  A  title  applied  to  (1) 
Philip  the  deacon  (Acts  xxi.  8)  )  (2)  certain  church  officers  (Eph. 
iv.  11,  '  He  gave  some,  apostles ;  and  some,  prophets ;  and  some, 
evangelists  .  .  . ')  ;  (3)  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv,  5,  '  Do  the  work  of  an 
evangelist^).  Alford,  who  quotes  Theodoret  and  Eusebius  to  sup- 
port his  view,  thinks  that  '  evangelist '  nearly  =  '  missionary.'  But 
no  data  exist  for  determining  either  the  occupation  or  the  official 
status  of  the  persons  so  designated.  Eusebius  appears  to  have  first 
applied  the  term  to  the  writers  of  the  Gospels,  and  the  propriety 
of  this  application  has  obtained  universal  consent  for  it. 

Exorcists.     See  Devils. 

Feast.  The  following  Jewish  feasts  are  referred  to  in  the  New 
Testament : — 1.  The  Passover,  sometimes  simply  called  '  the 
feast '  (Luke  xxiii.  17),  instituted  to  commemorate  the  delivery  of 
the  Israelites  from  the  destruction  of  the  first-born  in  Egypt.  The 
passages  in  the  Pentateuch  which  treat  of  the  institution  are  Ex. 
xii.  1-51;  xiii.  3-10;  xxiii.  14,  15;  xxxiv.  18;  Lev.  xxiii.  4-14; 
Num.  ix.  1-14;  xxviii.  16-25  ;  Deut.  xvi.  1-8.  The  characteristic 
observance  consisted  in  the  slaying  and  eating  of  a  lamb  (either  of  a 
goat  or  a  sheep),  and  abstinence  from  every  sort  of  leaven,  so  that  the 
feast  was  sometimes  called  '  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread  {tCiv 
d^u/iwv) '  (Matt.  xxvi.  17 ;  Mark  xiv.  1 ;  Luke  xxii.  1).  It  was  held 
annually,  commencing  at  sunset  at  the  end  of  the  14th  of  Nisan 
(March  and  April),  when  a  lamb  was  slain  by  the  head  of  every 


168        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Israelitisli  household,  and  continuing  until  the  end  of  the  21st  of 
Nisun.  An  extra  8th  day  appears  also  to  have  been  added  in  later 
times.  On  the  15th  and  on  the  21st  there  was  an  *  holy  convoca- 
tion,' and  on  the  16th  the  first  sheaf  of  the  barley  harvest  (called 
the  otner)  was  offered  before  the  Lord  as  a  wave-offering.  The 
lambs  above-mentioned  were  slain  in  the  Temple,  and  their  blood 
was  poured  by  the  priests  into  a  receptacle  at  the  base  of  the  altar. 
The  carcases  of  the  lambs  were  then  carried  home,  and  there  roasted 
and  eaten  solemnly  with  bitter  herbs  and  a  sour  sauce.  Four  cups 
of  wine  (not  enjoined  by  the  law,  but  by  tradition)  were  also 
solemnly  handed  round  during  the  meal,  and  both  at  this  time  and 
during  the  slaughtering  of  the  lambs  the  Hallel  was  sung.  This 
was  the  name  given  to  the  series  of  Psalms  from  Ps.  cxiii.  to  Ps. 
cxviii.,  inclusive. 

At  this  feast,  as  also  at  the  feasts  of  Tabernacles  and  Pentecost, 
every  male  Israelite  was  commanded  by  the  law  to  present  himself 
at  Jerusalem.  The  attendance  of  women  was  voluntary.  But  in 
New  Testament  times  this  strictness  had  fallen  into  disuse.  Occa- 
sional attendance,  and  in  the  case  of  Jews  dwelling  in  a  foreign 
land  even  one  attendance  in  a  lifetime,  was  held  to  be  sufficient. 
But  the  feast  was  always  attended  by  vast  numbers,  and  Josephus 
gives  a  statement  by  Cestius  to  Nero  of  256,500 lambs  having  been 
slain  at  one  passover,  so  that,  allowing  the  minimum  number  of 
ten  persons  for  each  lamb,  there  were  then  at  Jerusalem  2,565,000 
persons,  besides  foreigners  and  polluted  persons  (B.  J.  6.  9.  3). 

The  passovers  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  are — (« )  The 
passover  attended  by  Joseph  and  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus,  at 
which  our  Lord  remained  behind  in  the  Temple  (Luke  ii.  41).  No 
details  of  this  passover  are  given,  except  that  it  is  evident  that 
there  was  a  considerable  company  of  pilgrims  from  Galilee.  But 
we  learn  that  it  was  the  custom  of  our  Lord's  parents  to  go  up 
every  year  to  the  passover,  and  in  all  probability,  therefore,  our 
Lord  went  with  them  on  many  occasions  not  mentioned.  His 
going  up  at  twelve  years  of  age  is  mentioned  because  at  the  age  of 
twelve  a  boy  became  what  was  called  a  *  son  of  the  law,'  and  first 
incurred  the  obligation  of  keeping  the  law.  (6)  The  passover  of 
A.D.  28,  when  our  Lord  cleansed  the  Temple  for  the  first  time,  and 
had  an  interview  with  Nicodemus.  (c)  The  passover  of  A.D.  29, 
not  spent  by  our  Lord  at  Jerusalem,  but  to  which  the  company  of 
5,000  may  have  been  going  which  was  miraculously  fed.  (d)  The 
passover  of  a.d.  30,  at  which  our  Lord  suffered.  The  question  as 
to  whether  the  meal  at  Vv'hich  the  Lord's  Supper  was  instituted  was 


FEAST.  169 

tlie  Paschal  meal  is  discussed  in  Section  2.  Assuming  that  it  was 
the  Paschal  meal,  the  cups  of  wine,  the  sauce  into  which  '  the 
sop '  was  dipped,  the  Hallel  or  *  hymn '  sung,  and  the  number 
(thirteen)  who  partook,  just  exceeding  the  legal  minimum,  derive 
illustration  from  the  usual  ceremonies  of  the  supper,  (e)  The 
passover  of  a.d.  44  (?),  when  St.  Peter  was  kept  in  prison  by  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  until  the  feast  should  be  over,  and  he  could  be  lawfully 
put  to  death.  In  A.  V.  Trdo-x"  is  here  translated  '  Easter '  (Acts 
xii.  4).  (/)  The  passover  of  a.d.  58  (?),  spent  by  St.  Paul  at 
Philippi,  on  his  road  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  6). 

In  1  Cor.  V.  7  we  read,  *  Purge  out  the  old  leaven,  that  ye  may 
be  a  new  lump,  as  ye  are  unleavened ;  for  Christ  our  passover  is 
sacrificed  for  us.  Therefore  let  us  keep  the  feast,  not  with  old  leaven? 
nor  with  the  leaven  of  malice  {KUKiao)  and  wickedness,  but  with 
the  unleavened  bread  of  sincerity  and  truth.'  Here  the  practice  of 
leavening  the  new  dough  by  adding  to  it  a  portion  of  the  previous 
fermented  dough  (kept  for  that  purpose)  is  alluded  to,  and  the 
putting  away  leaven  at  the  passover  is  taken  as  the  type  of  the 
holy  and  pure  conduct  befitting  Christians.  Here  also  Christ  is 
regarded  as  the  lamb  slain  at  the  passover.  In  Heb.  xi.  28  we  also 
read,  '  Through  faith  he  (i.e.  Moses)  kept  the  passover.'  This  refers 
to  the  faith  exhibited  by  Moses  and  the  Israelites  on  the  occasion 
of  the  institution  of  the  passover  in  Egypt.  The  promise  was  that 
those  who  obeyed  the  commandment  to  slay  a  lamb,  and  sprinkle 
their  door-posts  with  the  blood,  should  be  delivered  from  the 
destruction  which  overtook  the  Egyptians.  Faith  was  therefore 
both  required  and  displayed. 

2.  The  Feast  op  Tabeenacles  was  celebrated  from  the  loth 
to  the  22nd  of  Tisri  (September  and  October),  when  the  fruits  of 
the  year  had  been  all  gathered  in.  Ordinances  for  its  celebration 
are  laid  down  in  Ex.  xxiii.  16 ;  Lev.  xxiii.  34-36 ;  39-43  ;  Num. 
xxix.  12-38 ;  Deut.  xvi.  13-15  ;  xxxi.  10-13  ;  and  Neh.  viii.  Its 
special  characteristic  was  the  dwelling  in  tents,  in  commemoration 
of  the  wilderness -life  of  the  Israelites.  During  the  feast  booths 
were  (and  are  still)  constructed  in  the  courtyards  and  on  the  roofs 
of  the  houses,  and  these  were  used  as  temporary  dwelling-places. 
In  later  times,  also,  two  additional  ceremonies  were  introduced.  The 
first  consisted  of  fetching  water  from  the  pool  of  Siloam.  This 
w^as  poured  into  a  basin  provided  for  that  purpose  on  the  altar,  and 
the  hallel  was  sung  during  the  ceremony.  The  second  additional 
ceremony  consisted  in  the  setting-up  and  lighting  each  day  at  dusk 
of  two  great  lamp-stands,  each  holding  four  great  lamps.  The  light 


170       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

of  these  lamps  is  said  to  have  illumined  the  whole  city.  An  eighth 
day  was  also  added  to  the  feast,  but  on  this  eighth  day  the  water 
was  not  brought,  nor  the  lamps  lighted. 

The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  amongst  the  three  feasts  which 
every  Israelite  was  bound  to  attend,  and  in  John  vii.  2  we  read  that 
*  the  Jews'  feast  of  Tabernacles  ((jKrtvoTrtjyia)  was  at  hand,  and  Jesus 
went  up  to  Jerusalem.'  This  was  in  all  probability  the  feast  of 
A.D.  29,  and  of  it  we  read  in  John  vii.  37,  '  In  the  last  day,  that 
great  day  of  the  feast,  Jesus  stood  and  cried,  saying.  If  any  man 
thirst,  let  him  come  unto  me  and  drink.'  These  words  are  supposed 
to  refer  to  the  above  pouring  of  water  on  the  altar ;  but  if  this  be 
the  case,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  as  to  the  meaning  of  '  the  last  day 
of  the  feast.'  If  the  seventh,  then  this  day  was  not  the  ffreat  day ; 
if  the  eighth,  no  water  was  poured  on  that  day.  Similarly,  the 
expression  in  John  viii.  12,  '  I  am  the  light  of  the  world/  is  referred 
to  the  lighting  of  the  two  great  chandeliers. 

3.  The  Feast  of  Pentecost,  also  called  *  the  feast  of  harvest,' 
'  the  feast  of  weeks,'  '  the  day  of  first  fruits,'  and  synchronising 
with  the  modern  Whitsunday.  This  feast  was  ordained  by  Ex 
xxiii.  16 ;  Lev.  xxiii.  15-22 ;  Num.  xxviii.  26-31 ;  Deut.  xvi.  9-12.. 
It  was  kept  on  the  6th  of  Si  van  (JNIay  and  June),  and  on  the  fiftieth 
day,  reckoning  from  the  16th  of  Nisan,  inclusive,  whence  its  name, 
from  7rfvT7]Koar6Q  =  the  fiftieth.  Hence,  if  the  16th  of  Nisan  was  a 
sabbath,  Pentecost  fell  on  a  sabbath  ;  and  if  our  Lord  was  crucified 
on  the  14th  of  Nisan,  the  Pentecost  of  Acts  ii.  fell  on  the  first  day 
of  the  week.  The  characteristic  rite  of  Pentecost  was  the  offering 
of  two  wheaten  loaves,  each  loaf  containing  the  tenth  of  an  ephah. 
These  loaves  were  eaten  by  the  priests  in  the  Temple,  and  no 
fragment  was  suffered  to  remain  until  the  morning. 

Very  large  numbers  of  Jews  attended  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  as 
is  evident  from  the  list  of  foreigners  in  Acts  ii.,  and  the  fifty  days 
elapsing  between  passover  and  this  feast  were  regarded  as  peculiarly 
sacred.  To  the  Christian,  Pentecost  is  especially  memorable, 
because  when  the  fifty  days  after  the  Passion-Passover  had  elapsed, 
the  Holy  Spirit  came  down  upon  the  assembled  disciples,  and  the 
promise  of  the  Comforter  was  then  first  realised  by  the  Church. 

Other  references  to  Pentecost  occur  in  the  New  Testament.  In 
Acts  XX.  16  we  read  of  the  anxiety  of  St.  Paul  to  be  in  Jerusalem 
for  this  feast,  and  in  1  Cor.  xvi.  8  this  statement  is  incidentally 
confirmed  by  St.  Paul  himself,  who  says,  '  I  will  tarry  at  Ephesus 
until  Pentecost.^  It  is  also  generally  conceded  that  the  feast  of 
which  St.  Paul  said,  '  I  must  by  all  means  keep  this  feast  that 


FEAST— FIG.  171 

Cometh  in  Jerusalem '  (Acts  xviii.  21),  was  also  the  feast  of 
Pentecost,  probably  that  of  A.D,  54.  The  Pentecost  of  Acts  xx.  16 
was  probably  the  Pentecost  of  a.d.  58,  and  it  was  during  this  feast 
that  the  apostle  was  arrested  and  sent  to  Csesarea. 

4.  The  Feast  of  Purim,  or  Lots,  was  held  in  commemoration 
of  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  their  great  enemy  Haman 
(Esther  ix.).  It  commenced  on  the  14th  of  Adar  (February  and 
March),  and  lasted  for  two  days.  "When  a  second  Adar  was  inter- 
calated, the  festival  was  also  held  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  that 
month.  A  religious  service,  of  which  the  reading  of  the  book  of 
Esther  formed  part,  commenced  the  feast,  but  after  this  the  rest 
of  the  festival  was  given  up  to  enjoyment  and  hilarity. 

This  feast  is  not  directly  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  but 
it  is  supposed  by  many  that  the  '  feast '  of  John  v.  1  was  the  feast 
of  Purim.     For  further  remarks  upon  this  subject,  see  Section  2. 

Pig,  <yvK)]^Jicns.  The  fig-tree  is  one  of  the  commonest  trees  in 
the  Holy  Land,  being  found  wild  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It 
attains  a  considerable  size,  and  in  many  parts  yields  fruit  all  the 
year.  It  was  under  the  dense  foliage  of  a  fig-tree,  well  fitted  for 
seclusion  and  coolness,  that  our  Lord  declared  Himself  to  have 
observed  Nathanael  (probably  engaged  at  his  devotions),  and  by 
this  knowledge  of  his  private  movements,  aroused  in  this  guileless 
Israelite  a  deep  conviction  of  His  Messiahship  (John  i.  48).  This 
tree  also  afforded  opportunity  for  the  parable  of  the  Unfruitful 
Fig-tree  (Luke  xiii.  6-9),  and  the  saying  ^  Do  men  gather  figs  of 
thistles  ? '  (Matt.  vii.  16 ;  Luke  vi.  44)  in  reference  to  false 
teachers  and  their  doctrines,  but  extended  b}^  St.  James  to  all 
Christians  and  their  works,  in  the  words,  '  Can  the  fig-tree  bear 
olive  berries,  either  a  vine  figs  ?  '  (James  iii.  12).  It  is  one  of  the 
earliest  trees  to  put  forth  shoots,  coming  into  leaf  in  sheltered  situa- 
tions as  early  as  February,  and  putting  out  the  fruit  before  the 
leaves.  Hence  it  is  well  adapted  as  a  sign  of  coming  summer, 
and  accordingly  our  Lord  says,  in  connection  with  the  signs  of 
the  last  times,  '  Behold  the  fig-tree  and  all  the  trees ;  when  they 
now  shoot  forth,  ye  see  and  know  of  your  own  selves  that  summer 
is  now  nigh  at  hand.  So  likewise  ye,  when  ye  see  these  things 
come  to  pass,  know  ye  that  the  kingdom  of  God  is  nigh  at  hand ' 
(Luke  xxi.  29-31).  As  to  the  incident  of  the  withering  of  the 
fig-tree  on  Mount  Olivet,  see  Section  2.  One  other  allusion 
occurs  in  Rev.  vi.  13,  where  it  is  prophesied  that  in  the  Last 
Day  the  stars  of  heaven  shall  fall,  '  even  as  a  fig-tree  casteth  her 
untimely  (marg.  green)  figs,  when  she  is  shaken  of  a  mighty  wind.' 


172       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Fislierman,  Fisbin^.  Fishing  in  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  in  New 
Testament  times,  appears  to  have  been  very  largely  practised.  At 
the  present  time  it  is  conducted  on  an  extremely  limited  scale, 
although  the  number  of  hsh  which  are  to  be  found  is  very  large. 
Dr.  Tristram  says  {Nat.  Hist,  of  the  JBible,  p.  285)  :— '  The 
density  of  the  shoals  of  fish  in  the  Sea  of  Galilee  can  scarcely 
be  conceived  by  those  who  have  not  witnessed  them.  Frequently 
these  shoals  cover  an  acre  or  more  of  the  surface,  and  the  fish,  as 
thejr  slowly  move  along  in  masses,  with  their  back  fins  just  ap- 
pearing on  the  level  of  the  water,  are  so  crowded  that  the  appear- 
ance at  a  little  distance  is  that  of  a  violent  shower  of  rain  pattering 
on  the  surface.' 

The  methods  of  fishing  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  are: — 

1.  The  casting-net  {anUftKncsrpov).  This  method  was  being 
practised  by  Simon  and  Andrew  when  Jesus  called  them,  and  by 
this  net  was  enclosed  the  miraculous  draught  of  fishes  (Matt.  iv. 
18 ;  Mark  i.  16).  It  is  used  either  by  a  naked  fisherman  wading 
from  the  shore,  or  from  boats,  and  probably  resembled  the  ancient 
Egyptian  net,  extended  by  two  light  rods  in  the  form  of  a 
triangle. 

2.  The  Seine,  or  draw-net  (crayrjvr}).  This  was  a  large  net, 
requiring  the  aid  of  boats,  and  hanging  perpendicularly  in  the 
water.  Being  paid  out  in  a  circle,  the  two  ends  were  drawn 
together  so  as  to  '  enclose  '  the  fishes.  This  process  is  referred  to 
in  the  parable  of  the  Draw-net  (Matt.  xiii.  47). 

3.  The  SiKTvuy,  which  appears  to  be  a  general  term  for  any  sort 
of  net.  This  term  is  used  in  the  account  of  the  Miraculous 
Draughts  in  Luke  v.  1-7,  and  in  John  xxi.  5-8,  after  the  Eesur- 
rection. 

•  4.  The  hook  (dyKiaTpor).  This  method  was  directed  by  our 
Lord  to  be  employed  by  Peter  when  the  fish  was  caught  in  whose 
mouth  the  stater  was  found  (Matt.  xvii.  27). 

The  fisher's  coat  (o  tTrtv^vrt],^)  is  mentioned  in  John  xxi.  7. 
Here  we  read  that  Peter,  being  on  the  ship  and  being  naked,  saw 
Jesus  on  the  shore,  and  girding  his  '  fisher's  coat '  unto  him,  swam 
to  land.  Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  the  fashion  of  this 
o-arment,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  illustrative  of  the  incident,  it  is 
worth  noticing  that  the  Galilsean  fishermen  of  the  present  day 
work  stark  naked,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  woollen  cap. 

Flax,  Xlvov,  liniim.  A  plant  very  little  cultivated  in  Palestine, 
but  still  occasionally  seen.  Its  stalks  are  steeped  in  water,  until 
the  outer  cuticle  is  completely  softened.     They  are  then  beaten, 


FISHERMAN— FROG,  173 

and  the  strong  fibre  -wliicli  remains  is  used  to  form  textile  fabrics. 
The  use  of  linen  wicks  for  the  wicks  of  lamps  is  referred  to  in 
Matt.  xii.  20  (quoting  from  Is.  xlii.  3),  where  it  is  said  of  our 
Saviour,  '  The  smoking  flax  shall  he  not  quench.'  The  use  of  flax 
for  garments  is  also  noticed  in  Rev.  xv.  6,  where  seven  angels  are 
seen  clothed  in  '  pure  and  white  linen.'  In  Matt,  xxvii.  5f),  our 
A.V.  states  that  Joseph  wrapt  the  body  of  our  Lord  in  'a  clean 
linen  cloth/  but  the  Greek  word  is  (nv^wv,  which  same  word 
occurs  in  Mark  xiv.  51,  where  a  young  man  had  a  '  linen  cloth  ' 
cast  about  his  naked  body.  In  Luke  xxiv.  12,  and  John  xix.  40 ; 
XX.  5,  (3,  the  grave-clothes  of  our  I^ord,  also  called  '  linen  clothes ' 
in  A. v.,  are  in  the  Greek  called  666via,  Of  these  words,  airciou 
probably  means  a  fine  cloth  like  7nuslin,  most  probably  of  cotton, 
and  oooviov  is  a  diminutive  of  6Q6v>i,  which  is  another  word  for 
linen  materials. 

Flux,  cvfrevrepla,  dysenteria.  The  disorder  now  known  as  dys- 
entery. Under  this  the  father  of  Publius,  the  chief  man  (6  Tr^wroc) 
of  the  island  of  Melita,  sufiered,  and  was  healed  miraculously  by 
St.  Paul,  during  his  stay  there  (Acts  xxviii.  8). 

Pox,  aAwTTjj^,  vtdjjes.  This  animal  is  solitary,  and  thus  differs 
from  the  Jackal,  which  hunts  in  packs.  The  sort  now  common 
in  Palestine  differs  but  little  from  the  English  sort,  except 
in  being  slightly  smaller.  Its  habit  of  burrowing  in  ruins 
was  referred  to  by  our  Lord,  when  He  answered  the  rich  young 
man  desirous  of  following  Him,  '  Foxes  have  holes,  and  birds  of 
the  air  have  nests,  but  the  Son  of  Man  hath  not  where  to  lay  his 
head'  (Matt.  viii.  20;  Luke  ix.  58).  Its  proverbial  astuteness 
also  caused  its  name  to  be  applied  to  Herod  Antipas.  '  Go  ye,' 
said  our  Lord  of  this  crafty  monarch,  '  and  tell  that  fox  '  (Luke 
xiii.  32). 

Frankincense,  Ai/3avoc,  thus.  A  fragrant  gum  which  exudes 
from  the  wounded  bark  of  Abietis  resina,  or  the  Spruce  Fir.  It 
formed  part  of  the  incense  used  in  the  tabernacle  service,  and  was 
presented  by  the  wise  men  of  the  East  to  the  infant  Saviour, 
together  with  gold  and  myrrh.  For  the  meaning  of  the  gift,  see 
Section  2.  F'rankincense  is  also  enumerated  among  the  merchan- 
dise of  the  mystic  Babylon  (Rev.  xviii.  13). 

Frogr,  iSarpaxoc,  rana.  This  animal  is  only  once  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament,  in  Rev.  xvi.  13,  where  '  three  unclean  spirits 
like  frogs  '  are  said  to  have  come  '■  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  dragon, 
and  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  beast,  and  out  of  the  mouth  of  the 
false  prophet.'     The  frog  of  Palestine  is  not  the  common  English 


174        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

frog-,  but  a  larger  sort,  of  a  bright  green  colour,  known  as  the 
Edible  Frog.  This  species  exists  in  such  vast  numbers  as  in  some 
places  to  cover  the  surface  of  the  pools  in  which  it  lives. 

Funeral  Rites.  The  peculiarities  of  Jewish  funeral  rites  are 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament.  As  soon  as  death 
had  taken  place,  it  was  the  custom  to  send  for  hired  mourners 
and  flute-players.  This  is  seen  in  the  case  of  Jairus'  daughter, 
when  our  Lord,  although  death  was  supposed  to  have  only  re- 
cently taken  place,  found  'the  minstrels  (a/Aj/ral  =  flute-players) 
and  the  people  making  a  noise '  (Matt.  ix.  23),  Interment  neces- 
sarily took  place,  owing  to  the  heat  of  the  climate,  very  soon  after 
death.  Only  the  bodies  of  children  under  three  years  of  age  were 
enclosed  in  coffins ;  other  bodies  were  simply  dressed  in  clothes 
similar  to  those  worn  in  life,  but  wrapped  round  with  swathing  bands 
so  as  to  confine  the  limbs,  and  the  head  also  tied  up  in  a  separate 
napkin.  In  the  case  of  wealthy  persons,  or  persons  with  wealthy- 
friends,  large  quantities  of  aromatic  herbs  were  rolled  up  in  the 
clothes,  and  the  body  was  rubbed  with  unguents.  Illustrations  of 
these  points  may  be  found  in  the  burial  of  Lazarus,  who  came  forth 
'bound  hand  and  foot  with  grave-clothes  (Ksipiaig),  and  his  face 
was  bound  about  with  a  napkin  (rT.-)vSapla)  =  Lat.  sudarmm)  '  (John 
xi.  44),  and  in  the  burial  of  our  Lord  himself.  Of  this  we  read 
that  Nicodemus  brought  one  hundred  pounds  weight  of  a  mixture 
of  myrrh  and  aloes,  and  that  the  body  was  wound  in  linen 
clothes  with  the  spices,  '  as  the  manner  of  the  Jews  is  to  bury ' 
(Matt,  xxvii.  59 ;  Mark  xv.  46 ;  Luke  xxiii.  53 ;  John  xix.  39,  40). 
Also  we  read  that  Simon  Peter,  entering  the  sepulchre  after  the 
resurrection,  saw  '  the  linen  clothes  {-ra  odovm)  lie,  and  the  napkin 
{aovdapiov)  that  was  about  his  head  not  lying  with  the  linen 
clothes,  but  in  a  place  by  itself  (John  xx.  6,  7).  The  anointing 
of  the  dead  body  is  also  illustrated  by  our  Lord's  remark  on  the 
anointing  performed  by  Mary  of  Bethany,  '  In  that  she  hath 
poured  this  ointment  on  my  body,  she  did  it  for  my  burial ' 
(Matt.  xxvi.  12 ;  Mark  xiv.  8).  The  burial  of  Ananias  and 
Sapphira  also  supplies  illustrations  both  of  the  rapidity  of  Jewish 
burial  and  of  the  manner.  Of  Ananias  we  read,  that  immediately 
after  his  death  ^the  young  men  arose,  wound  him  up  (n-DrffTrtiXaj^), 
and  carried  him  out  and  buried  him.''  Of  Sapphira,  that '  the  young 
men  came  in  and  found  her  dead,  and  carrying  her  forth,  buried 
her  by  her  husband  '  (Acts  y.  6,  10).  Of  Stephen  it  is  said  that 
*  devout  men  carried  Stephen  to  his  burial,  and  made  great 
lamentation'    (Kontrov,   connected  with   kotttoj^  I  cut,   from   the 


FUNEEAL  RITES— GALL.  175 

earlier  custom  of  cutting  the  person  practised  by  mourners  at  a 
funeral)  (Acts  Yiii.  2). 

The  body  having  been  thus  *  wound  up '  with  spices,  and 
lamentations  duly  performed,  was  carried  out  on  a  bier  to  the 
place  of  sepulture,  always  situated  outside  the  walls,  and  often  at 
some  distance.  The  bier  was  shaped  like  a  modern  bedstead,  pro- 
vided with  handles  for  the  purpose  of  carrying,  and  on  it  a  bed 
was  placed,  on  which  the  corpse  lay,  not  in  a  coffin,  but  wrapped 
in  the  grave-clothes.  Thus  Herod  the  Great  was  carried  on  a 
purple  bed,  and  his  corpse  wore  a  golden  crov^oi  as  it  lay  on  the 
bier.  The  circumstances  of  the  burial  of  the  young  man  raised 
from  death  at  Nain  at  once  recur  to  the  memory  (Luke  vii.  14). 

The  sepulchre  was  usually  excavated  in  the  rock,  and  of  course 
extreme  diversity  of  size  and  shape  occurred.  The  principle 
common  to  all,  however,  was  that  the  body,  instead  of  being 
buried  with  earth  as  among  us,  was  simply  laid  on  a  ledge  within 
the  sepulchre.  This  custom  in  part  explains  the  necessity  for  a 
large  amount  of  aromatic  herbs  being  used  in  burial,  since,  in  the 
case  of  a  family  tomb,  unless  some  deodorizer  were  employed,  the 
reopening  of  the  tomb  would  be  almost  impossible,  before  suffi- 
cient time  had  elapsed  for  the  heat  of  the  climate  to  calcine  the 
enclosed  corpse.  Hence  the  objection  made  by  Martha  to  the 
opening  of  the  grave  of  her  brother  (John  xi.  39).  The  opening 
of  the  tomb  was  closed  by  a  stone,  so  arranged  as  to  be  capable  of 
rolling  back,  and  in  many  cases  concealing  the  entrance  as  well  as 
sealing  it  (John  xi.  38, 41 ;  Matt,  xxviii.  2 ;  Luke  xxiv.  2).  See  p.  91. 

Gabbatha.  See  Pavemejit,  and  under  the  same  word  in 
Section  5. 

Gall,  x^^'hfel-  This  word  originally  denoted  an  organ  of  the 
body,  bile  secreted  by  the  liver  being  collected  and  retained  by  a 
small  bladder  called  the  gall-bladder.  Hence  the  word  acquired 
a  metaphorical  sense  of  '  bitterness '  and  '  bad  humour,'  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  used  of  Simon  Magus,  of  whom  St.  Peter  said,  '  I  per- 
ceive that  thou  art  in  the  gall  of  bitterness'  (Acts  viii.  23).  The 
word  is  also  used  to  express  some  bitter  vegetable  product,  and 
accordingly  we  read  in  Matt,  xxvii.  34,  that  at  Golgotha  they  gave 
our  Lord  '  vinegar  (ci^oc,  but  i<  oIvoq  and  Vulg.  vimini)  mingled 
with  gall,^  whereas  Mark  says  (xv.  23)  they  gave  him  '  wine 
mingled  with  myrrh.'  Whether  the  'gall'  was  identical  with 
the  '  myrrh,'  or  united  with  it,  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  the  latter 
seems  most  probable,  a  mixture  of  various  herbs  being  very  com- 
mon in  draughts  intended  to  stupefy. 


176       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Gazelle,  an  animal  of  the  deer  kind,  very  abundant  in  Pales- 
tine, where  it  congregates  in  herds  of  about  one  hundred  each. 
Its  Greek  name  is  Dorcas  (dopKd<;,  from  SspKonai,  I  gaze),  a  term 
derived  from  its  large  and  lustrous  black  eyes.  This  became  in 
course  of  time  a  female  name,  and  was  the  appellation  of  a  woman 
at  Joppa,  raised  by  St.  Peter  from  the  dead.  Its  Syriac  ec[uiv^a- 
lent  was  Tahitha  (Acts  ix.  36). 

Genealogries.  In  1  Tim.  i.  4,  and  Tit.  iii.  9,  *  genealogies '  are 
mentioned  as  things  to  be  avoided.  These  have  been  interpreted 
to  mean  the  mythical  stories  much  dwelt  on  by  the  Gnostic  heretics, 
in  which  emanations  of  spiritual  beings  from  the  Deity  were  de- 
scribed and  discussed.  Such  emanations  took  the  name  of '  ceons^ 
and  therefore  to  such  seons  St.  Paul  possibly  opposes  (1  Tim.  i.  17) 
the  true  'king  of  the  ceons  {fiaaiKtvc,  tmv  aiMvojr,  A.  V.  "  the  King 
eternal  "),'  viz.  God  himself.     But  see  under  Thilosophy. 

Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ.  Two  genealogies  of  our  Lord 
are  found  in  the  New  Testament.  They  were  probably  drawn 
from  the  genealogical  records  preserved  at  Jerusalem  by  the  priests, 
and  they  are  found  in  Matt.  i.  1-17,  and  Luke  iii.  23-38.  St. 
Matthew's  table  begins  with  Abraham  and  ends  with  our  Lord ; 
St.  Luke  begins  with  our  Lord  and  ends  with  Adam,  the  son  of 
God.  They  may  be  easily  compared  from  Abraham  by  arranging 
them  in  parallel  lines,  as  on  p.  177.  Where  the  print  is  in  italics,  a  dif- 
ference exists  ;  where  the  print  is  in  Roman  letters,  the  lists  agree. 

It  will  here  be  observed  that : — 1.  So  far  as  David  the  genealogies 
are  identical.  2.  From  David  to  Salathiel  the  names  differ ;  at 
Salathiel  and  Zorobabel  they  coincide,  and  afterwards  again  differ. 
This  is  explained  by  Bishop  Hervey  by  references  to  1  Chron. 
iii.  17  (where  Salathiel  is  called  the  son  of  Jechoniah),  and  Jer. 
xxii.  30,  where  the  prophecy  is  uttered  concerning  Jechoniah, 
'Write  ye  this  man  childless.'  Hence  the  Bishop  infers  that 
Jechoniah  was  really  childless,  and  therefore,  his  line  having 
failed,  that  his  lineal  heir  in  the  succession  was  Salathiel,  the  son 
of  Neri  (according  to  St.  Luke),  descended  from  Nathan,  the  son 
of  David.  3.  In  St.  Luke's  genealogy  the  name  Rhesa  precedes 
Zorobabel.  This  name  *  Rhesa '  is  supposed  to  be  really  a  title 
given  to  the  Princes  of  the  captivity,  and  the  right  reading  of 
Luke  iii.  27  is  assumed  to  be,  '  Which  was  the  son  of  Joanna, 
which  was  the  son  of  Rhesa,  Zorobabel '  (i.e.  of  Zorobabel  the 
Prince).  4.  Abiud  =  Juda.  6.  In  St.  Matthew  Joseph  is  said  to 
be  the  son  of  Jacob  and  grandson  of  Matthan  ;  in  St.  Luke  he  is 
said  to  be  the  son  of  Heli  and  grandson  of  Matthat.     Bishop 


177 


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Luke     .        .    Abraham         .    Isaac     .        .    Jacob    .        .    Juda      .        .    Pliares.        .     Esrom  .        .    Aram 

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178       ESSENTIALS   OF  KEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Hervey  explains  this  as  follows  :—  He  regards  Eliakim,  son  of 
Abiud  (Matt.),  and  Joseph,  son  of  Juda  (Luke),  as  brothers,  their 
father's  name  (Abiud  and  Juda)  being,  as  already  seen,  different 
forms  of  the  same  name.  Eliakim's  line  is  then  presumed  to  have 
failed  in  Eleazar.  Joseph's  line  would  then  succeed,  and  Matthan 
or  Matthat  become  heir.  Matthan  in  like  manner  is  supposed  to 
have  had  two  sons,  Jacob  and  Heli,  and  Jacob's  line  failing,  Joseph 
(really  the  son  of  Heli)  would  become  the  heir. 

After  a  careful  discussion  of  all  these  points,  Bishop  Hervey 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  line  of  St.  Matthew  is  the  line 
of  Joseph's  legal  succession  to  the  throne  of  David,  while  the  line 
of  St.  Luke  is  Joseph's  private  genealogy.  But  against  this  it  may 
be  said  that : — 1.  Jeremiah's  prophecy  that  Jehoiakin  should  be 
childless,  meant  that  he  should  have  no  issue  to  sit  upon  the  throne 
of  David,  as  appears  from  the  whole  verse  (Jer.  xxii.  30  :  '  Write  ye 
this  man  childless,  a  man  that  shall  not  prosper  in  his  days ;  for 
no  man  of  Ids  seed  shall  prosper,  sitting  on  the  throne  of  David),' 
and  from  the  fact  that  many  children  of  his  are  actually  mentioned 
(1  Chron.  iii.  17  :  '  The  sons  of  Jechoniah,  Assir,  Salathiel  his  son, 
Malchiram  also,  and  Shenazar,  Jechamiah,  Hoshama,  and  Neda- 
biah ').  2.  If  both  genealogies  are  lines  of  Joseph,  then  neither 
of  the  gospels  contains  any  real  genealogy  of  our  Lord,  for  Joseph 
was,  after  all,  not  our  Lord's  father. 

The  old  opinion  was  that  the  line  of  Luke  (as  stated)  is  the  line 
of  Joseph  and  that  the  line  of  Matthew  (as  may  be  conjectured 
from  his  describing  Joseph  as  Hhe  husband  of  Mary,'  and  im- 
mediately afterwards  entering  upon  the  miraculous  conception) 
is  the  line  of  Mary, 

St.  Matthew  obviously  omits  names  (such  as  Ahaziah,  Joash, 
and  Amaziah,  after  Joram)  to  make  out  three  fourteens.  This  was 
not  uncommon  in  Jewish  genealogies.  Again,  in  Matt.  i.  11, 
Jechonias,  evidently  =  Jehoiakim,  but  in  v.  12,  Jechonias  =  Je- 
hoiakin. But  in  Gough's  '  New  Testament  Quotations,'  note  202, 
a  new  view  is  based  upon  these  omissions,  to  the  effect  that  Moseph 
the  htfsband  {rbv  di'Spa)  of  Mary'  of  Matt.  i.  16,  really  =  'Joseph 
the  father  of  Mary.'  This  translation  of  avSpa  by  '  father  '  is  based 
upon  the  notion  that  unmarried  Jewish  females  were  represented 
by  their  nearest  male  relative. 

Gentile.  The  translation  by  A.  V.  of  two  words.  1.  Wi'rj, 
gentes  =  all  nations  of  the  world,  except  the  Jews.  Thus  Galilee, 
much  populated  by  foreigners,  is  called  '  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles ' 
(Matt.  iv.  16),  and  our  Lord  is  said  to  have  been  sent  as  '  a  light 


GENTILE— G  0  VEENOE.  179 

to  lighten  the  Gentiles,  and  the  p;lorj  of  His  people  Israel'  (Luke 
ii.  32).  This  use  is  peculiarh^  common  to  St.  Paul,  who  claimed 
to  be  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  as  St.  Peter  was  of  the  circum- 
cision (Gal.  ii.  8).  2.  "WKXr\viQ,gentes,  so  translated  in  four  places 
of  A.  v.,  but  really  equivalent  to  Greek  (John  yii.  35,  '  Will  he 
go  to  the  dispersed  among  the  Gentiles,  and  teach  the  Gentiles  ?  ' 
Rom.  ii.  9,  '  Upon  every  soul  of  man  that  doeth  evil,  of  the  Jew 
first,  and  also  of  the  Gentile ; '  1  Cor.  x.  32,  '  Give  none  offence, 
neither  to  the  Jews,  nor  to  the  Gentiles,  nor  to  the  church  of  God;' 
1  Cor.  xii.  13,  '  By  one  Spirit  are  we  baptised  into  one  body, 
whether  we  be  Jews  or  Gentiles  ').  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  in 
these  texts  any  foreign  nation  is  signified,  and  there  are  many 
other  passages  in  which  the  wonder  is  that,  having  adopted  the 
rendering  '  Gentile '  occasionally,  our  version  has  not  regularly  used 
it.  Such  are  Acts  xviii.  4 ;  xix.  10,  and  others.  The  use  of  "E\X?ji/ 
as  an  equivalent  for  ^  foreigner  '  arose  from  the  extensive  diffusion 
of  the  Greek  language  in  New  Testament  times.     See  Greek. 

Glass.  1.  fcTOTrrpoi/,  s/jec?</Mwi  =  a  mirror.  Mirrors  in  New  Testa- 
ment times  were  not  made  of  glass,  probably  from  mechanical 
difficulties  in  silvering  (it  being  the  silver  surface  behind  the  glass, 
and  not  the  glass  itself,  which  is  really  useful  in  reflecting),  but 
of  metal.  Such  a  glass  is  referred  to  in  1  Cor.  xiii.  12,  '  Now  we 
see  through  a  glass  {ci  taSnrpov),^  and  in  James  i.  23,  where  the 
'  glass,'  is  used  as  an  emblem  of  '  the  perfect  law  of  liberty,'  i.e. 
the  Word  of  God.  In  2  Cor.  iii.  18,  the  words  '  beholding  as  in 
a  glass '  are  in  the  Greek  only  one  word,  signifying  '  looking  at  by 
means  of  a  mirror  ((caroTrrpi^ojueroj).'  2.  uaXoc,  vitrum,  adj. 
vakivoQ,  vitreus,  used  only  in  Pev.  (iv.  6 ;  xv.  2 ;  xxi.  13,  21),  to 
describe  the  crystal  sea,  and  the  street  of  the  city.  The  material 
here  referred  to  was  no  doubt  much  the  same  as  our  modern  glass, 
the  art  of  manufacturing  which  was  well  known  in  very  ancient 
times. 

G-overnor.  1.  r/yf/.(wv,  presses,  the  title  used  to  designate  Pon- 
tius Pilate  (Matt,  xxvii.  2,  11,  14,  15,  21,  23,  27 ;  xxviii.  14 ; 
Luke  XX.  20),  Felix  (Acts  xxiii.  24,  26,  33,  34  ;  xxiv.  1,  10),  and 
Festus  (Acts  xxvi.  30),  and  this  with  perfect  propriety,  the  pro- 
vince of  Syria,  of  which  Jiidasa  formed  a  portion,  being  an  imperial 
province,  and  therefore  governed  by  proprietors  and  their  subordi- 
nates. The  title  is  also  used  generally  to  designate  the  Jewish 
authorities  (Matt.  ii.  6),  and  deputed  authorities  in  general 
('  They  shall  bring  you  before  kings  and  governors,'  Matt.  x.  18  ; 
Mark  xiii.  9;  Luke  xxi.   12.     Compare  1  Peter  ii.  14,  '  Submit 

>-2 


180       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

yourselves .  .  .  unto  governors ').  2.  idvapxrjs,  prcBi^osiius  ffe7itis, 
the  ethnarch  in  charge  of  Damascus  under  Aretas,  king  of  Petra, 
who  'kept  the  city,  desiring  to  apprehend'  St.  Paul,  but  was 
escaped  from  by  the  disciples  letting  down  the  apostle  from  the 
wall  in  a  basket  by  night  (2  Cor.  xi.  32).  See  Aretas,  in  Section 
5.  3.  oIkovohoi^  adores,  usually  translated  '  stewards,'  but  in  Gal. 
iv.  2,  the  heir  is  said  to  be  under  '  tutors  and  governors.^  The 
meaning  of  the  apostle  is  that  the  heir,  until  he  comes  of  age,  has 
his  estates  managed  for  him  by  a  'steward.'  4.  o  iuduvojy,  dirigenSj 
the  helmsman  (Jas.  iii.  4  only). 

Gnat.  iMvoj-^,  culex.  Only  mentioned  in  the  proverbial  expres- 
sion, applied  to  the  Pharisees,  as  being  scrupulous  about  unimport- 
ant trifles,  and  neglectful  of  the  greater  matters  of  the  law ;  '  Ye 
blind  guides,  who  strain  at  (JSiiiXi^ovrto)  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a 
camel'  (Matt,  xxiii.  24).  The  gnat  here  mentioned  is  probably 
the  mosquito,  a  large  insect  of  the  same  kind  as  the  English  gnat, 
and  fearfully  annoying  in  hot  climates.  It  feeds  upon  blood,  and 
its  bite,  or  rather,  the  plunging  of  its  proboscis  or  sucker  into  the 
flesh,  produces  a  most  painful  wound. 

Goat.  Two  words  are  thus  translated  in  the  New  Testament.  1. 
tpit^joq,  or  tpUior,  in  (a)  Matt.  xxv.  32,  33 ;  and  (b)  Luke  xv.  29.    In 

a.  the  union  of  sheep  and  goats  into  one  herd  by  day,  and  their 
separation  by  night,  are  referred  to  as  a  type  of  the  union  of  the 
wicked  and  the  good  in  this  world,  and  their  separation  at  the 
Last  Judgment.  This  union  of  the  two  animals  into  one  flock  is 
common  in  Palestine,  and  is  verj^  practicable,  owing  to  their  dif- 
ferent tastes  in  food.  The  sheep  prefer  grass,  when  attainable, 
whereas  the  goats  eat  by  preference  young  shrubs  and  leaves.    In 

b.  the  kid  (of  the  goats)  is  mentioned  as  a  possible  gift  to  the  elder 
brother.  The  kid  of  the  goat  is  a  usual  dish  at  an  Eastern  enter- 
tainment (see  Gen.  xxvii.  9  ;  Judges  vi.  19 ;  xiii.  15),  and  the  flesh 
is  exceedingly  good,  being  entirely  destitute  of  the  strong  flavour  of 
the  older  animal.  2.  T-pciyot,- — properly  the  he-goat.  Only  males  being 
permitted  for  sacrifice,  this  term  is  properly  used  to  designate  the 
goat  when  used  sacrificially.  SeeHeb.  ix.  12,  13,  19;  x.  4.  The 
skin  of  the  goat  is  used  for  bottles  (Mark  ii.  22),  and  its  use  as  an 
article  of  clothing  is  referred  to  in  Heb.  xi.  37,  where  God's  perse- 
cuted saints  are  spoken  of  as  '  having  wandered  about  in  sheep- 
skins and  goat-skins.' 

Grapes,  (jtlkjjvX)),  uva.  The  fruit  of  the  vine,  referred  to  in  the 
proverbial  phrase  '  Do  men  gather  grapes  of  thorns  ?  '  (Matt.  vii. 
16;  Luke  vi.  44),  referred  to  teachers  who  must  be  judged  of  by 


GNAT— GREEK.  181 

the  fruits  of  their  teaching.  The  grape  is  also  mentioned  in  Rev. 
xiv.  18,  where  the  end  of  the  world  is  depicted  under  the  simili- 
tude of  the  vine  harvest,  and  where  an  angel  cries  to  another 
having  a  sharp  sickle,  '  Thrust  in  thy  sharp  sickle,  and  gather  the 
clusters  (j36rpvaQ)  of  the  vine  of  the  earth ;  for  her  grapes  are 
fully  ripe.'     See  Vine. 

G-rave.     See  Funeral  Rites. 
G-recians.     See  Greek.  3. 

Greek.  1.  The  Greek  language  is  referred  to  (1)  As  one  of  the 
three  languages  in  which  the  superscription  of  the  cross  was  written 
(Luke  xxiii.  38  ;  John  xix.  20).  On  the  apparent  variations  of  this 
superscription,  see  Section  2 ;  (2)  As  the  language  used  by  St. 
Paul  to  the  soldiers  who  apprehended  him  in  the  temple  (Acts 
xxi.  37).  As  he  had  before  been  addressing  the  people  with  per- 
fect fluency  in  Hebrew,  the  chief  captain  was  surprised,  and  asking 
'  Canst  thou  speak  Greek  ? '  supposed  him  to  have  been  an  Egyptian, 
i.e. a  Hellenist  (see  below).  But  Greek  was  the  common  language  of 
Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  Paul's  native  city,  and  was  also  commonly 
spoken  by  educated  Jews  in  Palestine.  Our  Lord's  ordinary 
language  is  even  supposed  to  have  been  Greek,  although  in  times 
of  peculiar  excitement  he  used  the  native  Aramaean  ;  (3)  Apol- 
lyon  is  given  in  Rev.  ix.  11  as  the  Greek  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew 
Abaddon.  2.  "EXXrjr,  Gentilis,  except  in  four  places  (for  which  see 
Gentile),  is  translated  'Greek'  in  A.  V.,  but,  except  in  Acts  xvi. 
1,  3  5  xviii.  17  j  Rom.  i.  14,  it  probably  only  designates  one  who 
was  not  a  Jew.  In  the  four  places  already  referred  to,  it  is  actually 
rendered  '  Gentile.'  3.  'EWrjinaral,  Grcsei,  A.  V.  '  Grecians/ 
occurs  in  Acts  vi.  1;  ix.  29,  and  appears  to  designate  Greek- 
speaking  Jews.  Such  Jews  were  found  in  great  numbers  in  Egypt, 
and  had  a  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  known  astheSeptua- 
gint.  They  had  also  synagogues  (or  a  synagogue  ',  for  Acts  vi.  1  is 
variously  interpreted ;  Goulburn  ('Acts  of  the  Deacons.'  p.  51,  note) 
concludes  that  there  were  three),  in  Jerusalem  and  other  large  towns, 
and  were  in  all  respects  an  important  body.  In  Acts  xi.  20  ('Some 
of  them  were  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  which,  when  the}^  were 
come  to  Antioch,  spake  unto  the  Grecians')  the  reading 'EAX/pnrrrac 
is  disputed,  some  versions  reading  "EWj/i-a;;.  Canon  Norris  (^Key 
to  the  Acts,'  App.  1)  labours  to  show  that  the  latter  is  the  true 
reading ;  and,  if  so,  that  the  first  Gentile  church  was  formed  at 
Antioch,  loithoid  apostolic  intervention.  But  the  Vulgate  here,  in 
common  with  the  majority  of  good  versions,  has  Grasci  =  Grecians 
or  Hellenists, 


182        ESSE>s^TIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Ground,  tcpaioj/ia,  Jir^namentum,  occurs  only  in  1  Tim.  iii.  15, 
^  the  church  of  the  living-  God,  which  is  the  pillar  and  ground  of 
the  truth.'  From  the  use  of  the  cognate  adjective  ecpalog  (A.  V. 
*  steadfast/  '  settled  ')  in  1  Cor.  vii.  37 ;  xv.  58  ;  Col.  i.  23,  it  may- 
be gathered  that  the  term  is  equivalent  to  'means  of  keeping 
steadfast,'  or  'stay.' 

Guest-cliaEnljer,  KaraXrfLci,  diversorium.  The  '  guest-chamber  ' 
which  our  Lord  required  to  be  made  ready  for  Him,  that  He  might 
eat  the  passover  there  with  his  disciples  (Mark  xiv.  14;  Luke 
xxii.  11).  This  is  afterwards  described  as  '  a  large  upper  room/ 
possibly  extending  over  the  whole  area  of  the  dwelling,  and  by 
some  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  'upper  room  (to  vmpf^oot/)  ' 
where  the  disciples  gathered  together  after  the  Ascension.  In 
Luke  ii.  7  the  same  word  is  rendered  '  inn,'  in  the  passage  '  there 
was  no  room  for  them  in  the  inn.'  The  Eastern  inn,  in  point  of 
fact,  does  little  more  than  supply  chambers  for  travellers  bringing 
their  own  provisions.  In  Luke  x.  34,  where  the  Samaritan  brings 
the  wounded  traveller  to  '  an  inn,'  the  word  used  is  Trai'doxtloi-, 
stahulum,  which  designates  an  inn  providing  refreshment  as  well  as 
lodgiEg-room. 

Hall  of  Judg-ment,  irpaiTbypwr,  j^riBtorium.  Originally  the  tent 
of  the  general  of  a  Koman  army  (proetor).  But  the  meaning  of 
the  word  became  extended,  and  is  used  in  the  New  Testament  to 
designate  the  official  residence  of  a  governor.  In  Matt,  xxvii.  27  ; 
Mark  xv.  16 ;  John  xviii.  28,  33  ;  xix.  9,  it  designates  the  '  hall 
of  judgment,'  or  'judgment-hall,'  of  Pontius  Pilate,  where  our 
Lord  was  examined,  tortured,  and  sentenced  to  death.  In  Acts 
xxiii.  35  it  designates  Herod  Agrippa's  official  residence  at  CsBsarea, 
where  St.  Paul  was  ordered  to  be  confined  until  the  arrival  of  his 
accusers.  In  Phil.  i.  13  the  same  word  is  rendered  in  A.  V. 
'  palace,'  and  probably  refers  to  the  barracks  of  the  Prsetorian 
guard,  which  were  attached  to  the  palace  of  Nero  at  Rome ;  but, 
according  to  others,  to  the  barracks  of  the  same  guard,  erected 
about  four  miles  from  the  city  by  the  Emperor  Tiberius.  The 
emperor,  in  common  with  other  generals,  was  termed  pi^cBtor,  and 
his  body-guard  for  many  years  bore  the  name  of  '  the  Praetorian 
Guard,'  and  became  a  powerful  faction  at  Rome.  Hence  their 
barracks  properly  bore  the  title  o^ prcetoriimi. 

Hallelujali.     See  Alleluia. 

Head  of  the  Corner,  icf(pa\ri  yox-iac,  caput  anguli.  The  New 
Testament  rendering  in  Matt.  xxi.  42 ;  Mark  xii.  10 ;  Luke  xx. 
17;  Acts  iv.  11  j  1  Pet.  ii.  7,  (comp.  Eph.  ii.  20,   'Jesus  Christ 


GROUND— HERETIC.  183 

himself  being  the  chief  corner-stone — ctKpoyujviaiov  'j  of  Ps,  cxviii. 
22,  '  The  stone  which  the  builders  refused  is  become  the  head  stone 
of  the  corner.'  The  application  of  this  verse  to  Christ  was  first 
made  by  our  Lord  himself,  during  his  conversations  in  the  Temple 
in  Passion- week,  and  afterwards  (see  references  above)  frequently 
repeated.  Some  have  imagined  that  the  '  corner-stone '  here 
referred  to  was  the  top-stone  of  a  pyramid,  but  Hengstenberg,  on 
Ps.  cxviii.  22,  says,  '  The  head  of  the  corner  is  always  the  stone 
called  by  us  the  corner-stone  (comp.  Job  xxxviii.  6),  which  is  used 
also  in  other  passages  as  a  figure  of  royalty.  The  Scriptures  know 
nothing  of  a  top-stone.  Zech.  iv.  7  should  be  translated,  "  Who  art 
thou,  0  great  mountain,  before  Zerubbabel  ?  Become  a  plain ! 
And  he  has  brought  out  "  (at  the  laying  of  the  foundation-stone  of 
the  Temple,  as  the  following  context  shows)  "  the  main-stone,^'  &c.' 

Hebrew.  See  under  this  word  in  Sect.  5. 
.  Helps.  1.  I3n7]9siai,  adjntoria.  Ropes  passed  under  the  keel  of 
a  ship,  and  fastened  tightly  on  deck,  so  as  to  assist  in  holding  the 
timbers  together.  Such  '  helps  '  were  used  in  the  storm  which 
wrecked  the  vessel  of  St.  Paul  (Acts  xxvii.  17).  2.  dvriXif^eic, 
opitulationes.  Only  used  in  1  Cor.  xii.  28  to  designate  an  office  m 
the  Christian  Church.  Its  exact  nature  is  not  ascertained,  but  it 
probably  included  assistance  to  the  deacons  in  the  care  of  the  poor, 
and  similar  subordinate  duties. 

Hen.     See  Cock. 

Heresy,  Heretic*  alpicnc,  alperiKoc,  Iicsresis,  hcei'eticus.  The 
Greek  word  aiptniq  is  rendered  in  A.  V.  by  '  sect '  in  Acts  v.  17 
('  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees  ')  ;  Acts  xv.  5  ('  the  sect  of  the  Phari- 
sees ')  ;  Acts  xxiv.  5  (^  the  sect  of  the  Nazarenes ') ;  Acts  xxvi.  5 
('the  straitest  sect ');  Acts  xxviii.  22  ('  as  concerning  this  sect,'  i.e. 
the  Christians).  But  in  Acts  xxiv.  14  ('  After  the  way  they  call 
heresy ')  ;  1  Cor.  xi.  19  ('  There  be  heresies  among  you  ') ;  Gal.  v.  20 
('  The  works  of  the  flesh  are  these,  wrath  .  .  .  heresies  ') ;  2  Pet.  ii. 
1  ('Who  privily  bring  in  damnable  heresies' — alp.  dirojktiaQ)  ;  Tit. 
iii.  10  ('  A  man  that  is  a  heretic  after  the  first  and  second  admoni- 
tion reject '),  it  is  rendered  by  '  heresy.'  But  no  distinction  can 
be  maintained  between  these  two  meanings,  the  simple  meaning 
of  cnpicsic,  being  '  a  choosing '  of  individual  opinions,  and  in  Acts 
xxiv.  the  meaning  is  obscured  by  the  change  of  the  English  word. 
TertuUus  had  called  St.  Paul  a  ringleader  of  the  (heresy  or)  sect 
of  the  Nazarenes.  St.  Paul  replied,  '  I  confess  that  after  the  way 
which  they  call  a  heresy  (or  sect),  so  worship  I  the  God  of  my 
fathers,'  and  then  showed  that  his  'heresy '  was  justifiable. 


184       ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAIVIENT  STUDY. 

Ilerodians,  'Epcjhavol,  Herodiani.  A  Jewish  party  mentioned 
in  Mark  iii.  6  as  taking  counsel  with  the  Pharisees  to  destroy  Jesus, 
and  in  Matt.  xxii.  16 ;  Mark  xii.  13,  as  again  consulting  with  the 
Pharisees  to  entrap  our  Lord,  and  coming  to  Him  with  a  ques- 
tion about  paying  tribute  to  Caesar.  But  comparing  Matt.  xvi.  6 
(*  Beware  of  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees ')  with 
Mark  viii.  15  ('  Beware  of  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and  of  the 
leaven  of  Herod  ^),  it  is  seen  that  the  Herodians  were  probably 
nearly  identical  with  the  Sadducees,  being  designated  Sadducees 
as  regarded  their  religious  opinions,  and  Herodians  in  reference  to 
their  political  views.  These  views  regarded  the  dynasty  of  Herod 
as  the  great  protection  against  entirely  Roman  and  heathen  rule, 
and  as  a  pledge  of  national  existence.     See  Herod,  in  Section  5. 

Hign-Priest.     See  Priest 

Honey,  jms\(,  mel.     See  Bee. 

Horse,  'iinrog,  equus.  The  horse  is  rarely  mentioned  in  the  0.  Test., 
except  in  connection  with  warfare,  the  usual  animals  employed  in 
peace  being  the  ox,  the  ass,  and  the  mule.  In  the  New  Testament 
nearly  the  same  point  is  noticeable,  the  horse  being  only  referred 
to  mystically  in  the  Apocalypse,  and  then  always  in  connection 
with  war,  judgment,  or  death.  In  this  vision  (Rev.  vi.  1-8)  was 
presented  the  spectacle  of  a  white,  a  red  (Tri-ppoc,),  a  black,  and  a 
pale  (xXwpoc  =  pale-green  or  grey)  horse.  The  colours  here  given 
are  supposed  to  intimate  the  nature  of  the  rider's  mission ;  the  white 
symbolising  peace ;  the  red,  bloodshed ;  the  black,  sadness ;  and 
the  pale  (or  livid  ?)  being  an  emblem  of  death. 

Husks.     See  Locunt  Tree. 

Hymn,  vjxvoq,  kipnnus.  Our  Lord  and  his  disciples  '  sung  an 
hymn '  before  leaving  the  Last  Supper  and  going  into  the  Mount 
of  Olives  (Matt.  xxvi.  30  ;  Mark  xiv.  26).  This  *  hymn  '  was  pro- 
bably the  latter  part  of  the  Hallel,  a  name  given  to  the  series  of 
Psalms  from  Ps.  cxiii.-cxviii.,  which  was  usually  sung  at  the 
passover.  (See  Feast.)  But  the  use  of  'psalms  and  hymns  and 
spiritual  songs '  soon  became  common  among  Christians.  They 
are  directly  enjoined  in  Eph.  v.  19  {'  Speaking  to  yourselves 
in  psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs — ijidaig  Trj-fi'/xnrjK-aTg'),  in 
Col.  iii.  16  ('  Teaching  and  admonishing  one  another  in  psalms  and 
hymns  and  spiritual  songs'),  and  Jas.  v.  13  (^Is  any  merry  (ei>-/w- 
^IH  ric),  let  him  sing  psalms ').  The  custom  of  singing  is  also 
referred  to  in  Acts  xvi.  25,  where  Paul  and  Silas  are  described  as 
'singing'  in  the  gaol  at  Philippi,  so  that  the  other  prisoners  heard 
them  ;  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  15  Q I  will  sing  with  the  spirit,  and  I  will 


HERODIANS— JACINTH.  185 

sing  witli  the  understanding  also  ')  ;  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  26  ('  One  of  you 
hath  a  psalm  ')  ;  in  Rev.  v.  9  ('  They  sang  a  new  song,  saying/  &c.)  ; 
in  Eev,  xiv.  3  ('  They  [the  144,000]  sang  as  it  were  a  new  song ')  ; 
and  in  Rev.  xv.  3  ('  They  sing  the  song  of  Moses,  the  servant  of 
the  Lord,  and  the  song  of  the  Lamb ').  The  passages  Eph.  v.  14 
('Eyfipa  6  KaOfvdojv — Kai  dvaffra  iic  ru>v  vf.Kpu)v — Kai  tinfnvau  aoi  6 
XpitTTog)  ',  Jas.  i.  17  ;  Rev.  i.  8  ;  xv.  3,  have  been  regarded  as  frag- 
ments of  Christian  hymns^  and  it  is  in  any  case  certain  that  the 
singing  of  hymns  was  a  regular  adjunct  of  Christian  worship  at  an 
early  date.  Thus,  the  rescript  of  Pliny  to  Traj  an  states  that  '  the 
Christians  were  accustomed  to  meet  together  on  a  fixed  day,  and 
sing  hymns  to  Christ  as  a  God.' 

Hyssop,  v<T(7(v-og,  hyssopus,  mentioned  in  two  places  in  the  New 
Testament.  First,  in  John  xix.  29,  where  it  is  said  that,  at  the 
crucifixion,  ^they  filled  a  sponge  with  vinegar,  and  put  it  upon 
hyssop  {vfTaioTTii)  TnpiOh'Tfc),  and  put  it  to  his  mouth.'  The  exact 
nature  of  this  action  is  obviously  obscure :  but  since,  from  the 
parallel  passages,  it  appears  that  '  a  reed  '  was  used  as  an  elevator 
of  the  sponge,  it  seems  probable  that  the  hyssop  was  a  bunch  of 
leaves  which,  along  with  the  sponge,  was  raised  to  the  Redeemer's 
lips.  In  Hebrew  ix.  19,  hyssop  is  again  mentioned,  in  a  descrip- 
tion there  given,  of  the  dedication  of  the  first  covenant  by  Moses, 
in  conjunction  with  scarlet  wool  and  blood.  Much  controversy 
has  been  bestowed  on  the  identification  of  the  plant.  Dr.  Tristram 
considers  the  caper  plant  to  be  the  most  probable,  but  the  general 
opinion  is  in  favour  of  the  Hyssopus  officinalis^  a  small  plant  about 
a  foot  high,  of  bushy  character,  with  blue  and  white  flowers,  and 
lancet-shaped  leaves. 

Znn.     See  Guest-chamher. 

Xnfidel,  ciirLfTToc,  injidelis.  Used  in  A.  V.  in  two  places,  viz. 
2  Cor.  vi.  15  ('What  part  hath  he  that  believeth  with  an  inJldeW 
lit.  '  What  share  has  the  believer  with  the  unbeliever  ? '),  and 
1  Tim.  V.  8  ( '  If  any  provide  not  for  his  own  ...  he  hath  denied 
the  faith,  and  is  worse  than  an  infidel ;'  lit.  '  he  is  worse  than  one 
without  faith  ').  But  elsewhere  the  same  Greek  word  is  rendered 
'that  believe  not/  or  'unbeliever,'  or  '  unbelieving '  (Luke  xii. 
46  ;  1  Cor.  vi.  6 :  vii.  12, 13, 14, 15  ;  x.  27 ;  xiv.  22,  23,  24 ;  2  Cor. 
iv.  4 ;  vi.  14 ;  Tit.  i.  15 ;  Rev.  xxi.  8)  ;  '  faithless '  (Matt.  xvii. 
17;  Mark  ix.  19;  Luke  ix.  41;  John  xx.  27);  and  'incredible' 
(Acts  xxvi.  8).     The  real  meaning  =  without  faith. 

Xnk.     See  Meed. 

Jacinth.     See  Jeiuel, 


186        ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Jasper.     See  Jewel. 

Jewel.  The  word  'jewel '  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  '  precious  stones  (Aif9->i  niuloi)  '  are  mentioned  among 
the  materials  which  might  be  built  upon  the  foundation  of  Jesiis 
Christ  (1  Cor.  iii,  12),  as  part  of  the  merchandise  of  the  mystic 
Babylon  (Rev.  xviii.  12),  and  as  the  garnishment  of  the  New 
Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  19).  In  this  last  passage  the  following 
predous  stones  are  mentioned  : — 1.  Jasper,  'iaa-n-Lc,  iaspis :  not  the 
stone  now  called  jasper,  which  is  opaque,  but  a  clear  and  trans- 
parent stone,  'like  crystal'  (Rev.  xxi.  11).  It  has  been  regarded 
as  either  the  emerald  or  the  diamond.  It  formed  the  wall  and  one 
of  the  twelve  foundations  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  and,  being  used 
in  Rev.  iv.  3  to  signify  the  glory  of  Him  who  sat  on  the  throne, 
may  be  regarded  as  an  emblem  of  the  Divine  glory.  2.  Sapphire, 
(rcnripupocj  sapphirus :  either  the  lajns-lazuli  (from  which  ultra- 
marine was  formerly  obtained)  or  the  precious  Corundum.  The 
sapphire  is  mentioned  in  Exod.  xxiv.  10,  as  under  the  feet  of  the 
Almight}^,  when  Moses  was  privileged  to  behold  Him.  3.  Chal- 
cedony, x"^XV^^'>^'}  calcedoniifs :  pos&ibly  the  turquoise,  a  gem  of 
light  blue  colour,  and  opaque.  4,  Emerald,  (TfiapaySoc^  smaragdus : 
a  gem  of  transparent  green  colour.  In  Rev.  iv.  3  the  rainbow 
round  the  throne  is  said  to  be  '  in  sight  like  unto  an  emerald.' 
5.  Sardonyx,  aopdowly  8ardomjx\  a  sort  of  agate.  6.  Sardius, 
aaplioc,  sardius  ',  also  mentioned  in  Rev.  iv.  3,  where  He  that  sat 
on  the  throne  is  said  to  have  been  'like  unto  a  jasper  and  a  sar- 
dine ((japSivif,  sardinis)  stone.'  This  was  a  sort  of  agate,  prob- 
ably of  a  flesh  colour.  Hence,  many  have  considered  that  the 
'jasper  and  sardine  '  of  Rev.  iv.  3  are  emblematical  of  the  united 
divine  and  human  natures  of  Him  that  sits  on  the  throne,  the 
jasper  representing  the  Shekinah  or  visible  glory  of  the  Divinity, 
and  the  sardine  the  flesh  of  the  Humanity  of  our  Lord.  7.  Chry- 
solyte,  xpwfToXifcioL-,  chrysolithus  :  lit.  a  stone  of  a  gold  colour.  Per- 
haps a  species  of  topaz.  8.  Beryl,  iSljpvXXoc,  heryllus :  identified 
variously  with  topaz,  turquoise,  amber,  the  modern  chrysolite,  and 
an  inferior  sort  of  emerald.  9.  Topaz,  roTra^wv,  topazius :  a  greenish- 
tinted  gem,  probably  the  modern  chrysolite.  10.  Chrysoprasus, 
XpvadirpafTor,  ch7"ysop)hrasus  :  a  semi-transparent  gem,  resembling  in 
colour  the  juice  of  the  leek  {irpaaov),  but  spotted  with  golden 
spots.  11.  Jacinth,  t-a/ctj/foc,  hyacinthus'.  a  red  variety  of  zi?'con. 
The  adjective  occurs  also  in  Rev.  ix.  17,  where  the  riders  on  the 
mystic  horses  have  'breastplates  of  fire,  and  of  jacinth  ;'  but  this 
epithet  possibly  refers  only  to  their  colour,  the  adjective  being 


JASPER— KEY.  187 

frequently  emploj^ed  in  classical  Greek  with  this  signification. 
12.  Amethyst,  a/iff y^ro^,  amethystus.  This  is  regarded  as  either 
the  Rose  quartz,  or  the  oriental  amethyst,  which  is  a  variety  of 
Corundum,  found  in  the  East  and  "West  Indies,  and  of  a  purple 
colour.  It  derived  its  name  (  =  ^not  to  be  intoxicated')  from 
its  supposed  power  of  protecting  the  wearers  against  drunken- 
ness. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  jewels  of  the  high-priest's  breast- 
plate with  those  forming  the  twelve  foundations  of  the  New 
.lerusalem.  Taking  the  A.  V.  of  Exod.  xxviii.  17-20,  the  stones  of 
the  breastplate  are  sardius,  topaz,  carbuncle,  emerald,  sapphire, 
diamond,  ligure,  agate,  amethyst,  beryl,  onyx,  and  jasper;  and, 
without  entering  into  minute  criticism,  it  appears  at  once  that  the 
stones  of  the  breastplate  and  of  the  twelve  foundations  are  iden- 
tical. The  mystical  meanings  of  the  foundation  (viz.  the  twelve 
apostles)  and  of  the  twelve  breastplate  stones  (viz.  the  twelve  tribes) 
explain  the  coincidence,  which  is  worthy  of  attentive  examination. 

With  regard  to  pearls,  which  are  not  truly  precious  stones,  see 
under  Fearl, 

Jot,  uoTct,  iota.  The  Hebrew  letter  Yod  (•»),  the  smallest  letter 
in  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  Expressing  the  permanent  validity  of 
the  Law,  our  Lord  says,  '  Till  heaven  and  earth  pass,  one  jot  or 
one  tittle  (Kipala)  shall  in  no  wise  pass  from  the  law,  until  all  be 
fulfilled  '  (Matt.  v.  18).  The  tittles  here  referred  to  are  small 
marks  by  which  one  Hebrew  letter  differs  from  another,  the  letters 
in  that  language  being  in  several  cases  very  similar,  as  in  i  and 
n,  D  and  n,  PI  and  n,  &c. 

Key,  (cXaV,  clavis.  The  Oriental  key  is  not  like  the  European 
one,  but  is  fashioned  more  like  a  toothbrush,  in  which  only  a  few 
hairs  are  left.  These  hairs,  which  are  replaced  by  pegs,  fit  into 
corresponding  holes  in  the  bolt,  and  so  enable  it  to  be  drawn  or 
withdrawn.  The  key  of  a  house  is  often  worn  round  the  neck  of 
the  owner  and  carried  with  him,  and  hence  the  allusion  in  Rev. 
iii.  7,  'He  that  hath  the  key  of  David,  he  that  openeth  and  no 
man  shutteth,  and  shutteth  and  no  man  openeth.'  The  expression 
*  key  of  knowledge,'  in  Luke  xi.  ti2,  does  not  signify  that  knowledge 
is  something  to  which  a  key  is  necessary,  but  that  knowledge  is  in 
itself  a  key.  The  '  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven '  given  to  Peter 
(Matt.  xvi.  19)  seem  to  refer  to  Peter's  commission,  afterwards  so 
faithfully  fulfilled,  to  admit  (1)  Jews  (xActs  ii.),  (2)  Samaritans 
(Acts  viii.  14-25),  and  (3)  Gentiles  (in  the  case  of  Cornelius,  Acts  x.) 
to  communion  with  the  church.     See  Life  of  Feter,  p.  46. 


188       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Kid.     See  Goat. 

Xing-dom  of  Heaven.    See  Section  1,  under  Gospel  of  Matthew. 

Siamb.     See  Sheep. 

Ziatchet,  ifxac,  corrujin.  The  thong  by  which  the  sandal  usually 
worn  in  Palestine  was  fastened.  Sandals  were  usually  dispensed 
with  indoors,  and  it  was  the  office  of  an  entertainer  to  provide  a 
slave  who  should  unloose  the  sandals  of  his  guests,  and  wash  their 
feet.  Hence,  to  unloose  the  shoe-latchet  was  equivalent  to  per- 
forming a  menial  office,  and  John  the  Baptist  indicated  his  subjection 
to  Christ  by  declaring  that  '  he  was  not  worthy  to  stoop  down  and 
unloose  the  latchet  of  his  shoe  '  (Mark  i.  7  ;  Luke  iii.  16).  In  the 
parallel  passage  in  Matt.  iii.  11,  John  says,  'whose  shoes  I  am  not 
worthy  to  bear.'  It  is  obvious  that  the  unloosing  the  shoe-latch 
and  carrying  away  the  shoes  are  concomitant  parts  of  one  service, 
and  nearly  identical  expressions. 

Xaatin.  The  language  of  Rome  and  Northern  Italy  in  New 
Testament  times,  and  the  official  language  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
The  only  reference  to  this  language  in  the  New  Testament  is  in 
the  account  of  the  superscription  set  up  over  the  cross  of  Jesus, 
which  was  written  '  in  letters  of  Greek  and  Latin  ('Pw/.iaV/coTg 
ypd/jfiaan')  and  Hebrew'  (Luke  xxiii.  38),  or,  according  to  St. 
John  (xix.  20),  '  in  Hebrew  and  Greek  and  Latin  (Pujfia'ieTri).' 
This  was  (1)  because  the  Latin  was,  as  has  been  mentioned,  the 
official  language,  and  (2)  for  the  benefit  of  the  Roman  soldiers 
employed  in  the  execution. 

Xsawyer,  j>o/niic6g,  legis  doctor.  Either  a  specially-trained  inter- 
preter of  the  law  (Alford),  or  a  general  and  unofficial  name  for  the 
more  official  name  of  scribe  (Smith's  'Diet,  of  Bible  ').  Matthew 
only  uses  the  word  once  (xxii.  35),  but  Luke  often  (vii.  30;  x.  25  ; 
xi.  45,  46,  52  ;  xiv.  3).  In  Tit.  iii.  9  we  have  '  strivings  about  the 
law '  given  as  the  rendering  of  fxaxag  voimcdc,  and  in  Tit.  iii.  13 
Zenas  is  spoken  of  as  a  '  lawyer.'     See  Scribe. 

S<eaven,  Ivnt],  fermentum.  The  method  employed  in  the  fer- 
mentation of  bread  in  New  Testament  times  did  not  involve  the 
use  of  yeast,  but  each  new  batch  of  dough  was  fermented  by 
having  inserted  into  it  a  piece  of  the  previous  batch,  which  had 
been  allowed  to  ferment.  Hence  the  similitude  of  the  progress  of 
religion  to  the  leaven  hid  by  a  woman  in  tliree  measures  of  meal 
imtil  the  whole  was  leavened  (Matt.  xiii.  33 ;  Luke  xiii.  21),  and 
the  expression  used  by  St.  Paul  to  indicate  the  rapid  self-propa- 
gating power  of  evil,  '  A  little  leaven  leaveneth  the  whole  lump ' 
(1  Cor.  V.  6j  Gal.  v.  9).     Hence  also   the   significance   of  the 


KID -LEPER.  189 

exhortation  in  1  Cor.  v.  8,  '  Therefore  let  us  keep  the  feast,  not 
with  the  old  leaven  of  malice  and  wickedness,  but  with  the 
unleavened  bread  of  sincerity  and  truth.' 

Our  Lord  used  leaven — as  a  type  of  corruption  and  its  powers 
of  spreading — to  typify  th§  doctrine  of  (1)  the  Pharisees  (Mark 
viii.  15 ;  Luke  xii.  1),  and  (2)  the  Hferodians  or  Sadducees 
(Mark  viii.  15). 

Iiegrlon,  Xtynov,  legio.  A  division  of  the  Roman  army,  nearly 
equivalent  to  our  modern  regiment,  and  containing  from  3,000  to 
6,000  men.  When,  therefore,  the  Lord  in  his  agony  in  the  garden 
said,  '  Thinkest  thou  that  I  cannot  now  pray  to  my  Father,  and  he 
shall  presently  give  me  more  than  twelve  legions  of  angels ' 
(Matt.  xxvi.  53),  He  implied  that,  at  the  lowest  computation,  the 
number  of  angels  is  considerable.  A  dsemoniac,  whom  Jesus 
cured,  seems  to  have  derived  his  name  from  the  fact  that  the 
legion  was  the  largest  subdivision  of  the  army ;  for,  being  asked 
his  name,  he  answered,  '  Legion,  because  many  devils  were  entered 
into  him'  (Mark  v.  9  j  Luke  viii.  30). 

]Leopard,  TrdpSaXic,  pardus.  Only  mentioned  in  Rev.  xiii.  2,  as 
the  form  assumed  by  the  beast  with  seven  heads  and  ten  horns, 
whose  feet,  however,  were  the  feet  of  a  bear,  and  mouth  the  mouth 
of  a  lion.  From  Dan.  yii.  4-6  we  learn  that  these  three  animals 
were  types  of  three  kingdoms,  so  that  their  union  in  one  probably 
points  to  the  setting  up  of  a  kingdom  uniting  the  characteristics 
of  all  three.  The  point  in  the  leopard's  character  is  no  doubt  its 
combination  of  ferocity  and  strength  with  cunning  and  subtlety. 
It  was  formerly  common  in  Palestine,  and  is  still  by  no  means 
rare.  It  lies  among  the  thickets  by  watering-places,  and  there 
awaits  the  cattle  (Hos.  xiii.  7). 

]Leper,  Iieprosy,  XtTrpot,  Xtirpuj  leprosus,  lepra.  Two  sorts  of 
leprosy  appear  to  have  been  prevalent  among  the  Jews — one  similar 
to  elephantiasis  (in  which  the  parts  affected  swell  to  an  immense 
size),  and  the  other,  more  common,  known  as  the  white  lejrrosi/. 
The  disease  appears  gradually,  and  first  attacks  the  extremities, 
which  drop  off;  and  it  was  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  mcurable, 
except  by  the  intervention  of  Divine  mercy  <2  Kings  v.  7).  Leprosy 
was  hereditary,  and  though  opinions  are  somewhat  divided  (comp. 
'  Trench  on  the  Parables '  with  art.  Lepe?-  in  Smith's  '  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible  '),  yet  it  may  be  considered  that  it  is  not  contagious. 
But  the  leper  among  the  Israelites  was  nevertheless  secluded  from 
the  company  of  his  fellow-men ;  he  was  directed  to  cover  his  upper 
lip,  to  wear  rent  garments,  and,  when  approaching  the  habitations  of 


190        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

men,  to  cry  '  Unclean,  unclean  ! '  And  when,  hj  Divine  mere}'-,  a 
cure  had  been  in  any  way  effected,  the  leper  was  directed  to  betake 
himself  to  the  priest  for  inspection,  and  to  offer  a  thankoffering, 
before  readniission  to  society.  These  circumstances,  coupled  with 
the  fact  that  the  cleansing  of  anyone  defiled  through  contact  with 
death,  or  of  the  leper,  required  the  use  of  the  same  materials  in  cere- 
monial cleansing  (viz.  cedar-wood,  hyssop,  and  scarlet  wool,  Num. 
xix.  6,  13,  18 ;  Lev.  xiv.  4-7,  51),  induce  the  belief  that  leprosy 
was  intended  as  a  type  of  sin,  being  hereditary,  incommunicable  by 
mere  contact  with  others,  only  removeable  by  Divine  power,  and 
classed  in  the  Mosaic  law  with  defilements  from  death.  Our 
Lord  is  recorded  to  have  healed  lepers  on  several  occasions — 1.  As 
He  came  down  from  the  mountain  (Matt.  viii.  1-4  :  Mark  i.  40-45  ; 
Luke  V.  12-15).  2.  Ten  lepers,  of  whom  one  was  a  Samaritan. 
He  alone  returned  to  thank  the  Saviour  (Luke  xvii.  11-19). 
3.  The  cleansing  of  lepers  was  referred  to  by  our  Lord  as  one  of 
the  evidences  of  his  Messiahship  which  the  messengers  of  John 
the  Baptist  might  detail  to  their  master  (Matt.  xi.  5 ;  Luke  vii.  32). 
The  cleansing  of  lepers  was  also  committed  to  the  twelve  apostles 
when  sent  out  by  our  Lord  during  his  mission  in  Galilee  (Matt. 
X.  8),  and  reference  was  made  by  Him  to  the  leprosy  of  Naaman 
and  its  cure  by  Elisha,  as  related  in  2  Kings  v.  In  this  reference 
our  Saviour  pointed  out  to  the  people  of  Nazareth,  in  whose  syna- 
gogue He  was  then  first  preaching,  that  the  leper  who  received  the 
benefit  of  the  prophet's  power  to  cure  was  not  an  Israelite,  but  a 
Syrian ;  and  He,  no  doubt,  implied  that  in  like  manner  his  own 
people  would  not  enjoy  the  blessings  of  the  Saviour's  work,  but 
strangers.  Such  was  the  view  which  the  hearers  at  least  took,  for 
when  they  heard  these  things  they  were  filled  with  wrath,  and 
endeavoured  to  destroy  Him  (Luke  iv.  29).  A  person  is  also  men- 
tioned as  some  connection  of  Lazarus  of  Bethany,  named  Simon 
the  leper.  It  is  not  known  whether  he  was  a  leper  in  actual 
seclusion,  or  one  who  had  been  cured.  Bat  as  he  evidently  was  a 
near  relative  of  one  beloved  by  our  Lord,  and  we  know  (see  above) 
that  many  lepers  were  healed,  there  seems  a  likelihood  of  the  latter 
being  the  case.     See  SimoJi. 

Lepers  are  still  found  in  large  numbers  in  Palestine,  and  still 
wander,  like  the  ten  lepers,  in  companies.  It  is  even  said  that 
they  form  corporations  and  hold  property. 

Zievite,  Xtvtnji:,  levita.  A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  To 
this  tribe  was  committed,  under  the  Mosaic  law,  the  care  of  the 
tabernacle  or  temple,  and  (when  the  tabernacle  was  moveable)  the 


LEVITE— LILY.  1 91 

task  of  conveying  it  from  place  to  place.  They  assisted  the  priests 
in  most  of  their  duties,  and  were  the  porters,  gate-keepers,  and 
singers  of  the  temple.  No  distinct  portion  of  Palestine  was 
allotted  to  them,  but  forty-eight  cities  were  assigned  by  Joshua 
for  their  residence,  and  a  tithe,  or  tenth  part,  of  the  produce  of  the 
land  belonging  to  the  remaining  tribes.  Very  few  appear  to  have 
returned  from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii,  40-42),  but  those  wlio  returned 
resumed  their  functions,  and  tithes  and  residences  were  again 
assigned  to  them.  Very  few  references  to  them  appear  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  their  official  work  is  only  referred  to  in  Heb.  vii. 
11,  where  the  Aaronic  priesthood  is  described  as  the  Levitical 
priesthood,  and  declared  to  be  plainly  inferior  to  the  priesthood  of 
Melchisedec,  because  Levi,  '  being  in  the  loins  of  his  father  when 
Melchisedec  met  him,'  paid  tithes  to  that  priest  in  the  person  of 
Abraham.  The  merely  ceremonial  religiousness  of  the  Levites  in 
New  Testament  times  may  possibly  be  hinted  at  in  the  parable  of 
the  Good  Samaritan,  where  a  '  Levite '  is  mentioned  as  one  who, 
'  when  he  was  at  the  place,  came  and  looked  oti  hnn,  and  passed  by 
on  the  other  side '  (liuke  x.  32).  Barnabas,  of  Cyprus,  is  also 
described  as  ^  a  Levite '  (Acts  iv.  36),  and  therefore  John  Mark, 
the  sister's  son  of  Barnabas,  was  in  all  probability  a  member  of 
the  tribe.  Finally,  in  John  i.  19,  '  Levites '  are  associated  with  the 
'  priests '  as  under  the  direction  of  the  Pharisaic  party.  '  The  Jews 
sent  priests  and  Levites  from  Jerusalem  to  ask  him  [John  the 
Baptist],  Who  art  thou  ?  ' 

Ziibertines.  In  Acts  vi.  9  we  read,  ^  Then  there  arose  certain 
of  the  synagogue  which  is  called  the  synagogue  of  the  Libertines 
.  .  .  disputing  with  Stephen.'  It  has  been  said  that  there  were 
no  less  than  480  synagogues  at  Jerusalem.  The  synagogue  here 
referred  to  was  appropriated  to  persons  who  may  be  called  Italian 
Jews.  Libertinus  =  a  freedman,  and  these  freedmen  were  very 
probably  the  descendants  of  Jews  who  had  been  carried  captive  to 
Rome  by  Pompey  and  others,  but  had  ultimately  recovered  their 
freedom.  Vast  numbers  of  Jews  were  resident  in  Rome,  and  in 
A.D.  19  (i.e.  about  eighteen  years  before  the  death  of  Stephen)  the 
Senate  of  Rome  had  issued  an  edict  to  transport  4,000  Jewish 
freedmen  to  Sardinia,  in  order  to  be  there  employed  against  the 
freebooters,  and  had  directed  that  all  the  remainder  should  either 
renounce  their  religion,  or  leave  Italy.  No  doubt  many  of  these 
would  return  to  Jerusalem,  and  this  might  be  the  origin  of  the 
Freedmen's  synagogue. 

Zfily,  Kpivor,  lilium.     The  designation  of  a  large  family  of  plants, 


192        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

but  probably  applied  in  the  New  Testament  to  flowers  in  general. 
It  only  occurs  in  the  parallel  passages,  '  Consider  the  lilies  of  the 
Held,  how  they  grow  ;  they  toil  not,  neither  do  ihey  spin  :  and  yet 
I  say  unto  you,  that  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  v/as  not  arrayed  like 
one  of  these '  (Matt.  vi.  28 ;  Luke  xii.  27).  The  only  true  lily 
growing  in  Palestine  seems  to  be  the  Lilium  chalcedo7iicum,  or 
Red  Turk's  Cap  Lily.  Our  white  lily  is  not  known,  but  many 
beautiful  wild  flowers  are  found,  amongst  which  Dr.  Tristram 
notes  the  Pheasant's  Eye,  the  Ranunculus,  and  the  Anemone,  as 
most  common  and  conspicuous.  Of  the  Anem(/ne  cororiaria,  gene- 
rally of  a  brilliant  scarlet,  he  says,  '  I  should  feel  inclined  to  flx  on 
it  as  the  lily  of  the  field  of  our  Lord's  discourse.  It  is  found 
everywhere,  on  all  soils,  and  in  all  situations,  .  .  .  Certainly,  if, 
in  the  wondrous  richness  of  bloom  which  characterises  the  land  of 
Israel  in  spring,  any  one  plant  can  claim  pre-eminence,  it  is  the 
Anemone.' 

Iiinen.     See  Flax. 

XiioQ,  Xsojr,  leo.  In  the  N.  Test,  the  lion  is  generally  referred  to 
metaphorically,  as  representing — 1.  The  devil,  who  is  said  to  be  as 
*  a  roaring  lion,  walking  about,  seeking  whom  he  may  devour,' 
1  Pet,  V.  8.  The  roar  of  the  lion  is  one  of  his  most  familiar  cha- 
racteristics, although  declared  by  Livingstone  ('  South  Africa,' 
p,  95)  to  be  undistinguishable  from  the  cry  of  an  ostrich,  and  to 
inspire  no  awe,  except  under  accompanying  circumstances  of  terror. 
2.  Our  Lord,  denominated,  in  Rev,  v.  5,  '  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,'  and  probably  referred  to  in  Rev.  iv.  7,  where  the  beast  'like 
a  lion '  is  supposed  to  indicate  Matthew,  as  delineating  the  rot/al 
and  noble  points  in  the  character  of  Jesus.  In  Gen.  xlix.  9,  it  is 
said  of  Judah,  '  Judah  is  a  lion's  whelp  ;  from  the  prey,  my  son, 
thou  art  gone  up  -,  he  stooped  down,  he  crouched  as  a  lion,  and  as 
an  old  lion.'  On  this  verse  Kalisch  says,  '  Nothing  is  more  natural 
than  to  compare  the  invincible  and  redoubtable  hero  with  the  king 
of  beasts,'  and  points  out  that  the  object  of  the  comparison  was  to 
prophesy  the  royal  character  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Naturally, 
however,  he  omits  to  state  that  '  it  is  evident  that  our  Lord  sprang 
out  of  Judah,'  and  that  the  royal  dignity  of  the  tribe  culminates  in 
Him.  3.  The  emperor  Nero,  whom  St.  Paul  thus  describes  in  relating 
his  acquittal  at  his  first  trial  (2  Tim.  iv.  17).  Some,  however,  refer 
this  expression  also  to  the  devil.  4.  Strength.  In  this  sense  the 
teeth  of  the  mystic  locusts  in  Rev.  ix.  are  described  as  '  the  teeth 
of  lions ;'  the  heads  of  the  horses  in  Rev.  ix.  as  '  the  heads  of 
lions  •/  the  voice  of  the  mighty  angel  in  Rev.  x.  as  '  a  loud  voice, 


LINEN— LOCUST   TREE.  193 

as  wlien  a  lion  roaretli  j'  and  the  mouth  of  the  mystic  beast  with 
seven  heads  and  ten  horns  in  Kev.  xiii.  as  the  '■  mouth  of  a  lion.' 
But  see  also  Dan.  vii.  4-6. 

In  Heb.  xi.  33,  Daniel's  miraculous  escape  from  the  lions'  den  is 
referred  to.  Collections  of  wild  beasts  have  formed  appanages  to 
royal  state  down  to  very  recent  times,  and  the  exposing-  of  male- 
factors and  others  to  the  wild  beasts  was  a  common  mode  of  punish- 
ment in  ancient  times. 

The  lion,  formerly  common  in  Palestine,  and  very  frequently 
referred  to  in  the  Old  Testament,  must  have  been  almost,  if  not 
quite,  extinct  from  the  country  in  New  Testament  times,  and  can 
now  be  scarcely  said  to  exist  at  all  between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Mediterranean. 

Iiocust,  aKpic,  locusta.  An  insect  resembling  the  grasshopper  in 
appearance,  but  considerably  larger.  Some  kinds  remain  as  constant 
residents,  but  another  kind  is  known  as  the  Migratory  Locust. 
The  visits  of  this  creature  form  one  of  the  most  dreaded  scourges 
of  Africa  and  the  East.  It  arrives  in  incalculable  numbers,  darken- 
ing the  air,  and  producing  a  noise  like  the  galloping  of  horses. 
*  The  land  is  as  the  garden  of  Eden  before  them,'  to  use  the  magni- 
ficent words  of  Joel  (ii.  3),  '  and  behind  them  a  desolate  wilder- 
ness.' Everything  vegetable  is  eaten  up,  even  the  bark  of  tender 
trees,  and  this  over  considerable  tracts  of  country.  Even  in  its 
pupa  state,  which  it  retains  for  about  a  week,  it  is  eminently 
destructive,  denuding  all  trees  and  shrubs  of  every  vestige  of 
foliage,  and  leaving  the  country  bare  and  brown  behind  it. 

The  locust  was  permissible  as  food  among  the  Jews  (Lev.  xi.  22), 
and  is  still  eaten  by  some  of  the  Arabs,  being  prepared  by  stewing 
in  butter,  and  Dr.  Tristram  ('Nat.  Hist,  of  the  Bible,'  p.  318)  declares 
its  flavour  to  be  very  good,  somewhat  resembling  shrimps.  Hence 
there  is  no  difSculty  in  understanding  the  statement  about  John 
the  Baptist,  of  whom  it  is  said  that  his  food  was  '■  locusts  and  wild 
honey '  (Matt.  iii.  4 ;  Mark  i.  6).  In  Rev.  ix.,  mystic  locust*, 
coming  up  from  the  bottomless  pit,  are  described,  with  the  appear- 
ance of  horses,  and  having  power  as  scotpions. 

Iiocust  tree.  This  tree  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  its  fruit  is  mentioned  under  the  designation  of  '  husks ' 
(/cspcina)  in  that  part  of  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son  where  the 
Prodigal  is  sent  to  feed  swine,  and  would  fain  have  filled  his  belly 
with  their  '  husks '  (Luke  xv.  16).  The  tree  is  very  common  in 
Palestine,  and  produces  enormous  quantities  of  a  narrow  and  flat 

0 


194       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

pod,  from  six  to  ten  inches  long,  and  having  a  sweetish  taste. 
These  husks  are  extensively  used  in  the  East  for  feeding  cattle, 
and  are  even  imported  into  England  for  the  same  purpose,  under 
the  name  of  the  Locust  Bean. 

]Lorcl's  Day,  >'/  icvpiaKri  j//ufpa,  Dominica  dies.  This  expression  only 
occurs  in  Rev.  i.  10,  where  St.  John  says, '  1  was  in  the  spirit  on  the 
Lord's  day.''  It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  this  phrase  is  equiva- 
lent to  '  the  day  of  the  Lord,'  i.e.  the  second  coming  of  Jesus  Christ 
(Luke  xvii.  24 ;  1  Cor.  i.  8  ;  v.  5 ;  2  Cor.  i.  14 ;  1  Thess.  v.  2 ; 
2  Thess.  ii.  2;  2  Pet.  iii.  10),  but  if  this  were  the  case  it  would 
be  in  this  place  almost  unintelligible.  Otliers  again  have  regarded 
it  as  intended  to  indicate  Easter-day,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that 
Easter-day  ever  went  by  such  a  title.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
general  consent  of  the  majority,  both  of  ancient  and  modern  writers, 
make  the  Lord's  day  identical  with  the  Jirst  day  of  the  week.  On 
this  day  the  Lord  arose  from  the  dead  and  appeared  to  his  disciples 
and  others  (Matt,  xxviii.  1 ;  Mark  xvi.  1 ;  Luke  xxiv.  1).  *  After 
eight  days  '  (/<6t9'  r'nufpng  oktw)  our  Lord  appeared  again  to  them  as 
they  were  again  gathered  together,  nor  can  there  seem  any  reason 
for  this  interval  except  that  the  disciples  had  not  been  all  gathered 
together  in  the  previous  six  days,  but  had  come  together  once  more 
after  the  space  of  a  week  (John  xx.  26).  On  the  first  day  of  the 
week  we  find  the  disciples  at  Troas  met  together  to  break  bread 
(Acts  XX.  7),  and  in  1  Cor.  xvi.  1,  2  we  find  the  same  day  appointed 
for  '  laying  by  in  store.'  In  themselves  these  are  but  slight  indi- 
cations of  any  special  commemoration  of  the  day,  but  coupled  with 
passages  from  early  writers  they  must  nevertheless  be  regarded  as 
decisive.  Thus,  the  spurious  epistle  of  Barnabas,  certainly  of  high 
antiquity,  says,  'We  celebrate  the  eighth  day  with  joy,  on  which, 
too,  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead.'  The  rescript  of  Pliny  to  Trajan 
(a.d.  103)  says,  'The  Christians  ...  are  accustomed  to  meet  on 
a  fixed  day,  before  it  is  light,  and  to  sing  hymns  to  Christ  as  a  God, 
and  to  bind  themselves  by  a  sacr amentum ; '  and  Justin  Martyr 
(a.d.  140)  says,  '  On  the  day  c?lled  Sunday  is  an  assembly  .  .  . 
and  the  memoirs  of  the  apostles  and  the  writings  of  the  prophets 
are  read,'  after  which  he  goes  on  to  describe  the  various  religious 
observances  of  the  day.  His  statement,  as  well  as  an  exhaustive 
catena  of  the  early  patristic  writings  on  the  subject,  closing  with 
Constan tine's  edict  that  '  on  Sunday  all  judges  and  townspeople  and 
craftsmen  should  rest,'  may  be  seen  in  Dr.  Hessey's  '  Sunday,' 
which  deals  fully  with  the  whole  question.  A  perusal  of  this 
catena  will  fully  establish  the  statement  that  the  first  day  of  the 


LOED'S-DAY.  195 

week  has  been  observed  as  a  day  for  religious  meetino^s  from  the 
earliest  times. 

The  connection  of  the  Lord's  day  with  the  Sabbath  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  define.  The  observance  of  the  Sabbath  is  nowhere  in  the 
New  Testament  directly  enjoined  upon  Christians,  nor  is  it  among 
the  observances  which  were  declared  by  the  apostles  and  elders 
assembled  at  Jerusalem  to  be  binding  upon  Gentiles  (Acts  xv.  29). 
The  man  who  '  esteems  every  day  alike,'  provided  he  does  this  *to 
the  Lord/  is  regarded  by  Rom.  xiv.  6  as  acting  lawfully ;  and  in 
Col.  ii.  16,  17  we  read,  '  Let  no  man  therefore  judge  you  ...  in 
respect  of  .  .  .  the  sabbath  days :  which  are  a  shadow  of  things  to 
come  ;  but  the  body  is  of  Christ.'  At  the  same  time,  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  the  obligation  of  the  Sabbath  depended  upon  grounds 
not  merely  national  to  the  Israelites,  but  of  universal  importance, 
viz.,  the  resting  of  the  Creator  from  all  his  work  which  he  had 
created  and  made  (Gen.  ii.  2,3),  Further,  it  is  noticeable  that  the 
Saviour,  when  accused  of  neglect  of  sabbath  observances,  did  not 
defend  Himself  (as  upon  the  supposition  of  the  Sabbath's  being 
abrogated  He  should  have  done)  by  declaring  the  obligation  of  the 
Sabbath  at  an  end,  but  by  a  method  which  virtually  implied  its 
perpetual  obligation,  viz.,  by  the  declarations  that  '  It  is  lawful  to 
do  well  on  the  sabbath  days  '  (Matt.  xii.  12),  and  ^  The  sabbath  was 
made  for  man  '  (Mark  ii.  27).  Our  Lord's  own  practice  coincided 
with  this  view,  and  He  regularly  attended  the  sabbath  worship  of 
the  synagogue  (Mark  iii.  2;  vi.  2  ;  Luke  iv.  16;  xiii.  16 ;  John  v. 
16).  The  early  disciples  rested  on  the  Sabbath  immediately  suc- 
ceding  the  crucifixion  (Luke  xxiii.  56),  and  the  apostles  regularly 
took  part  in  sabbath  services  (Acts  xiii.  42 ;  xvi.  13 ;  xviii.  4).  This, 
of  course,  only  exhibits  the  practice  of  Jewish  Christians ;  but  it  is 
abundantl}^  evident  that  Gentile  proselytes  also  and  Gentile  in- 
quirers were  regularly  in  attendance  at  the  synagogues  on  the 
sabbath  day,  and  the  probability  is  that  they  fell  in  with  the  Jewish 
practice  on  that  day  in  other  points  also  (Acts  xiii.  42,  44). 

The  word  SahhatJi  (Tai3i3aTa,  (raj3l3arov)  in  several  places  of  the 
New  Testament  seems  to  signify  '  a  iveek.''  Thus,  in  Matt,  xxviii.  1 ; 
Mark  xvi.  2 ;  Luke  xxiv.  1 ;  Acts  xx.  7 ;  1  Cor.  xvi.  2,  nia  aap- 
fSaTMv  =  1st  day  of  the  week ;  in  Luke  xviii.  12,  Slg  rov  aa^iZdrov  = 
twice-a-week ;  in  Mark  xvi.  9,  npunt]  aafiiSdrov  =  1st  day  of  the 
week.  The  meanings  of  ertpip  aajijiaT^)  ('  on  another  Sabbath,'  A.V.) 
in  Luke  vi.  6,  and  h>  na^SfidTc^  Sivripo7rpcJ-u^j  ('  on  the  second  Sabbath 
after  the  first,'  A.  V.)  in  Luke  vi.  1,  are  disputed.  But  see  Sect. 
2,  p.  69. 

o  2 


196        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 


The  law  of  the  Sabbath  was  rendered  needlessly  burdensome  by 
Rabbinical  regulations.  Thus,  our  Saviour  was  charged  with 
breaking  the  law  in  permitting  his  disciples  to  pluck  ears  of  corn 
as  they  passed  through  a  field  on  the  sabbath  day.  But  this  was 
nowhere  condemned  by  the  law.  On  this  day  a  man  was  even  for- 
bidden to  wear  shoes  with  nails  in  them,  as  it  was  reckoned  unlawful 
to  carry  a  burden  (comp.  the  case  of  the  man  carrying  his  bed,  in 
John  V.  10),  possibly  from  Neh,  xiii.  19  and  Jer.  xvii.  21.  The 
day  began  at  sunset  on  Friday  and  continued  until  sunset  on 
Saturday,  and  travelling  was  limited  to  2,000  paces,  or  something 
less  than  a  mile,  which  was  reckoned  as  a  sabhath-day^s  journey. 

liord's  Supper.  This  institution,  as  to  the  exact  nature  of 
which  more  controversy  has  perhaps  arisen  than  on  any  other 
theological  subject,  occupies  a  comparatively  small  space  in  the 
New  Testament.  It  will  be  the  object  of  this  article,  in  view  of 
the  great  diversity  of  opinion  which  prevails,  simply  to  set  forth 
the  statements  of  the  New  Testament,  whether  direct  or  indirect. 

The  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  related  by  the  first  three 
evangelists  (Matt.  xxvi.  26-29 ;  Mark  xiv.  22-25 ;  Luke  xxii. 
19,  20),  and  by  St.  Paul,  who  declares  himself  to  'have  received 
of  the  Lord '  the  account  which  he  gives  (1  Cor.  xi.  23-26). 

Their  accounts  are  here  placed  side  by  side : — 


Matt. 

As  they  were 
eating,  Jesns  took 
bread  (rbi/  aprov), 
and  blessed  it  (ev- 
\oy^a-oLg),  and 
brake  it,  and  gave 
it  to  the  disciples, 
and  said. 

Take,  eat ;  this 
is  my  body.  And 
he  took  the  cup 
(ttottiplov),  and 
gave  thanks  (ev- 
^aptcTT'^cras),  and 
gave  it  to  them, 
saying,  Drink  ye 
all  of  it ;  for  tliis 
is  my  blood  of  the 
new  testament 
(rirj?  Kaivfj^  Si.a6ri- 
(CTj?),  which  (to)  is 
shed  for  many  for 
the  remission  of 
sins. 


Mark. 


As  they  did  eat, 
Jesus  took  bread  (ap- 
Toi/),  and  blessed  (ev- 
Koy-^crag),  and  brake 
it,  and  said, 


Take,  eat  :  this  is 
my  body.  And  he 
took  the  cup  (ttot-^- 
ptov),  and  when  he 
had  given  thanks  (ev- 
Xaptcrrrjcras),  he  gave 
it  to  them,  and  they 
all  drank  of  it.  And 
he  said  unto  them, 
This  is  my  blood  of 
the  new  testament 
(tt)?  Kau'ri<;  Sta^^Krjs), 
which  (to)  is  shed  for 
many. 


Luke. 


He  took  bread 
(aprov)  and  gave 
thanks  (evxapta- 
TTJcras),  and  brake 
it,  and  gave  unto 
them,  saying, 


This  is  my  body, 
which  (to)  is  given 
for  you  :  this  do 
(tovto  TTOieiTe)  in 
remembrance  of 
me.  Likewise  also 
the  cup  (to  rrorrip- 
10 1')  after  supper, 
saying.  This  cup 
is  the  new  testa- 
ment (i^  Kaii'T)  Sia- 
0ri/c7j)iumyblood, 
which  (to)  is  shed 
for  you. 


Paul. 


The  Lord  Jesus  the 
same  night  in  which 
he  was  betrayed  took 
bread  (apToi/) :  and 
when  he  had  given 
thanks  (evxapicrrrj- 
cra?),  he  brake  it,  and 
said. 

Take,  eat :  this  is 
my  body,  which  (to) 
is  broken  for  you  : 
this  do  (roiiTO  TroieiTe) 
in  remembrance  of 
me.  After  the  same 
manner  also  he  took 

the  cup  {to  TTOTT^pLOu) 

when  he  had  supped, 
saying.  This  cup  is 
the  new  testament  (17 
KaiPil  SiaOriKr])  in  my 
blood  :  this  do  ye, 
as  often  as  ye  drink 
it,  in  remembrance 
of  me. 


From  a  careful  consideration  of  these  parallel  passages,  it  will 
appear  that — 


LORD'S  SUPPER.  197 

1.  It  does  not  appear  that  our  Lord  Himself  partook. 

2.  A.  V.  is  wrong  in  making  Matthew  say  *he  blessed  it'  the 

exact  truth  being-  that  our  Lord  ^gave  thanks.' 

3.  The  precise  meaning  to  be  attached  to  the  words  '■  this  do,' 

is  not  stated. 

4.  In  whatever  sense  the  wine  in  the  cup  was  the  blood  of 

the  Saviour,  in  the  same  sense  the  bread  was  his  body. 

5.  The  word  '  this  '  can  mean  nothing  else  than  (1)  the  loaf 

and  (2)  the  cup,  or  the  wine  in  the  cup. 

Except  in  John  vi.,  in  which  there  are  passages  with  respect  to 
eating  the  flesh  and  drinking  the  blood  of  our  Saviour,  whose 
reference  to  the  Lord's  Supper  has  been  earnestly  asserted  and  as 
earnestly  denied,  no  other  references  to  the  Lord's  Supper  are 
found  in  the  Gospels. 

In  the  Acts,  there  are  at  least  two  clear  references  to  the  *  break- 
ing of  bread  (KkaaiQ  dprov),^  which  is  generally  considered  to  signify 
the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Thus,  the  disciples  '  break- 
ing bread  from  house  to  house  (icar  oIkov),  did  eat  their  meat  with 
gladness  and  singleness  of  heart '  (Acts  iii.  46),  and  '  on  the  first 
day  of  the  week  the  disciples  (at  Troas)  came  together  to  break 
bread '  (Acts  xx.  7),  while  some  consider  that  St.  Paul,  who,  on 
board  the  ship  '  took  bread,  and  gave  thanks  to  God  in  presence  of 
them  all,  and  when  he  had  broken  it^  he  began  to  eat'  (Acts 
xxviii.  35),  was  celebrating  the  Lord's  Supper. 

The  passages  1  Cor.  x.  16-21  and  xi.  20-34  are  the  only  other 
passages  in  the  New  Testament  in  which  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
distinctly  referred  to.  In  the  former  passage^  the  apostle  argues 
that  eating  the  bread  and  drinking  the  wine  in  the  supper  is  a 
communion  {Koivwvia  =  particijiatioTi)  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  and  therefore  that  persons  so  privileged  ought  not  to  have 
fellowship  {kqivujvovq  -^kvioBai)  with  devils  (^Yijuovft;)  by  partaking 
of  idolatrous  sacrificial  feasts.  In  the  second  passage,  the  apostle 
treats  of  the  worthily  and  unworthily  partaking  of  the  supper,  and 
reproves  the  disorders  which  had  crept  into  the  Corinthian  Church, 
and  which  had  converted  a  solemn  ordinance  into  a  sensual  feast. 
In  this  passage  occurs  the  only  name  given  to  the  institution  in 
the  New  Testament,  viz.  Ki»pia/c6v  Sh~vov,  Dominica  coena. 

The  text  '  We  have  an  altar,  whereof  they  have  no  right  to  eat 
that  serve  the  tabernacle '  (Heb.  xiii.  10),  has  been  supposed  by 
some  to  refer  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is  much  more  simply 
explained  by  a  reference  either  to  the  cross,  as  the  altar  on  which 


198        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

our  Scaviour  was  offered,  or  by  taking  it  to  mean,  'There  is  a 
certain  sacrifice  among  us  Jews,  of  which  the  priests  have  no 
right  to  eat.'     See  Alta?\ 

magric.  Various  descriptions  of  magic  are  alluded  to  in  the 
New  Testament.  Thus,  at  Samaria,  Philip  the  Evangelist  was 
resisted  by  Simon,  who  *  used  sorcery  and  bewitched  the  people 
(fxaytvojv  /cat  t^irrTU)v  to  Wvo(:)  ...  to  whom  they  all  gave  heed, 
saying,  This  man  is  the  great  power  of  God'  (Acts  viii.  9-11). 
Again,  in  Cyprus,  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  withstood  by  Barjesus, 
or  Ely  mas,  '  the  sorcerer  (M«yof)  '  (Acts  viii.  9).  In  Acts  xvi.  16, 
the  same  apostles  at  Philippi  are  encountered  by  '  a  damsel  pos- 
sessed with  a  spirit  of  divination  {-vev/jd  rivOujvoc  =  a.  spirit  of 
Python)  which  brought  her  masters  much  gain  by  soothsaying 
(ixavrevofikvr])  \  In  Eev.  xxi.  8,  another  kind  of  sorcerers,  viz. 
^(pap/jLaKHQ '  =  drug- dispensers,  appears.  In  Rev.  xxiii.  16, '  'papfxaKoi ' 
is  nearly  equivalent  to  (^.apuaKtlc^  and  in  Gal.  v.  20  tpapuciKtia  (A.V. 
*  witchcraft ')  is  numbered  among  the  '  works  of  the  flesh.'  Again, 
in  Acts  xviii.  19,  magical  books  are  referred  to,  and  '  curious  arts ' 
(jd  TTtpiepya). 

Here,  then,  are  referred  to — 1.  Magic;  2.  Bewitchment;  3.  Pro- 
phecy. Magic  pretended  to  wield  influence  over  good  and  evil 
spirits.  Bewitchment  assumed  the  power  both  of  injuring  by 
supernatural  means  those  upon  whom  the  sorcerer  desired  to  inflict 
suflfering,  and  of  producing  love  towards  any  given  person  by  means 
of  potions  or  draughts.  Prophecy  needs  no  explanation,  beyond 
that  the  expression  '  spirit  of  Python '  (or,  as  some  read,  '  Python, 
a  spirit ')  refers  to  the  heathen  deity  Apollo,  to  whom  the  name 
Python  was  sometimes  given,  and  who  was  regarded  as  the  god  of 
sorcery.  All  these  three  kinds  of  magic,  and  many  others,  were 
much  practised  in  New  Testament  times  both  by  Jews  and  Gentiles. 
The  Jews  called  magicians  Masters  of  the  Name,  i.e.  possessed  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  true  pronunciation  of  the  ineffable  name  of  God, 
and  some  of  them  even  now  allege  that  by  this  secret  our  Lord 
performed  his  miracles.     See  also  Curious  Arts. 

Manna,  |D  =  what?  jidwa,  manna.  The  name  given  by  the 
Israelites  to  the  miraculous  food  provided  for  them  during  their 
wanderings  in  the  desert.  The  description  given  of  it  in  the  Old 
Testament  shows  that  it  was  '  a  small  round  thing,  as  small  as  the 
hoar  frost  on  the  ground,'  or  as  '  coriander  seed,  and  the  colour 
thereof  as  the  colour  of  bdellium.'  It  could  be  'ground  in  mills, 
or  beat  in  a  mortar,  or  baked  in  pans,  and  made  cakes  of,  and  its 
taste  was  as  the  taste  of  fresh  oil,'  or  'like  wafers  made  with 


IVIAGIC— MARRIAGE.  199 

honey.'  Every  morning  a  day's  supply  appeared,  but  on  the  sixth 
morning  two  days'  supply  appeared;  and  in  each  case  nothing 
could  be  preserved  from  corruption  beyond  the  time  for  the  arrival 
of  a  fresh  supply.  Again,  every  man  gathered  sufficient  for  his 
own  eating  and  his  family's,  and  nothing  over. 

An  omer  of  manna  was  gathered  and  placed  in  the  ark,  being 
miraculously  preserved  from  corruption  ;  but  this  disappeared  in 
some  way  (possibly  during  the  sojourn  of  the  ark  among  the 
Philistines)  before  the  dedication  of  Solomon's  temple.  The 
manna  ceased  on  the  next  day  but  one  after  the  first  passover  kept 
by  the  Israelites  in  Canaan  (Josh.  v.  11,  12). 

In  the  New  Testament  manna  is  often  spoken  of,  both  by  its  own 
designation  and  as  '  the  bread  which  came  down  from  heaven ;' 
and  our  Lord  compares  himself  to  it,  as  the  '  Bread  of  Life,'  or 
'  the  living  bread '  (John  vi.).  In  Heb.  ix.  4,  the  *  golden  pot 
that  had  manna  '  is  referred  to,  in  a  description  of  the  Mosaic 
tabernacle,  and  in  Rev.  ii.  17,  our  Lord  promises  to  give  to  him 
that  Qvercometh  'to  eat  of  the  hidden  manna.'  Brown  and  Faus- 
set  well  say  on  this  point,  'As  the  manna  hidden  in  the 
sanctuary  was  by  Divine  power  preserved  from  corruption,  so 
Christ  in  His  incorruptible  body  has  passed  into  the  heavens,  and 
is  hidden  there  until  the  time  of  His  appearing.  Christ  is  the 
manna  hidden  from  the  world,  but  revealed  to  the  believer,  so  that 
he  has  already  a  foretaste  of  His  preciousness.  .  .  .  The  full 
manifestation  shall  be  at  His  coming.' 

A  gum  exudes  from  the  tamarisk  tree,  and  goes  by  the  name  of 
manna.  It  is  boiled  and  strained,  and  then  hardens  into  cakes,  of 
a  very  sweet  taste.  But  this  substance  has  no  real  connection 
with  the  manna  of  the  Wandering,  which  was  evidently  and 
necessarily  a  miraculous  production. 

maranatlia.     See  Anathema. 

AZarriagre,  IVIarriagre  Rites.  An  exhaustive  article,  from 
which  much  of  what  follows  is  gathered,  may  be  found  under  this 
head  in  Smith's  '  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.'  Here  only  a  short 
sketch  of  the  subject,  so  far  as  regards  the  New  Testament,  can  be 
offered. 

1.  Laiv  of  Marriage,  as  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament.  The 
primaeval  law  of  marriage,  viz.  that  it  is  an  indissoluble  bond, 
except  for  fornication,  is  laid  down  by  our  I^ord  in  Matt.  xix.  5-12, 
Mark  x,  7-12.  The  institution  was  further  recognised  by  the 
presence  of  Jesus  and  his  disciples,  and  the  working  of  his  first 
miracle,  at  a  marriage  in  Cana  of  Galilee  (Johnii.  1-11).  Marriage 


200       ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

is  also  declared  to  be  useful  as  a  preventive  against  sin  (1  Cor.  vii. 
9),  to  be  honourable  in  all  men  (Heb.  xiii.  4),  and  desirable  for  the 
younger  -widows  (1  Tim.  v.  14).  The  celibacy  of  ministers  is  dis- 
couraged by  (1)  the  example  of  St.  Peter,  who  was  a  married  man 
(Matt.  viii.  14 ;  Mark  i.  30 ;  Luke  iv.  38)  ;  (2)  the  assertion  of  St. 
Paul  as  to  his  own  right  to  marry,  in  imitation  of  the  ^  other 
apostles,  and  the  brethren  of  the  Lord  and  Cephas '  (//»)  ovk  exoinev 
s^ovdiav  a.diX(l)7)T  yvvaiKa  TnpiayaiVf'  ujg  ....  where  A.  V.  translates 
aS.  yvv.  TTsp. '  to  lead  about  a  sister,  a  ivife,^  but  Alford  and  most  good 
critics  '  to  bring  with  us — i.e.  take  on  our  circuits  at  the  charge  of 
the  churches — a  believing  sister,  as  a  wife,'  1  Cor.  ix.  5)  ;  (8) 
exhortations  as  to  the  bishops,  elders,  and  deacons  not  having 
more  than  one  wife  (1  Tim.  iii.  2,  12 ;  Tit.  i.  6) ;  (4)  ^forbidding 
to  marry  '  being  classed  as  one  of  the  evil  signs  of  the  latter  times 
(1  Tim.  iv.  3).  At  the  same  time,  the  New  Testament  recognises 
the  existence  of  some  advantages  which  the  unmarried  have  over 
the  married,  in  being  able  to  devote  themselves  more  completely 
to  Christ's  service  (see  1  Cor.  vii.  32-34,  and  the  whole  chapter 
for  the  general  discussion  of  the  subject). 

While  thus  dealing  with  the  subject  of  marriage  as  an  earthly 
institution,  our  Lord  declared  that  '  in  the  resurrection  they  neither 
marry  nor  are  given  in  marriage,  but  are  as  the  angels  in  heaven  * 
(Matt.  xxii.  30 ;  Mark  xii.  25 ;  Luke  xx.  35).  This  declaration 
was  called  forth  by  a  deputation  of  Sadducees,  setting  before  him 
the  case  of  a  woman  who  had  been  married  by  seven  brothers  in 
succession,  according  to  the  law  (generally  called  Levirate,  from 
the  late  Latin  word  levir  =  a  brother-in-law)  of  Dent.  xxv.  5,  6, 
and  inquiring  '  whose  wife  shall  she  be  of  the  seven  ?  ' 

2.  Marriage  Customs.  Marriage  amongst  the  Jews  was  preceded 
by  betrothal,  which  was  a  religious  ceremony,  and  of  such  legal 
importance  that,  subsequent  to  betrothal,  the  woman  lost  all 
power  over  her  property,  and  infidelity  on  her  part  was  regarded 
as  adultery,  punishable  with  death  or  divorce.  Thus  Joseph,  the 
betrothed  husband  of  Mary,  is  represented  as  having  determined  to 
put  away  Mary,  his  betrothed  wife,  privately  (Matt.  i.  19).  The 
difference  between  betrothal  and  marriage  really  only  existed  in 
the  fact  that,  until  marriage,  the  bride  resided  with  her  parents 
nstead  of  with  her  husband,  and  all  communication  was  carried  on 
with  the  latter  by  a  deputy  appointed  for  the  purpose,  and  named 
the  friend  of  the  bridegroom.' 

This  condition  of  betrothal  lasted  in  New  Testament  times  for 
one  month  in  the  case  of  widows,  and  one  year  in  the  case  of  vir- 


MARKIAGE.  201 

gins.  At  the  expiration  of  the  time  the  marriage  itself  took  place. 
It  is  stated  that  no  religious  service  whatever  accompanied  the 
actual  marriage,  the  essence  of  which  consisted,  as  amongst  the 
Arabs  of  the  present  day,  in  the  formal  removal  of  the  bride  to  the 
bridegroom's  house.  This  took  place  generally  at  night,  which 
necessitated  the  use  of  torches  or  lamps,  and  was  often  accompanied 
with  a  pretended  display  of  violence,  the  bride's  party  apparently 
resisting  the  attempt  to  carry  the  bride  off,  but  of  course  being  at 
length  overpowered.  The  bride  having  been  thus  brought  to  the 
bridegroom's  house,  a  feast  commenced,  which  lasted  for  a  week  or 
a  fortnight,  and  at  which  not  merely  food  and  entertainments  were 
provided,  but  robes  were  frequently  presented  to  tlie  guests. 

Many  passages  of  the  New  Testament  derive  additional  force 
from  a  recognition  of  these  customs.  Thus,  the  procession  of  the 
bridegroom's  friends,  and  the  subsequent  feast,  explain  our  Lord's 
reply  to  the  Pharisees,  '  Can  the  children  of  the  bridechamber  (oi 
viol  Tov  vvfi(pu)vog)  fast,  as  long  as  the  bridegroom  is  with  them  ? ' 
(Matt.  ix.  15 ;  Mark  ii.  19  :  Luke  v.  34),  and  illustrate  the  parables 
of  The  Wedding  Feast  and  The  Ten  Virgins.  The  ^  friend  of  the 
bridegroom,'  the  official  in  charge  of  the  preliminaries  and  cere- 
monial of  marriage,  is  also  taken  by  John  the  Baptist  as  a  figure  of 
himself  in  reference  to  the  Messiah  (John  iii.  29). 

3.  Typical  Use  of  Marriage.  The  union  between  God  and  his 
people  is  set  forth  in  the  Old  Testament  under  the  symbol  of  a 
marriage  (see  Is.  liv.  o,  ^Thy  maker  is  thy  husband  j'  Jer.  iii.  14, 
*  I  am  married  unto  you  ;'  Hos.  ii.  19, 20,  ^  I  will  betroth  thee  unto 
me  for  ever ;  yea,  I  will  betroth  thee  unto  me  in  righteousness, 
and  in  judgment,  and  in  loving-kindness,  and  in  mercies  :  I  will  even 
betroth  thee  unto  me  in  faithfulness'),  and  the  irreligion  of  the 
Jewish  church  is  thus  stigmatised  with  the  name  of  adultery. 
Our  Lord  takes  up  this  idea,  and  claims  to  be  the  Bridegroom 
(Matt.  ix.  15),  a  claim  previously  allowed  by  John  the  Baptist  (see 
above).  Hence,  the  Church  of  Christ  represents  the  Bride,  at 
present  espoused  only  (2  Cor.  xi.  2,  '  I  have  espoused  you  to  one 
husband,  that  I  may  present  you  as  a  chaste  virgin  to  Christ '), 
but  ultimately  to  be  united  completely  to  the  bridegroom  (Rev. 
xix.  7 ;  xxi.  2,  9 :  xxii.  17).  Hence  the  last  day  is  represented 
under  the  emblem  of  a  marriage  supper  made  by  the  Father  for 
his  Son  (Matt.  xxii.  2--14 ;  Rev.  xix.  9),  and  a  wedding  at  which 
ten  virgins  go  up  to  meet  the  bridegroom  (Matt.  xxv.  1-12),  com- 
ing at  night-time  to  fetch  his  betrothed  bride  home.  Hence  also 
St.  Paul  says,  ^  The  husband  is  the  head  of  the  wife,  even  as  Christ 


202        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAIVIENT   STUDY. 

is  the  head  of  the  church  ...  As  the  church  is  subject  to  Christ, 
so  let  the  wives  be  to  their  own  husbands  in  everything.  Hus- 
bands, love  your  wives,  even  as  Christ  also  loved  the  church,  and 
gave  himself  for  it  .  .  .  For  no  man  ever  yet  hated  his  own  flesh, 
but  nourish eth  and  cherisheth  it,  even  as  the  Lord  the  church  :  for 
we  are  members  of  his  body,  of  his  flesh  and  of  his  bones.  For 
this  cause  shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  mother  and  shall  be 
joined  unto  his  wife,  and  they  two  shall  be  one  flesh.  This  is  a 
great  mystery,  but  I  speak  concerning  Christ  and  the  church.' 
(Eph.  V.  23-32). 

IVXartyr.  The  Greek  word  fiaprrp^zvitness,  and  is  so  translated 
in  a  large  number  of  passages  in  the  New  Testament.  But  in 
Acts  xxii.  20  ('  the  blood  of  thy  martyr  Stephen '),  Rev.  ii.  13, 
(' Antipas  was  my  faithful  ma?%r,  who  was  slain  among  you'), 
and  Rev.  xvii.  6  ('  drunken  with  the  blood  of  the  martyrs  of 
Jesus '),  the  word  is  rendered  by  '  martyr,'  as  distinctive  of  a  wit- 
ness who  testifies  to  the  truth  hy  his  death. 
IMtessiali.  See  Christ. 
IMCinister.     See  Deacon. 

IVKint,  i}ovo<sjxor^  mentha,  an  insignificant  but  well-known  herb, 
only  referred  to  in  the  parallel  passages,  'Ye  (i.e.  ye  Pharisees) 
pay  tithe  of  mint  and  anise  and  cummin '  (Matt,  xxiii.  23),  and 
'  Ye  tithe  mint,  and  rue,  and  all  manner  of  herbs '  (Luke  xi.  42). 
The  common  mint  of  Palestine,  however,  is  larger  than  our  garden 
mint. 

Miracle.  Miracles  in  the  New  Testament  are  distinguished 
into  three  kinds: — (1)  ^waimc,  virtutes  =  lit.  poivers,  i.e.  works  of 
power  J  (2)  rtpara,  prodigia  =  ivonders )  (3)  aimiui,  signa  =  signs, 
or  supernatural  attestations  (Acts  ii.  22  ;  Rom.  xv.  19  ;  2  Cor.  xii. 
12  ;  2  Thess.  ii.  9).  But  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  term  '  wonders,' 
descriptive  of  the  result  of  a  miracle  on  the  beholder,  is  never 
applied  alone  to  any  New  Testament  miracle,  the  production  of 
mere  wonder  being  obviously  alien  to  the  divine  intention.  The 
general  term  '  works  (Jpyn)  '  is  also  applied  to  miracles  (Matt.  xi.  2  ; 
John  V.  36 ;  vii.  21,  &c.).  Archbishop  Trench  regards  miracles, 
not  as  a  proof  of  the  doctrine  delivered  by  the  miracle-worker, 
but  as  intended  at  first  to  claim  attention  for  his  teaching,  and 
afterwards  to  confirm  that  teaching,  when  it  '  commends  itself  to 
the  conscience  as  being  good.'     ('  Trench  on  Miracles,'  p.  24). 

Of  our  Lord's  miracles,  thirty-three  are  fully  described,  which 
may  be  divided  into  three  groups  : — 


MARTYE— MIRACLE.  203 

A.  Those  which  only  involve  a  providential  arrangement  of  natural 

events.     Such  are — 

1.  The  First  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes  (Luke  v.  1-11). 

2.  The  Second  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes  (John  xxi. 

1-23). 

3.  The  Piece  of  Money  in  the  Fish's  Mouth  (Matt.  xvii. 

24-27). 

4.  The  Calming  of  the  Storm  (Matt.  viii.  23-27  ;  Mark  iv. 

35-41 ;  Luke  viii.  22-25). 

5.  The  Withering  of  the  Fruitless  Fig-tree  (Matt.  xxi. 

17-22  ;  Mark  xi.  12-14,  20-24). 

B.  Those  which  involve  a  supernatural  control  over  the  powers  of 

nature.     Such  are — 

6.  The  Water  made  Wine  (John  ii.  1-11). 

7.  Walking  on  the  Sea  (Matt.  xiv.  22-33 ;  Mark  vi.  45- 

52  ;  John  vi.  16-21). 

8.  The  Miraculous  feeding  of  5,000  (Matt.  xiv.  15-21 ; 

Mark  vi.  35-44;  Luke  ix.  12-17;  John  vi.  5-14). 

9.  The  Miraculous  feeding  of  4,000  (Matt.  xv.  32-39 ; 

Mark  viii.  1-9). 

10.  The  Raising  to  Life  of  Lazarus  (John  xi.  1-54). 

11.  The  Raising  to   Life   of  the  Widow's   Son  at  Nain 

(Luke  vii.  11-16). 

12.  The  Raising  to  Life  of  Jairus'  Daughter  (Matt.  ix.  18, 

19,  23-26;  Mark  v.  22-24,   35-43;  Luke  viii.  41, 
42,  49-56). 

13.  The  Healing  of  the  Nobleman's  Son  (John  iv.  46-54). 

14.  The  Healing  of  the  Woman  with  an  Issue  of  Blood 

(Matt.  ix.  20-22 ;  Mark  v.  25-34  ;  Luke  viii.  43-48). 

15.  The  Healing  of  Two  Blind  Men  in  the  House  (Matt. 

ix.  27-31). 

16.  The  Healing  of  One  born  Blind  (John  ix). 

17.  The  Healing  of  a  Blind  Man  at  Bethsaida  (Mark  viii. 

22-26). 

18.  The  Healing  of  Two  Blind  Men  at  Jericho  (Matt.  xx. 

29-34;  Mark  x.  46-52  ;  Luke  xviii.  35-43). 

19.  The  Healing  of  a  Leper  (Matt.  viii.  1-4 ;  Mark  i.  40- 

45  ;  Luke  v.  12-14). 

20.  The  Healing  of  Ten  Lepers  (Luke  xvii.  11-19). 


204        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

21.  The  Healing  of  a  Paralytic  (Matt.  ix.  1-8;  Mark  ii. 

1-12  ;  Luke  v.  17-26)!! 

22.  The  Healing-  of  a  Centurion's  Servant  (Matt.  viii.  5-13  j 

Luke  vii.  1-10). 

23.  The  Healing  of  Simon's  Wife's  Mother  (Matt.  viii. 

14,  15  ;  Mark  i.  29-31 ;  Luke  iv.  38,  39). 

24.  The  Healing  of  an  Impotent  Man  at  Bethesda  (John 

V.  1-16). 

25.  The  Healing  of  a  Man  with  a  Withered  Hand  (Matt. 

xii.  9-13 ;  Mark  iii.  1-5 :  Luke  vi.  6-11). 

26.  The  Healing  of  a  Woman  with  a  Spirit  of  Infirmity 

(Luke  xiii.  10-17). 

27.  The  Healing  of  a  Man  with  a  Dropsy  (Luke  xiv.  1-6). 

28.  The   Healing  of  the   Daughter  of  a   Syrophoenician 

Woman  (Matt.  xv.  21-28 ;  Mark  vii.  24-30). 

29.  The  Healing  of  one  Deaf  and  Dumb  (Mark  vii.  31-37). 

30.  The  Healing  of  Malchus'  Ear  (Luke  xxii.  49-51). 

C.  Those  which  involve  control  over  supernatural  powers.     Such 
are — 

31.  The  Healing  of  the  Gadarene  Demoniacs  (Matt.  viii. 

28-34  ;  Mark  v.  1-20  ;  Luke  viii.  26-39). 

32.  The   Healing  of  the  Demoniac  in  the  Synagogue  at 

Capernaum  (Mark  i.  23-26 ;  Luke  iv.  33-36). 

33.  The  Healing  of  a  Lunatic  Child  (Matt.  xvii.   14-21 ; 

Mark  ix.  14-29  j  Luke  ix.  37-42). 

Many  other  arrangements  have  been  proposed.  An  exhaustive 
and  excellent  arrangement  may  for  instance  be  found  in  Dr.  West- 
cott's  ^Introduction  to  the  New  Testament/  App.  E.,  to  the 
following  effect : — 

I.  Miracles  on  nature. 

1.  Miracles  of  creative  power. 

2.  Miracles  of  providence. 
II.  Miracles  on  man. 

III.  Miracles  in  the  Spirit-world. 

It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  to  enter  upon  the  general 
discussion  of  the  subject  of  miracles.  It  will  be  found  fully  dis- 
cussed in  Dr.  Westcott's  '  Characteristics  of  the  Gospel  Miracles/ 
in  Archbishop  Trench  ^  On  the  Miracles/  and  in  an  article  on 
Miracles  in  ^  Aids  to  Faith  '  by  the  late  Dean  Mansel. 


MIRACLES.  205 

Other  miracles  are  recorded  in  the  New  Testament  besides  those 
of  our  Lord.  By  his  expre3s  authority,  the  apostles  and  the  seventy 
disciples  wrought  miracles  during  his  lifetime,  healing  the  sick, 
cleansing  the  lepers,  raising  the  dead,  casting  out  devils  (Matt.  x. 
8  ;  Luke  x.  17),  and  their  authority  to  act  thus  was  renewed  and 
extended  at  the  Ascension  to  all  that  believe  ('  These  signs 
shall  follow  them  that  believe :  In  my  name  shall  they  cast 
out  devils :  they  shall  speak  with  new  tongues ;  they  shall 
take  up  serpents ;  and  if  they  drink  any  deadly  thing  it  shall 
not  hurt  them ;  they  shall  lay  hands  on  the  sick,  and  they 
shall  recover  ' — Mark  xvi.  17, 18).  No  details  are  given  of  any  suc- 
cessful attempt  by  our  Lord's  disciples  to  work  a  miracle  during 
his  lifetime,  but  an  unsuccessful  endeavour  to  cure  a  lunatic  child 
(afterwards  cured  by  Christ  himself)  is  recorded  in  Matt.  xvii.  16  ; 
Mark  ix.  18  ;  Luke  ix.  40 ;  and  from  this  statement  indirect  evi- 
dence is  afforded  that  the  practice  of  bringing  demoniacs  to  the 
disciples  for  cure  was  a  common  one.  After  the  Ascension,  various 
miracles  are  recorded  in  detail  as  having  been  wroug-ht  by  the 
apostles  and  others.  Thus,  '  many  wonders  and  signs  were  wrought 
by  the  apostles'  (Acts  ii.  43)  ;  Peter  and  John  healed  a  man  at  the 
Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Temple,  who  had  been  lame  from  his 
mother's  womb  (Acts  iii.)  ;  Ananias  and  Sapphira  his  wife  were 
struck  dead  for  lying  to  the  Holy  Ghost ;  '  many  signs  and  wonders 
were  wrought  by  the  apostles  amongst  the  people,'  and  ''  they 
brought  forth  the  sick  into  the  streets,  and  laid  them  on  beds  and 
couches,  that  at  the  least  the  shadow  of  Peter  passing  by  might 
overshadow  some  of  them  :  there  came  also  a  multitude  out  of  the 
cities  round  about  Jerusalem  bringing  sick  folks,  and  them  which 
were  vexed  with  unclean  spirits ;  and  they  were  healed  every  one ' 
(Acts  V.  1-10, 12, 15, 16) ;  Stephen  did  great  wonders  and  miracles 
amongst  the  people  (Acts  vi.  8)  ;  Philip  the  evangelist  cast  out 
unclean  spirits,  and  healed  some  with  palsies  and  lame  (Acts 
viii.  7)  ;  Peter  healed  ^neas,  and  raised  Dorcas  to  life  (Acts 
ix.  32-41)  ;  St.  Paul  struck  Elymas  the  sorcerer  with  blindness 
(Acts  xiii.  11),  and  in  company  with  Barnabas  healed  a  cripple  at 
Lystra  (Acts  xiv.  8-10)  ;  the  same  apostle  cast  out  an  evil  spirit 
from  a  soothsaying  maiden  at  Philippi  (Acts  xvi .  18),  and  at 
Ephesus  ^wrought  special  miracles  ...  so  that  from  his  body  were 
brought  unto  the  sick  handkerchiefs  or  aprons,  and  the  diseases 
departed  from  them,  and  the  evil  spirits  went  out  of  them '  (Acts 
xix.  11,  12)  ;  at  Troas  by  the  same  apostle  a  young  man  named 
Eutychus  was  revived,  when  supposed  to  have  been  killed  by  a  laU 


206       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

from  an  upper  window  (Acts  xx.  9,  10)  ;  and  at  Melita,  after  St. 
Paul's  shipwreck,  a  viper  was  shaken  off  by  the  apostle  into  the 
fire  without  his  receiving  harm,  and  many  sick  persons,  including 
Publius,  the  governor  of  the  island,  were  cured  (Acts  xxviii.  3-9). 
In  1  Cor.  xii.  10,  the  'working  of  miracles '  is  enumerated  among 
the  gifts  of  the  Spirit,  and  in  1  Cor.  xii,  28,  and  Gal.  iii.  5, 
*  workers  of  miracles '  are  mentioned  as  officials  of  the  church. 
In  Heb,  ii.  4, '  signs,  wonders,  and  divers  miracles '  are  also  referred 
to  as  testimonies  to  the  credibility  of  the  apostles  and  evangelists. 

Money-cliangers.     See  Bank. 

IVIote,  Kupcpoc,  festuca,  lit.  =  any  small  dry  body,  esp.  a  dry  stalk, 
a  hit  of  ivooi  or  straw,  but  rendered  in  A.  V.  '  a  mote  '  in  the  say- 
ing of  our  Lord  '  First  cast  out  the  beam  (j^okov)  out  of  thine  own 
eye,  and  then  shalt  thou  see  clearly  to  cast  out  the  mote  out  of 
thy  brother's  eye '  (Matt.  vii.  3,  4,  5 ;  Luke  vi.  41,  42).  This 
saying  is  stated  to  have  been  a  proverb  amongst  the  Jews,  but  only 
with  respect  to  a  person  retaliating  rebuke,  and  not  with  the  full 
meaning  given  to  it  by  our  Lord. 

Moth,  Motlieaten,  nijc,  (tj]t6(3pojtoc,  tinea.  The  moth  is  re- 
ferred to  in  the  New  Testament  only  in  the  exhortation  of  our 
Lord  to  lay  up  treasures  in  heaven  where  '  neither  rust  nor  moth 
doth  corrupt '  (Matt.  vi.  19,  20 ;  Luke  xii.  33),  and  in  James  v.  2, 
where  rich  men  are  addressed  as  having  their  garments  '  moth- 
eaten.'  In  both  of  these  cases  the  usage  is  evidently  metaphorical, 
but  the  allusion  is  to  the  clothes-moth,  of  which  many  kinds  are 
found  in  Palestine,  and  is  peculiarly  applicable  to  the  East,  where 
gannents  are  laid  up  in  large  profusion  and  such  stores  are  re- 
garded as  an  evidence  of  wealth.  Several  distinct  species  exist, 
feeding  upon  various  sorts  of  material,  but  it  is  not  by  the  insect 
in  its  perfect  state  as  a  moth^  but  in  its  larva  state  as  a  grub,  that 
the  ravages  are  committed. 

Z^iistard,  aivuTTif  sinapis,  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  of  the 
cruciferae.  Two  varieties  are  found,  white  and  black,  of  which 
the  latter  flourishes  in  great  abundance  in  a  wild  state  in  Pales- 
tine. In  that  country,  especially  in  the  hot  Jordan  valley,  it 
attains  a  considerable  height,  and  the  smaller  birds  frequent  it  in 
large  numbers  for  the  sake  of  its  seed.  Hence  it  corresponds  with 
the  description  of  it  given  by  our  Lord,  in  which  he  says  '  it  is  the 
least  of  all  seeds  :  but  when  it  is  grown,  it  is  the  greatest  among 
herbs,  and  becometh  a  tree,  so  that  the  birds  of  the  air  come  and 
lodge  (KaTa(yKi)vovv')  in  the  branches  thereof '  (Matt.  xiii.  32;  comp. 
Mark  iv.  31,  32  ;  and  Luke  xiii.  18,  19).     In  all  these  three  pass- 


MONEY-CHANGERS— NAZARENE.  207 

ages  our  Lord  refers  to  the  seed  and  its  produce  as  illustrative  of  the 
growthof  the  kingdom  of  God  from  a  small  beginning.  On  twoother 
occasions  he  refers  to  the  smallness  of  the  seed,  and  says  '  If  ye 
have  faith  as  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  ye  shall  say  unto  this  moun- 
tain, remove  hence  to  yonder  place,  and  it  shall  remove ;  and 
nothing  shall  be  impossible  to  you  '  (Matt.  xvii.  20),  and  '  If  ye 
had  faith  as  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  ye  might  say  unto  this  syca- 
more tree,  be  thou  plucked  up  by  the  root,  and  be  thou  planted  in 
the  sea ;  and  it  should  obey  you  '  (Luke  xvii.  6). 

l«yrrh,  a^ivova,  mijrrlia.  An  aromatic  gum  which  exudes  from 
the  JBahamodendron  myrrlicB,  a  small  tree  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Terebinthaceae,  and  growing  in  Arabia  and  Eastern  Africa. 
It  is  used  by  us  as  a  tincture,  and  as  a  powder,  and  in  the  Temple 
service  was  used  as  an  ingredient  in  the  oil  with  which  the 
priests  and  the  vessels  were  anointed  (Exodus  xxx.  23).  Myrrh  was 
one  of  the  presents  brought  by  the  wise  men  to  the  infant  Jesus  ; 
as  to  its  meaning  on  this  occasion  see  Section  2.  "Wine  in  which 
myrrh  had  been  dissolved  {olvoc,  £T/icp^aT|t(6»  oc)  was  also  offered  to 
our  Lord  previous  to  his  crucifixion,  probably  with  the  benevolent 
intention  of  deadening  his  pains,  but  He  '  received  it  not,'  perhaps 
because  he  desired  to  show  his  perfect  consciousness  of  what  he 
was  doing,  or  because  he  desired  to  shrink  from  no  possible  pain 
(Mark  xv.  23).  Lastly,  myrrh  was  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the 
hundred- weight  of  spices  which  were  provided,  according  to  the 
Jewish  custom,  by  Nicodemus,  and  with  which  our  Lord's  body 
was  wrapped,  for  burial  (John  xix.  39). 

Mystery,  ixvarrjpiov,  mysterium,  lit.  =  a  revealed  scci'et.  The 
term  '  mysteries '  was  applied  to  certain  religious  ceremonies 
among  the  ancients  to  which  only  those  who  were  initiated  were 
admitted.  The  most  celebrated  were  those  of  Demeter  at  Eleusis, 
but  mysteries  were  celebrated  in  every  considerable  town  of 
Greece,  They  are  supposed  by  many  to  have  been  scenic  shows  of 
mythical  stories.  In  the  New  Testament  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
designs  of  God  in  the  Gospel,  as  something  originally  secret,  but 
afterwards  made  Jcnozcn  to  mankind,  and  the  ability  to  understand 
these  mysteries  is  regarded  as  a  divine  gift.  Hence  in  Matt.  xiii. 
11,  our  Lord  says  to  his  disciples  '  to  you  it  is  given  to  understand 
the  mysteries  of  the  kingdom  of  God,'  and  in  1  Tim.  iii.  16,  we  read 
*  greatis  themystery  of  godliness ;  God  was  manifestin  theflesh,&c.' 

Nazarene,  Na^wpoToc,  (but  in  Mark  x.  47,  'Sa^aprjvoc:),  Nazaraiis. 
This  term  occurs  first  in  Matt.  ii.  23,  where  we  read  that  Joseph, 
coming  from  Egypt,  went  back  with  Mary  and  the  infant  Jesus  to 


208        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Nazareth,  and  there  dwelt,  '■  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was 
spoken  by  the  prophets,  saying,  He  shall  be  called  a  Nazarene.' 
It  is  also  applied  to  Jesus  in  many  other  places  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  rendered  in  A.  V.  *  of  Nazareth  '  (Matt.  xxvi.  71 ;  Mark 
i.  24 ;  X.  47 ;  xiv.  ^1 ;  Luke  iv.  34 ;  xviii.  37 ;  xxiv.  19 ;  John 
xviii.  5,  7  ;  xix.  19 ;  Acts  ii.  22  ;  iii.  6 ;  iv.  10 ;  vi.  14 ;  xxii.  8 ; 
xxvi.  9),  and  hence  the  intention  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  speaking  by 
the  prophets,  was  completely  fulfilled.  It  is  now  pretty  generally 
conceded  that  the  reference  in  Matt.  ii.  23  is  to  the  prophecy  in 
Isaiah  xi.  1,  in  which  the  Messiah  is  spoken  of  as  a  Branch,  re- 
peated or  alluded  to  in  Jerem.  xxiii.  5  ;  xxxiii.  15  j  Zech.  iii.  8 ; 
vi.  12.  The  Hebrew  word  for  branch  is  IV?.  {Netzer),  which  has 
been  shown  to  be  the  Hebrew  name  for  Nazareth.  Hence,  our 
Lord,  by  the  unconscious  act  of  Joseph,  obtained  the  name  which 
was  prophesied  of  him.  There  is  no  reference  to  the  word  Naza- 
rite,  a  word  of  entirely  distinct  origin,  and  not  at  all  descriptive  of 
our  Lord,  whose  manner  of  life  was  intentionally  opposed  to 
asceticism. 

The  term  Nazarene  also  appears  as  a  title  for  Christians  in  Acts 
xxiv.  5,  where  Tertullus  calls  St.  Paul  ^  a  ringleader  of  the  sect 
of  the  Nazarenes.'  This  is  still  the  ordinary  Arabic  designation  of 
Christians. 

Wet.     See  Fishermen. 

Iffe-w  Moon,  vovn-qria,  neomema.  The  beginning  of  the  months 
was  observed  as  a  festival  by  the  Jews,  and  directions  for  special 
sacrifices  on  that  day  are  given  in  Num.  xxviii.  11-15.  The  day 
was  observed  as  a  Sabbath  (Am.  viii.  5),  and  persons  resorted  to 
religious  teachers  on  that  day  (2  Kings  iv.  23).  In  1  Chron.  xxiii. 
31,  it  is  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  '  the  sabbaths  '  and  '  the 
set  feasts,'  and  in  Col.  ii.  16,  is  directly  abrogated,  so  far  as  being 
obligatory  on  Gentile  Christians  ('  Let  no  man  judge  you  in  re- 
spect of  the  feast  days,  or  new  moon,  or  sabbaths  ').  Comp.  also 
Gal.  iv.  10,  '  Ye  observe  days,  and  months,  and  years.' 

XTicolaitanes.     See  in  Section  5. 

Olive,  Two  kinds  of  olive  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 1.  The  cultivated  olive  QXaia,  oliva),  one  of  the  most 
abundant  and  characteristic  trees  of  Palestine.  It  is  of  moderate 
height,  with  a  whitish-green  foliage,  something  like  the  colour  of 
the  willow  (but  darker),  and  of  bushy  growth.  Its  fruit  is  a  green 
berry,  somewhat  the  shape  and  size  of  a  gooseberry,  which  is 
produced  in  great  profusion,  and  which  yields,  when  pressed,  the 
liquid  well  known  as  olive  oil.     Its  various  products  are  amongst 


NET— OLIVE.  209 

the  most  valuable  vegetable  productions  of  sub-tropical  countries. 
The  berry  is  pickled  and  forms  the  relish  of  the  labouring  classes, 
and  the  oil  supplies  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  various  uses  to  which 
animal  fat  and  butter  are  put  in  colder  countries,  food  being 
cooked,  light  maintained,  and  soap  manufactured  by  its  assistance. 
The  oil  is  also  valuable  for  anointing  the  body,  and  for  medicinal 
purposes.  The  wood  is  used  for  cabinet-work,  being  of  an  amber 
colour  and  close  grain,  and  was  employed  in  the  doors,  the  posts, 
and  the  cherubim  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  vi.  23,  31, 
32,  33).  The  culture  of  the  olive-tree,  although  still  veiy  com- 
mon in  Palestine,  is  probably  not  so  common  as  formerly.  In 
many  places  where  it  now  no  longer  exists,  the  ruins  of  olive- 
presses  are  found,  and  the  hill  to  the  east  of  Jerusalem,  although 
still  producing  some  hundreds  of  trees,  is  not  so  covered  with 
them  as  to  justify  its  ancient  and  still  existing  name  of  the 
*  Mount  of  Olives.'  In  the  garden  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  (the 
traditional  Gethsemane)  several  olive-trees  are  found,  which  are 
said  to  have  existed  since  the  time  of  our  Lord  ;  but  although 
their  appearance  and  the  well-known  longevity  of  the  olive  justi- 
fy their  claim  to  a  very  great  age,  it  is  highly  improbable  that 
the  Roman  army  which  besieged  and  took  Jerusalem  under  Titus 
would  have  left  any  trees  standing  so  near  the  city. 

The  use  of  the  olive  oil  (tXawv)  for  lamps  is  referred  to  in  the 
parable  of  the  Ten  Virgins  (Matt.  xxv.  3,  4,  8) ;  as  an  article  of 
commerce,  in  the  parable  of  the  Unjust  Steward,  where  one  of  the 
creditors  is  said  to  owe  a  hundred '  measures  {ftarovc)  of  oil '  (Luke  xvi. 
6),  and  in  the  enumeration  of  the  merchandise  of  the  mystic  Baby- 
lon (Rev.  xviii.  13) ;  as  an  ointment  for  wounds,  in  the  parable  of 
the  Good  Samaritan,  who  poured  into  the  wounds  of  the  wounded 
traveller  ''  oil  and  wine  '  (Luke  x.  34)  ;  and  as  a  customary  oint- 
ment for  the  body  in  the  saying  of  our  Lord  to  Simon  the  Pharisee, 
'  My  head  with  oil  thou  didst  not  anoint '  (Luke  vii.  46).  ^  Oil 
and  wine '  are  also  referred  to  in  Rev.  vi.  6,  where  a  voice  from 
among  the  four  beasts  says  to  the  rider  on  the  black  horse,  '  See 
that  thou  hurt  not  the  oil  and  the  wine ; '  and  an  argument  for 
holy  language,  as  befitting  the  mouths  of  godly  persons,  is  drawn 
in  James  iii.  12  from  the  propriety  with  which  each  tree  bears 
its  own  fruit — '  Can  the  fig-tree  bear  olive  berries  QXalag)  ?  ' 

The  same  apostle  James  refers  (v.  14,  15)  to  the  custom  of 
*  anointing '  the  sick.  This  is  also  mentioned  in  Mark  vi.  13, 
where  the  apostles  are  said  to  have  '  anointed  with  oil  many  that 
were    sick,   and  healed  them.'      This    is    the  practice    recom- 

P 


210       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

mended  by  St.  James:  ^Is  any  sick  among  you  ?  let  him  call  for 
the  elders  of  the  church ;  and  let  them  pray  over  him,  anointing 
him  with  oil  in  tlie  name  of  the  Lord :  and  the  prayer  of  faith 
shall  save  the  sick,  and  the  Lord  shall  raise  him  up.'  This  rite 
differs  from  the  extreme  unction  of  the  Romish  church  in  its  being 
administered  to  those  who  are  sick  of  body,  to  heal  the  body, 
whereas  extreme  unction  is  administered  to  those  whose  lives  are 
despaired  of,  in  order  to  save  their  souls. 

Several  metaphorical  allusions  to  the  olive  and  oil  occur  in  the 
New  Testament.  Thus,  in  Heb.  i.  9,  we  read  of  the  Messiah,  in  a 
quotation  from  Ps.  xlv.  7 — 'Thy  God  hath  anointed  thee  with  the 
oil  of  gladness  above  thy  fellows.'  Again,  the  position  of  the  Gen- 
tile Church,  as  not  the  natural  heir  to  God's  grace,  but  as  taking 
the  place  of  the  Jewish  Church,  is  referred  to  in  Rom.  xi.  17,  under 
the  similitude  of  a  wild  olive-tree  {dypdXaioc)  grafted  upon  a  cul- 
tivated olive-tree.  The  olive-tree  requires  to  be  grafted,  but  the 
engrafting  of  a  wild  shoot  on  the  cultivated  variety  is  not  usual, 
but  'contrary  to  nature '  j  and  this  point  of  course  renders  the 
comparison  more  striking. 

Finally,  the  olive-tree  is  used  prophetically.  In  Rev,  xi.  4,  the 
Two  Witnesses  who  shall  prophesy  1,260  days  are  described  as 
*  the  two  olive-trees,  and  the  two  candlesticks  standing  before  the 
God  of  the  earth.'  A  vision  of  one  candlestick  and  two  olive-trees 
was  seen  by,  and  the  same  explanation  given  to,  Zechariah  (iv.  2, 
3,  12-14).     As  to  their  further  meaning,  see  Witnesses. 

2.  The  wild  olive  (aypdXaioQ).  This  requires  to  be  grafted  in 
order  to  produce  fruit.    It  is  only  referred  to  in  Rom,  xi.    See  above. 

Omega,  to  Q,  the  name  of  the  last  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
and  therefore  used  for  the  end  of  anything.  Hence  our  Lord  in  the 
Apocalypse  four  times  calls  Himself  the  '  Alpha  and  the  Omega, 
the  beginning  and  the  end '  (Rev,  i.  8,  11 ;  xxi.  6  ;  xxii.  13). 

Oracles,  Xoy/a,  verba,  eloquia,  sermones.  A  word  occurring  in 
Acts  vii.  38  ('Who  received  the  lively  (Zoivra)  oracles');  Rom. 
iii.  2  ('  To  them  were  committed  the  oracles  of  God  ')  ;  Heb.  v.  12 
('  Which  be  the  first  principles  of  the  oi-acles  of  God ')  j  1  Peter 
iv.  11  ('If  any  man  speak,  let  Mm  speak  as  the  oracles  of  God'). 
In  the  first  three  passages,  it  is  obvious  that  the  reference  is  to  the 
Hoi}'-  Seriptures ;  in  the  last  passage,  it  will  also  be  apparent  that 
the  meaning  is  that  when  any  man  speaks  in  the  church,  his  speak- 
ing should  be  in  conformity  with  the  same  Scriptures.  The  word 
\6yiov  is  thus  used,  because  the  Holy  Scriptures  may  be  regarded 
as  the  definite  and  authorised  and  solemn  announcement  of  the 


OMEGA— PALM.  211 

will  of  God.  Such  announcements  were  made,  or  supposed  to  be 
made,  on  behalf  of  many  heathen  deities  by  their  priests,  and 
especially  at  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi. 

Ordain.     See  Elders. 

Ox  and  Oxen,  (iovc,  bos.  The  legality  of  loosing  the  ox  from  his 
stall  on  the  Sabbath  and  leading  him  to  watering,  or  of  rescuing 
him  from  a  pit  on  the  same  day,  if  he  should  have  fallen  therein, 
is  referred  to  on  two  occasions  by  our  Lord  (Luke  xiii.  15  ;  xiv.  5) 
as  an  argument  for  the  right  use  of  the  Sabbath.  In  Luke  xiv.  19, 
one  of  the  invited  guests  excuses  himself  on  the  plea  that  he  has 
bought^ five  yoke  of  oxen.'  This  alludes  to  the  general  Eastern 
custom  of  using  oxen  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  of  working  them 
in  pairs.  The  nsual  plan  is  to  lay  a  short  pole  (called  the  yoke) 
across  the  necks  of  the  two  beasts,  fastening  it  to  the  horns  of  each. 
A  longer  pole,  attached  at  one  end  to  the  carriage  or  other  machine 
which  is  to  be  dragged  along,  is  then  passed  between  the  two  animals, 
and  fastened  to  the  yoke,  and  by  this  means  traction  is  effected. 
The  work  is  very  slowly  performed,  but  oxen  thus  employed  exert 
great  strength,  are  not  expensive  to  keep,  are  easy  to  manage,  and 
last  long.  Oxen  were  also  used  largely  for  sacrifice,  although  only 
by  rich  persons.  Poor  persons  were  allowed  to  substitute  cheaper 
ofierings.  Thus  the  priest  of  Jupiter-before-the-City  at  Lystra 
desired  to  sacrifice  oxen  to  Paul  and  Barnabas,  deeming  them 
deities  (Acts  xiv.  13),  and  persons  who  sold  oxen  for  sacrificial 
purposes  were  found  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  by  our  Lord,  and 
driven  out  by  Him  from  thence  (John  ii.  14).  In  sacrifices,  only 
the  male  was  used,  and  the  term  '  bull '  {Tavpoq)  is  therefore  pro- 
perly used  in  Heb.  ix.  13 ;  x.  4.  In  a  similar  way,  the  superior 
value  of  the  male  is  used  to  heighten  the  detail  of  the  parable  of  the 
Great  Supper.  Our  A.  V.  translates  the  invitation  of  the  king 
(Matt,  xxii.  4),  '  My  oxen  and  my  fatlings  are  ready,'  but  the  Gr. 
says  '  my  hulls  (ruvpoi)/  &c.  As  to  the  likening  of  St.  Matthew  to 
the  ox,  see  Beast.  As  to  the  general  question  of  the  treatment  of 
the  ox,  and  the  varieties  found  in  Palestine,  see  Cattle. 

Palace.     See  Hall  of  Judgment. 

Palm,  (poivi^,  i->alma.  This  tree,  originally  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon in  the  Holy  Land,  is  now  comparatively  rare  in  that  country. 
Its  appearance  is  well  known.  It  rises  with  a  straight  and  leafless 
trunk,  from  the  top  of  which  spring  its  leaves  or  branches.  There 
are  many  species  of  the  tree,  but  in  the  Holy  Land  the  date-palm 
is  the  most  prevalent. 

In  only  two  instances  in  the  New  Testament  is  the  palm  referred 
p  2 


212       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAIVIENT   STUDY. 

to,  and  in  both  of  these  the  use  of  the  palm  leaf  as  a  symbol  of 
rejoicing  is  the  point  mentioned.  As  our  Lord  entered  Jerusalem 
in  triumph,  the  people  '  took  branches  of  palm-trees,  and  went  forth 
to  meet  him '  (John  xii.  13)  ;  and  again,  in  the  vision  of  glorified 
saints  in  Rev.  vii.  9,  the  apostle  saw  a  great  multitude,  standing 
before  the  Lamb  and  rejoicing,  ^clothed  with  white  robes,  and 
palms  in  their  hands.' 

Paper.     See  Heed. 

Parable,  7rapa(3oXr],  generally  parabola  and  similitudo,  but  in 
St.  John,  Trapoifiia^  proverhium.  A  mode  of  teaching  by  instruc- 
tive stories,  much  used  by  our  Lord.  The  parable  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  fable  by  its  higher  moral  and  religious  mean- 
ing, as  well  as  by  its  abstinence  from  impossible  descriptions ;  and 
from  the  allegory,  in  which  the  symbol  and  its  meaning  are  united, 
by  preserving  the  thing  spoken  of  and  the  doctrine  intended  to  be 
conveyed  as  two  distinct  things.  Thus  the  story  of  the  trees 
choosing  a  king  is  a  fable ;  '■  I  am  the  vine  and  ye  are  the  branches ' 
is  an  allegory  j  but  '■  Behold,  a  sower  went  forth,  &c.,'  is  a 
•parable. 

Our  Lord  declared  his  reason  for  using  this  method  of  instruc- 
tion to  be,  '  because  they  seeing,  see  not ;  and  hearing,  they  hear 
not ;  neither  do  they  understand '  (Matt.  xiii.  13) ;  and  again, 
'  All  these  things  are  done  in  parables ;  that  seeing  they  may  see, 
and  not  perceive,  and  hearing  they  may  hear  and  not  understand ; 
lest  at  any  time  they  should  be  converted,  and  their  sins  should 
be  forgiven  them'  (Mark  iv.  11, 12 ;  Luke  viii.  10).  Hence  it  has 
been  argued  by  some  that  the  object  of  parabolic  teaching  was 
to  conceal  the  truth,  while  others  are  of  opinion  that  its  obj-ect  is 
to  illustrate  and  prove  it.  Probably  a  mind  altogether  dark  or 
unwilling  is  not  assisted  by  a  parable,  but  a  willing  and  partially 
enlightened  mind  receives  it  with  profit.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  certain 
that  this  method  of  teaching  has  been  used  by  many  great  teachers 
with  success,  and  the  Rabbins  were  particularly  famous  for  it. 

The  number  of  parables  uttered  by  our  Lord  depends  on  the 
definition  of  a  parable  employed.  Archbishop  Trench  reckons  up 
thirty,  and  Westcott  classifies  them  thus: — 

I.  Parables  drawn  from  the  material  world. 

1.  The   Sower  (Matt.  xiii.  3-8;   Mark  iv.  4-8  j   Luke 

viii.  5-8). 

2.  The  Tares  (Matt.  xiii.  24-30). 

3.  The  Seed  growing  Secretly  (Mark  iv.  26-29). 


PAPER— PAEADISE.  213 

4.  The  IMustard  Seed  (Matt.  xiii.  31, 32  j  Mark  iv.  30-32  j 

Luke  xiii.  18,  19). 

5.  The  Leaven  (Matt.  xiii.  33 ;  Luke  xiii.  20,  21). 

II.  Parables  drawn  from  the  relations  of  man. 

6.  The  Draw-net  (Matt.  xiii.  47-50). 

7.  The  Barren  Fig-tree  (Luke  xiii.  6-9). 

8.  The  Lost  Sheep  (Matt,  xviii.  12-14 ;  Luke  xv.  3-7). 

9.  The  Lost  Coin  (Luke  xv.  8-10). 

10.  The  Unmerciful  Servant  (Matt,  xviii.  23-35). 

11.  The  Two  Debtors  (Luke  vii.  41-43). 

12.  The  Prodigal  Son  (Luke  xv.  11-32). 

13.  The  Two  Sons  (Matt.  xxi.  28-32). 

14.  The  Friend  at  Midnight  (Luke  xi.  5-8). 

15.  The  Unjust  Judge  (Luke  xviii.  1-8). 

16.  The  Ten  Virgins  (Matt.  xxv.  1-13). 

17.  The  Lower  Seats  (Luke  xiv.  7-11). 

18.  The  Great  Supper  (Luke  xiv.  15-24). 

19.  The  Marriage-feast  (Matt.  xxii.  1-14). 

20.  The  Tower-builder  (Luke  xiv.  28-30). 

21.  The  King  making  War  (Luke  xiv.  31-33). 

22.  The  Unjust  Steward  (Luke  x^-i.  1-9). 

23.  The  Talents  (^latt.  xxv.  14-30). 

24.  The  Pounds  (Luke  xix.  11-27). 

25.  The  Wicked  Husbandmen  (Matt.  xxi.  33-44;  Mark 

xii.  1-12;  Luke  XX.  9-]  6). 

26.  The  Unprofitable  Servants  (Luke  xvii.  7-10). 

27.  The  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard  (Matt.  xx.  1-16). 

28.  The  Hid  Treasure  (Matt.  xiii.  44). 

29.  The  Man  seeking  Pearls  (Matt.  xiii.  45,  46). 

30.  The  Ptich  Fool  (Luke  xii.  16-21). 

Paradise,  TrapaSsiaoCf  paradisus,  lit.  =  a  garden  or  pai'k,  and 
occurring  frequently  in  classical  writers  with  this  meaning.  But 
in  the  New  Testament  the  term  is  employed  to  describe  the  place 
of  happy  departed  spirits.  The  opinions  of  the  Jews  of  our 
Saviour's  time  concerning  this  place  may  be  gathered  from  the 
discourse  of  Josephus  concerning  Hades.  He  says,  '  Now  as  to 
Hades,  wherein  the  souls  of  the  righteous  and  unrighteous  are 
detained  .  .  .  this  region  is  allowed  as  a  place  of  custody  for 
souls,  in  which  angels  are  appointed  as  guardians  to  them.  .  .  . 
There  is  one  descent  into  this  region,  at  whose  gate  we  believe 


214        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

there  stands  an  archangel  with  an  host ;  which  gate  when  those 
pass  through  that  are  conducted  down  by  the  angels  appointed 
over  souls,  they  do  not  go  the  same  way;  but  the  just  are  guided 
to  the  right  hand,  and  are  led  with  hymns,  sung  by  the  angels 
appointed  over  that  place,  unto  a  region  of  light,  in  which  the 
just  have  dwelt  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  .  .  .  with 
whom  is  no  place  of  toil,  no  burning  heat,  no  piercing  cold,  nor  are 
any  briers  there ;  but  the  countenance  of  the  fathers  and  of  the  just, 
which  they  see,  always  smiles  upon  them,  while  they  wait  for  that 
rest  and  eternal  new  life  in  heaven  which  is  to  succeed  this  region. 
This  place  we  call  the  Bosom  of  Abraham.  As  to  the  unjust,  they 
are  dragged  by  force  to  the  left  hand,  by  the  angels  allotted  for 
punishment.  .  .  .  Now  those  angels  that  are  set  over  these  souls 
drag  them  into  the  neighbourhood  of  hell  itself  .  .  .  but  when 
they  have  a  nearer  view  of  this  spectacle  .  .  .  they  are  struck 
with  a  fearful  expectation  of  future  judgment,  and  in  effect 
punished  thereby ;  and  not  only  so,  but  when  they  see  the  place 
of  the  fathers  and  of  the  just,  even  hereby  are  they  punished;  for 
a  chaos  deep  and  large  is  fixed  between  them ;  insomuch  that  a  just 
man  that  hath  compassion  upon  them  cannot  be  admitted,  nor 
can  one  that  is  unjust,  if  he  were  bold  enough  to  attempt  it,  pass 
over  it.' 

That  these  opinions  have  a  substantial  foundation  in  truth  is 
evident  from  the  parable  of  the  Rich  Man  and  Lazarus ;  and  it  is 
further  evident  that  our  Lord  must  have  been  speaking  of  such  a 
condition  as  that  described  by  Josephus  when  he  said  to  the 
penitent  thief  upon  the  cross,  '  This  day  shalt  thou  be  with  me  in 
paradise '  (Luke  xxiii.  43).  St.  Paul  declared  himself,  either  ec- 
statically or  actually,  to  have  ^  been  caught  up  into  paradise,  and 
heard  unspeakable  words,  which  it  is  not  lawful  for  a  man  to 
utter '  (2  Cor.  xii.  4) ;  and  in  Rev.  ii.  7,  and  xxii.  1-5,  a  descrip- 
tion is  given,  which  shows  that  in  character  and  contents  Paradise 
recalls  the  Garden  of  Eden.  It  is  further  supposed  by  many  that 
the  angels  which  are  '  reserved  under  darkness  unto  the  judgment 
of  the  great  day '  (Jude  6)  are  similarly  retained  in  an  intermediate 
state,  and  that  when  it  is  said  that  our  Lord  '  went  and  preached 
unto  the  spirits  in  prison  (tv  (jyoXaK/j)  '  (1  Pet.  iii.  19)  reference  is 
made  to  the  same  state. 

Passover.     See  Feast, 

Patriarch,  Trarpiapxric,  patriarcha,  a  term  applied  to  (1)  David 
(Acts  ii.  29)  ;  (2)  the  sons  of  Jacob  (Acts'vii.  8,  9)  ;  (3)  Abraham. 
The  word  is  not  classical,  but  in  LXX.  it  =  father,  or  chief,  of  a  race. 


PASSOVER— PHAEISEES.  215 

Pavement,  XiOt'xiTpwrov,  Uthostrotos.  The  place  where  Pilate 
sate  on  the  Bema,  or  'judgment-seat/  to  deliver  Jesus  formally  to 
be  crucified,  and  where  he  brought  Him  and  showed  Him  to  the 
people  with  the  words  'Behold  the  man'  (John  xix.  13).  Its 
Hebrew  name  is  stated  to  have  been  '  Gabbatha  (KH^I  =  height  ?)s 
It  was,  no  doubt,  immediately  outside  the  prsetorium,  or  '  hall  of 
judgment';  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  'pavement'  was 
of  ornamental  mosaic  and  moveable,  laid  down  to  give  an  air  of 
dignity  to  an  important  public  place. 

Pearl,  iJ,apyapiT7jc,  margarita.  This  jewel  is  the  product  of 
a  bivalve  mollusc,  called  Margaritiphora,  or  the  pearl- bearing 
oyster.  The  interior  of  the  same  shell  furnishes  mother-of-pearl. 
The  present  pearl-fisheries  are  carried  on  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
oiF  the  island  of  Ceylon.  Pearls  were  highly  valued  by  the 
ancients.  Julius  Csesar  presented  Senilia,  the  mother  of  Brutus, 
with  a  pearl  worth  48,417/. ;  and  Cleopatra,  at  a  supper  with 
Antony,  dissolved  in  vinegar  and  drank  off  a  pearl  valued  at  about 
the  same  price.  The  merchantman  seeking  '  goodly  pearls '  and 
finding  *  one  of  great  price,'  is  the  subject  of  one  of  our  Lord's 
parables  (Matt.  xiii.  45,  46)  ;  and  in  the  proverb  '  Cast  not  your 
pearls  before  swine '  (Matt.  vii.  6)  our  Lord  uses  the  preciousness 
of  the  pearl  to  represent  the  value  of  wise  spiritual  instruction. 
In  1  Tim.  ii.  9, 10,  women  at  public  worship  (and,  inferentially,  at 
all  times)  are  exhorted  not  to  adorn  themselves  with  '  braided 
hair,  or  gold,  or  pearls,  or  costly  array,  but  .  .  .  with  good 
works.' 

In  Eev.  xvii.  4  and  xviii,  16  the  scarlet  woman  is  described  as 
decked  '  with  precious  stones  and  pearls,'  and  in  Rev.  xviii,  12  her 
merchandise  includes  the  same  jewels.  And  in  Rev.  xxi.  21,  in 
contrast  vdth  the  harlot  city,  the  holy  city,  the  new  Jerusalem,  is 
said  to  have  for  gates  twelve  pearls,  each  gate  of  one  pearl. 

Pen.     See  Reed. 

Pentecost.     See  Feast. 

Pharisees,  ^apiaaioi,  Phariscei.  One  of  the  three  principal 
religious  sects  (viz.  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  Essenes)  among  the 
Jews  of  New  Testament  times,  and  much  alluded  to  in  the  New 
Testament.  They  derived  their  name  from  the  Hebrew  word 
Pharash,  to  separate,  and  took  this  name  because  they  '  separated ' 
themselves  both  from  those  who  took  a  looser  view  of  the  obliga- 
tions of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  from  the  anti-national  party,  whether 
of  Greek  or  Roman  origin.  They  took  their  rise  in  the  time  of 
Hyrcanus  (b.c.  130),  and  Josephus  (himself  a  Pharisee)  gives  the 


216        ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

following  account  of  them  — 'The  Pharisees  are  those  who  are 
esteemed  most  skilful  in  the  exact  explication  of  their  laws.  .  .  . 
These  ascribe  all  to  fate  (or  providence)  and  to  God,  and  yet  allow 
that  to  act  what  is  right,  or  the  contrary,  is  principally  in  the 
power  of  men,  although  fate  does  co-operate  in  every  action.  They 
say  that  all  souls  are  incorruptible ;  but  that  the  souls  of  good 
men  are  only  removed  into  other  bodies — but  that  the  souls  of  bad 
men  are  subject  to  eternal  punishment'  (B.  J.  2.  8.  14;  comp. 
also  Ant.  18.  1.  3).  The  great  principle  of  their  views  on  the 
obligation  of  the  Mosaic  law  was  that  an  oral  and  unwritten 
tradition  was  intended  to  accompany  the  written  law.  The  chief 
argument  upon  which  they  based  this  principle  was  derived  from 
the  undoubted  absence  from  the  Pentateuch  of  any  reference  either 
to  the  existence  of  the  soul  or  the  duty  of  prayer ;  and  they  argued 
that  as  both  these  points,  notwithstanding  their  absence  from  the 
written  law,  were  presupposed  in  it,  the  oral  teaching  of  them 
must  have  been  intended.  From  this  the  step  to  an  argument  for 
the  necessity  of  oral  teaching  on  other  points  was  not  difficult,  but 
the  result  was  that  in  process  of  time  a  system  of  interpretation 
and  extension  grew  up,  of  such  vast  and  burdensome  dimensions 
as  altogether  to  overshadow  the  law,  and  '  make  it  of  none  effect 
by  their  tradition.'  The  Pharisaic  system  of  law,  thus  accumulated, 
was  reduced  to  wiiting  by  Rabbi  Jehudah,  in  the  second  century 
after  Christ,  and  is  known  as  the  Mishna  (or  Second  Law).  To  this 
Mishna  commentaries  were  afterwards  added,  known  as  the  Gemara 
(or  Completion)  of  Jemsalem,  completed  in  the  fourth  century, 
and  the  Gemara  of  Babylon,  completed  about  a.d.  500.  The 
Mishna  and  the  Gemaras  together  form  the  work  known  as  the 
Talmud. 

The  Pharisees  were  not  an  unregulated  and  unincorporated 
body,  but  a  regular  association,  to  which  each  member  (called  a 
chaber)  was  admitted  by  promising,  in  the  presence  of  three  other 
members,  to  observe  its  regulations.  The  chief  of  these  were 
(1)  a  subjection  to  the  great  principle  of  *  making  a  fence  round 
the  law,'  i.  e.  of  so  acting  as  in  every  possible  way  to  avoid  even 
accidental  and  unintentional  violations  of  it,  and  (2)  not  buying, 
selling,  eating,  drinking,  wearing,  or  in  any  way  dealing  with,  that 
which  was  not  tithed.  But  within  the  general  association  there 
were  many  different  sorts  of  Pharisees,  such  as,  1.  The  Shechemite 
Pharisee,  who  joined  the  sect  merely  from  love  of  gain  (perhaps 
referred  to  in  Matt,  xxiii.  5,  14) ;  2,  The  Moral  and  truly  God- 
fearing Pharisee,  such  as  was  Nicodemus  (see  also  Luke  xviii.  18) ; 


PHARISEES.  217 

3.  The  Dashing  Pharisee,  who  walked  with  such  pretended  humility 
as  not  to  lift  his  feet  from  the  ground,  hut  dash  them  against  the 
stones;  4.  The  Bleeding  Pharisee,  who  pressed  himself  against  the 
wall  until  he  bled,  in  order  to  avoid  the  contact  of  those  who 
passed  by ;  5.  The  Pharisee  of  the  Mortar,  who  wore  a  hat  like  a 
deep  mortar  turned  upside  down,  which  prevented  his  looks  from 
wandering ;  6.  The  Pharisee  from  Love ;  and  7.  The  Pharisee  from 
Fear,  All  Pharisees  also  wore  what  were  termed  phylacteries 
(Matt,  xxiii.  5),  which  were  strips  of  parchment,  on  which  texts 
of  Scripture  were  written.  These  were  used  in  supposed  obedience 
to  Exod.  xiii.  16  and  Deut.  vi.  6-9,  and  were  fastened  on  the  arm, 
on  the  forehead,  and  on  the  door-posts  of  their  houses.  Under  the 
name  of  tephillim,  they  are  still  in  use  amongst  modern  Jews,  being 
generally  attached  to  door-posts,  and  used  on  the  person  at  certain 
services  in  the  synagogues. 

The  effect  of  this  system  was,  as  might  be  expected,  to  sub- 
stitute outward  and  minute  conformity  to  ceremony  for  inward 
devotion  of  the  heart.  '  Ye  pay  tithe  of  mint,  and  anise,  and 
cummin,  and  have  omitted  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law — 
j  Lidgment,  mercy,  and  faith.'  Hence  our  Lord's  life,  example  and 
teaching  were  entirely  opposed  to  Phariseeism,  and  his  spoken 
words  were  frequently  directed  to  denouncing  it.  Matt,  xxiii.  is 
peculiarly  full  on  this  subject;  and  in  other  passages  we  read, 
'  Except  your  righteousness  shall  exceed  the  righteousness  of  the 
Scribes  and  Pharisees,  ye  shall  in  no  case  enter  into  the  kingdom 
of  heaven '  (Matt.  v.  20) ;  '  Beware  of  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees, 
which  is  hypocrisy '  (Matt.  xvi.  6 ;  Mark  viii.  15 ;  Luke  xii.  1) ; 
'  Ye  Pharisees  make  clean  the  outside  of  the  cup  and  the  platter ; 
but  your  inward  part  is  full  of  ravening  and  wickedness '  (Luke 
xi.  39).  In  return  for  these  and  similar  denunciations  our  Lord 
encountered  the  bitterest  opposition  from  the  Pharisaic  party,  and 
they  even  united  with  the  Sadducees,  or  priestly  party,  to  destroy 
him.  They  attributed  his  power  over  evil  spirits  to  Satanic 
agency  (Matt.  ix.  34),  watched  Him  continually  (Luke  vi.  7),  and 
were  particularly  enraged  by  his  teaching  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  Sabbath,  and  by  his  companionship  with  '  publicans  and 
sinners.' 

Notwithstanding  this,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  none  of  the 
party  were  better  than  their  sect.  Of  the  earnest  desire  of  some 
Pharisees  for  spiritual  light  we  have  an  example  in  the  Pharisee 
Nicodemus  (John  iii.  1 ;  vii.  50 ;  xix.  39)  ;  of  the  readiness  of  some 
to  hear  and  company  with  our  Lord,  the  Pharisee  Simon  (Luke 


218        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

,vii.  oQ)  and  another  (Luke  xi.  37)  are  instances;  tlie  lofty  and 
generous  views  of  some  of  the  party  were  exhibited  by  Gamaliel 
(Acts  V.  34)  ;  and  the  earnestness  and  zeal  of  others  by  the  great 
pupil  of  Gamaliel,  at  first  '  a  Pharisee  and  the  son  of  a  Pharisee ' 
(Acts  xxiii.  6),  and  living  after  the  straitest  sect  of  the  Jewish  reli- 
gion, '  a  Pharisee  '  (Acts  xxvi.  5),  but  afterwards  the  apostle  Paul. 
Pbilosopby,  Pliilosopliers.  The  only  verbal  allusions  in 
the  New  Testament  to  philosophy  and  philosophers  occur  in  Acts 
xvii.  18,  where  we  read  that  '  certain  philosophers  of  the  Epicu- 
reans and  of  the  Stoicks  encountered  ((rvi'fjSaWov) '  St.  Paul  at 
Athens ;  and  in  Col.  ii.  8,  where  St.  Paul  writes,  '  Beware  lest  any 
man  spoil  you  through  philosophy  and  vain  deceit.'  But  in  many 
of  the  epistles,  and  especially  in  1  Cor.  i.,  ii.,  reference  is  made  to 
*  wisdom  (oo(pia) '  and  the  study  of  it,  and  its  inefficiency  in  dis- 
covering a  way  of  salvation  for  sinners  is  demonstrated.  It  is 
beside  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  enter  largely  into  the  subject, 
but  the  philosophies,  a  knowledge  of  whose  tenets  throws  light 
upon  the  New  Testament,  are  here  briefly  described. 

1.  Epicuyis7n  (Acts  xvii.  18)  took  its  name  from  Epicurus,  its 
founder,  who  was  born  B.C.  342  at  Samos,  but  settled  and  taught  at 
Athens.  He  is  said  to  have  written  three  hundred  volumes,  and  his 
chief  tenet  was  that  pleasure  must  be  considered  the  highest  hap- 
piness and  the  object  of  human  exertions.  This  ^  pleasure  '  he 
further  regarded  as  consisting  in  peace  of  mind,  based  upon  virtue, 
and  although  his  followers  afterwards  debased  his  doctrines  to 
encourage  a  sensual  life,  he  himself  lived  temperately,  frugally, 
and  simply.  His  views  as  to  the  divinities  were  that  they  took 
no  account  of  human  affairs,  and  exercised  no  influence  whatever 
on  the  world  or  man. 

2.  Stoicisrn  (Acts  xvii.  18)  was  so  called  because  its  founder, 
Zeno,  lectured  in  the  Stoa  Poikile  or  Painted  Porch  at  Athens. 
Zeno  was  a  native  of  Citium  in  Cyprus,  was  born  about  e.g.  360, 
and  taught  at  Athens  for  fifty-eight  years  previous  to  his  death. 
Like  Epicurus,  he  also  asserted  that  happiness  was  the  great  end  of 
man's  life,  but  he  placed  this  happiness  in  an  entire  emancipation 
from  all  passions  and  feelings,  and  the  cultivation  of  an  intellectual 
morality.  In  opposition  to  Epicurus,  he  held  that  the  principles  of 
all  things  were  two,  viz.  Matter  (jb  Trdaxov)  and  God,  Fate,  or 
Reason  (jb  iroiovv),  and  that  the  active  principle  in  man  is  essen- 
tially identical  with  God.  Hence  man's  duty  was  '  to  live  conform- 
ablj'^  to  nature,'  convenienter  naturce  vtvere,  rb  bfxoKoyoviikvi^Q  ry  tpvati 
Irjv.     What  this  '  nature  '  was,  is  a  subject  of  much  controvers3^ 


PHILOSOPHY— PILLOW.  219 

3.  Chiosticism  does  not  appear  in  words  in  our  English  Version, 
but  is  probably  refen-ed  to  in  1  Tim.  vi.  20,  as  '  Science  (yj-waic) 
falsely  so  called ; '  also  in  1  Cor.  viii.  1,  *  knowledge  (r)  yiw-rtr) 
pufFeth  up ; '  '  the  word  of  knowledge  (\6yoq  yvwatMi;')  '  (1  Cor. 
xii.  8)  ;  and  in  '  What  shall  I  profit  you  except  I  shall  speak  to 
you  either  by  revelation  or  by  knowledge  (iv  yvMaii)  '  (1  Cor. 
xiv.  6).  The  principal  Gnostic  teacher  in  New  Test,  times  was 
Cerijithus,  said  to  have  been  a  contemporary  of  the  apostle  John, 
and  to  have  resided  at  Ephesus.  It  is  even  related  that  St.  John, 
once  entering  a  bath-house,  and  seeing  Cerinthus  there,  imme- 
diately fled  out,  dreading  to  be  in  the  same  building  with  such  an 
heretic.  Cerinthus'  views  were,  that  between  God  and  the  world 
a  vast  number  of  intermediate  spirits,  or  emanations,  called  JEons, 
existed.  One  of  these  aeons  descended  upon  Jesus  of  Nazareth  at 
his  baptism,  and  it  was  he,  and  not  the  man  Jesus,  that  was  the 
true  Christ.  Cerinthus,  who  was  a  Jew,  held  that  Judaic  observ- 
ances were  to  some  extent  binding  upon  Gentile  Christians,  and 
he  also  taught  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  Many  good  critics 
are  of  opinion  that  the  writings  of  St.  John  are  specially  directed 
against  this  form  of  Gnostic  heresy.  But  Gnosticism,  though  thus 
early  commenced,  was  not  fully  developed  until  the  second  century, 
when  Marcion,  a  native  of  Sinope  in  Pontus,  and  the  son  of  the 
bishop  of  that  place,  gave  it  a  distinct  shape.  Marcion's  personal 
character  was  frugal  and  pure  even  to  asceticism,  but  his  doctrines 
were  entirely  subversive  of  Scriptural  truth.  He  taught  the  exist- 
ence of  three  great  principles — 1.  The  Hyle,  or  pre-existent  matter ; 
2.  God,  a  being  of  infinite  love,  holiness,  and  perfection ;  and  3. 
The  Demiurge,  or  Creator  of  the  World,  God  of  the  Jews  and  of 
the  Old  Testament.  According  to  him  the  Christ  of  the  New 
Testament  was  entirely  distinct  from  the  Messiah  of  the  Old 
Testament ;  was  not  a  real,  but  seeming,  body.  The  true  believer 
became  a  partaker  of  a  divine  life  above  the  power  of  the  Demiurge 
and  Hyle,  and  ought  to  be  an  ascetic,  delivered  from  all  the  con- 
taminating influence  of  matter.  Marcion  rejected  all  the  Old 
Testament  and  all  the  New  Testament  with  the  exception  of  St. 
Paul's  epistles,  and  a  gospel  (probably  the  gospel  of  St.  Luke) 
altered  to  suit  his  own  views. 

Pbylacteries.     See  Pharisees. 

Pigreon.     See  Dove. 

Pillow,  7rpo<yKS(pdXaioi',  cervical.  In  Mark  iv.  38,  in  the  account 
of  the  storm  on  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  where  it  is  said  that  our 
Lord  was  asleep  on  '  a  pillow,'  the  Greek  should  be  rendered  '  the 


220       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

pillow.'  The  pillow  referred  to  was,  no  doubt,  that  used  for  the 
steersman.     See  Hoh  JRoy  on  the  Jordan,  p.  358. 

Pinnacle,  to  Trrepvyiov,  pimiaculnm.  In  both  accounts  of  the 
temptation  we  read  that  the  devil  took  our  Lord,  and  setting  Him 
on  '  a  (the)  pinnacle  of  the  temple/  invited  Him,  by  casting  Him- 
self down,  to  prove  his  Messiahship  (Matt.  iv.  5 ;  Luke  iv.  9). 
Dean  Alford  argues  that  this  'pinnacle '  was  really  a  roof,  and  that 
the  portico  of  Herod,  which  overhung  the  Kidron  valley  at  a  dizzy 
height,  is  intended.  Others  think  that  the  balustrade  round  the 
roof  was  meant.  No  structure  of  the  sort  designated  by  our 
modern  word  '  pinnacle  '  existed  in  the  Herodian  temple. 

Porch.     See  Temple. 

Potter's  field.  The  portion  of  land  bought  by  the  priests  with 
the  money  which  Judas  returned.  The  account  of  the  transaction 
is  given  in  Matt,  xxvii.  7-10,  where  we  read,  '  the  chief  priests 
took  the  silver  pieces,  and  said,  It  is  not  lawful  for  to  put  them 
into  the  treasury,  because  it  is  the  price  of  blood.  And  they  took 
counsel,  and  bought  with  them  the  potter's  field,  to  bury  strangers 
in.  Wherefore  that  field  is  called  the  field  of  blood  unto  this 
day.  Then  was  fulfilled  that  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremy  the 
prophet,  saying,  And  they  took  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  the  price 
of  him  that  was  valued,  whom  they  of  the  children  of  Israel  did 
value ;  and  gave  them  for  the  potter's  field,  as  the  Lord  appointed 
me.'  In  Zech.  xi.  12,  13,  and  not  in  Jeremiah,  the  original  of  this 
prophecy  is  thus  found — '  So  they  weighed  for  my  price  thirty 
pieces  of  silver,  and  the  Lord  said  unto  me.  Cast  it  unto  the  potter: 
a  goodly  price  that  I  was  prized  at  of  them.  And  I  took  the  thirty 
pieces  of  silver,  and  cast  them  to  the  potter  in  the  house  of  the 
Lord.'  Whether  the  ascription  of  this  prophecy  to  Jeremy  instead 
of  Zechariah  is  a  mistake  of  some  copyist  is  not  known,  but  two 
explanations  are  worth  attention.  Lightfoot's  is,  that  the  prophets 
generally  went  by  the  name  of 'Jeremiah,'  as  Jeremiah  was  ori- 
ginally regarded  as  the  first  of  the  prophets.  Hengstenberg's 
explanation  is,  that  Zech.  xi.  13  was  written  with  a  retrospective 
view  to  Jeremiah  xviii.  and  xix.  generally,  and  therefore  the  pro- 
phecy was  originally  Jeremiah's,  although  secondarily  Zechariah's. 
A  field  is  still  shown  as  the  potter's  field  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Jerusalem.  The  low  price  given  for  it  no  doubt  arose  from  the 
fact  that  its  soil  had  been  removed,  and  probably  many  inequalities 
produced,  for  the  purposes  of  the  potter's  trade. 

Other  difiiculties  connected  with  the  '  potter's  field '  are  exa- 
mined under  Aceldama  in  Section  5. 


PINNACLE— PEI  EST.  221 

Priest,  hpivc,  sacei'dos.  This  title  is  applied  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  (1)  the  Saviour  himself,  (2)  all  believers  in  Jesus  Christ, 
(3)  the  Aaronic  priesthood,  (4)  Melchisedek  and  the  priest  of  the 
temple  at  Lystra.  (1)  The  object  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
is  to  establish  the  priesthood  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  its  superiority 
over  that  of  Aaron.  This  superiority  is  claimed  chiefly  upon  the 
ground  of  the  permanent  efficacy  of  the  sacrifice  offered. 

(2)  All  believers  are  declared  to  be  *  a  holy  priesthood'  and 
*a  royal  priesthood  {updrtvi-ui)'  (1  Pet.  ii.  5,  9),  and  <  kings  and 
priests  unto  God  and  the  Father '  (Eev.  v.  10 ;  xx.  6).  In  this 
respect  they  follow  the  analogy  of  the  Israelitish  nation,  to  whom 
God  said,  '  Ye  shall  be  to  me  a  kingdom  of  priests,  and  an  holy 
nation '  (Exod.  xix.  6). 

(3)  The  descendants  of  Aaron  were  appointed  by  God  to  be 
the  priests  of  the  Israelitish  nation  (Exod.  xl.  12-15),  and  so 
continued  until  the  destruction  of  the  Temple.  At  the  accession  of 
David  to  the  throne  of  Judah,  3,700  Aaronites  came  to  the  king  in 
Hebron  (1  Chron.  xii.  27),  and  amongst  the  acts  of  this  sovereign 
was  a  division  of  these  priests  ijito  twenty-four  courses  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  1-19).  The  eighth  of  these  courses  was  the  course  of  Abijah, 
to  which  Zacharias,  the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  belonged. 
After  the  return  from  the  captivity  only  four  of  these  courses  were 
found,  viz.  Jedaiah,  Immer,  Pashur,  and  Harim,  numbering  alto- 
gether 4,289  men  (Esra  ii.  36-39),  but  these  were  again  subdivided 
into  twenty-four  courses,  bearing  the  original  names,  and  so  con- 
tinued until  the  destruction  of  the  Temple.  In  the  Xew  Testament 
times  their  number  was  probably  very  great,  their  social  status 
low,  and  their  ignorance  and  narrowness  of  view  proverbial.  The 
^  priest,'  in  the  parable,  who  passed  by  on  the  other  side  in  careless 
neglect,  was  a  picture  weU  understood  by  the  hearers.  As  a  general 
rule,  they  were  bitterly  opposed  to  Jesus  and  his  disciples  (Matt. 
XX  vi.  47 ;  xxvii.  12, 41 ;  Mark  xiv.  1 ;  Luke  xxiii.  23 ;  John  vii.  32 ; 
Acts  iv.  1 ;  ix.  14,  &c.),  but  not  all,  for  in  Acts  vi.  7  we  read  that 
*  a  great  company  of  the  priests  were  obedient  to  the  faith.'  The 
high-priest  should,  strictly,  have  been  tlie  eldest  son  of  the  eldest 
son,  and  have  held  office  for  life ;  but  under  the  Roman  govern- 
ment this  rule  was  disregarded,  and  the  high-priesthood,  having 
become  a  mere  political  office,  was  shifted  from  one  to  another 
according  to  the  pleasure  of  the  government.  Ex-high-priests 
probably  retained  the  title,  and  hence  Annas,  who  had  been  high- 
priest,  and  was  father-in-law  to  Caiaphas,  the  actual  high-priest  at 
the  time  of  our  Lord's  passion,  is  still  termed  ^  high-priest.'     At 


222       ESSENTIALS  OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

this  time  so  completely  was  the  religious  portion  of  the  office  sunk 
in  the  political  that  we  read  that  the  high-priest  belonged  to  '  the 
sect  of  the  Sadducees/  i.e.  was  practically  an  infidel  (Acts  v.  17). 

The  '  chief-priests  '  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  heads  of  the  twenty-four  courses.  They 
had  seats  in  the  Sanhedrim,  and  were  persons  of  great  influence. 

As  to  (4),  see  under  Melchisedek  in  Section  5. 

Various  priestly  acts  are  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament. 

1.  The  offering  of  incense,  in  the  act  of  being  performed  by 
Zacharias,  the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  when  the  angel  appeared 
to  him  (Luke  i.  9).     This  was  in  conformity  with  Exod.  xxx.  7, 8. 

2.  The  eating  of  the  shewbread  (Matt.  xii.  4;  Mark  ii,  26;  Luke 
vi.  4).  See  Lev.  xxiv.  5-9.  3.  The  examination  of  lepers,  with 
the  view  of  pronouncing  them  clean  (Matt.  viii.  4;  Luke  v.  14). 
This  duty  was  imposed  by  Lev.  xiv.,  and,  in  order  to  secure  its 
proper  performance,  the  priest  was  not  permitted  to  drink  in- 
toxicating liquor  during  the  period  of  his  ministration  (Lev.  x.  9). 
4.  Working  on  the  Sabbath-day,  without  blame  (Matt.  xii.  5; 
Num.  xxviii.  9,  10).  5.  Offering  a  lamb  daily  in  the  morning, 
and  another  lamb  daily  in  the  evening  (Heb.  x.  11  j  Num. 
xxviii.  3). 

Priestbood.     See  Priest. 

Proselyte,  irpoaijXvTOQ,  proselytus,  lit.  =  one  w7io  has  ariived,  but 
used  in  the  New  Testament  to  designate  a  convert  to  Judaism. 
Our  Lord  speaks  of  the  exertions  of  the  Pharisees  to  make  '  one 
proselyte,'  and  declares  that,  when  they  have  made  him,  they 
make  him  '  tenfold  more  a  child  of  hell '  than  themselves  (Matt, 
xxiii.  15) ;  and  '  proselytes '  are  mentioned  amongst  those  who 
were  present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  10).  Nicolas  of 
Antioch,  one  of  the  seven  deacons,  is  designated  as  a  proselyte 
(Acts  vi.  o)  ;  and  ^religious  proselytes  {ncfSSfisvoi  7rp.)'  are  said  to 
have  been  in  the  synagogue  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  and  to  have 
'  followed  Paul  and  Barnabas '  (Acts  xiii.  43).  But,  in  addition 
to  these  distinct  enumerations  of  proselytes,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  many  others,  not  mentioned  under  the  actual  term, 
were  practically  converts  to  Judaism.  Such,  probably,  was  Cor- 
nelius the  centurion,  the  eunuch  of  Candace,  the  '  devout  Greeks ' 
at  Thessalonica  (Acts  xvii.  4),  Justus  at  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  7), 
and  others. 

In  the  New  Testament  times  no  formal  distinction  appears  to 
have  existed  between  different  classes  of  proselytes,  although,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  there  were  those  who  did  not  accept  circumcision 


PRIESTHOOD— PEOVINCE.  223 

and  the  Mosaic  law,  and  yet  renounced  idolatry,  worshipped  God, 
and  endeavoured  to  keep  his  moral  commandments.  But  in  after 
times  an  imaginary  distinction  was  drawn  between  (1)  Proselytes 
of  the  Gate  and  (2)  Proselytes  of  Kighteousness.  Proselytes  of 
the  Gate  derived  their  name  from  the  expression  in  Exod.  xx.  10, 
and  elsewhere,  ^  the  stranger  that  is  within  thy  gates.'  Such 
persons  were  to  be  directed  to  observe  the  seven  precepts  of  Noah, 
i.e.  the  six  supposed  to  have  been  given  to  Adam,  together  with 
the  additional  one  to  Noah,  against  idolatry,  blasphemy,  bloodshed, 
uncleanness,  theft,  disobedience,  and  eating  of  blood.  Proselytes 
of  Righteousness,  on  the  other  hand,  were  to  be  submitted  to  the 
rite  of  circumcision,  and  to  be  solemnly  baptised  by  immersion. 
Proverb.     See  Parable. 

Province,  lirapxut,  provincia.  The  whole  of  the  events  narrated 
in  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament  took  place  within 
the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire.  This  was  administered  in 
New  Testament  times  as  provinces,  which  were  divided  into 
Imperial  provinces  and  Senatorial  provinces.  Amongst  the  Im- 
perial provinces  were  reckoned  those  in  which  military  authority 
was  supposed  to  be  necessary,  and  these  were  governed  by  Legati, 
with  Procuratores  under  them.  Thus  Cyrenius  was  ijyifjiiov  (  =■-  pro- 
curator) of  Syria,  and  the  same  title  is  given  to  Pontius  Pilate, 
Festus,  and  Felix.  The  Senatorial  provinces,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  governed  by  Proconsules,  and,  accordingly,  Cyprus,  Achaia, 
and  Asia  are  spoken  of  as  being  under  ai/6'i;7raroi(  =  proconsules). 
The  regular  taxes  in  all  the  provinces  were  a  land-tax  and  a  poll- 
tax;  the  governors  of  both  kinds  of  province  received  their  in- 
structions from  the  Csesar,  and  an  appeal  to  his  Imperial  court 
was  open  to  Roman  citizens  aggrieved  by  their  decisions,  as  in  the 
case  of  St.  Paul, 

The  provinces  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  are — 

Asia,  S.,  the  maritime  region  on  the  west  shores  of  Asia  Minor. 

Ephesus  was  its  capital  (Acts  ii.  9 ;  vi.  9 ;  xix.  10 ;  xxvii.  2 ; 

Rom.  xvi.  5  (where  Achaia  of  A.  V.  is  incorrect) ;  1  Cor. 

xvi.  9 ;  1  Pet.  i.  1 ;  Rev.  i.  4, 11,  &c.).  Mi/sia  (Acts  xvi.  7,  8) 

SLndPhn/gia  (Acts  ii.  10;  xvi.  6;  xviii.  23),  included  in  the 

Roman  province,  were  often  regarded  as  distinct. 
BitJiynia  and  Fontus,  S.,  the  northern  portion  of  Asia  Minor 

(Acts  xvi.  7 ;  1  Pet.  i.  1). 
Galatia,  L,  including  Lycaonia,  in  which  were  Iconium,  Lystra, 

and  Derbe,  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor  (Acts  xvi.  6 ;  xviii.  23 ; 

1  Cor.  xvi.  1;  Gal.  i.  2;  2  Tim.  iv.  10;  1  Pet.  i.  1). 


224       ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Pamphylia,  I.,  including  Pisidia  and  Lycia,  the  centre  portion 
of  the  soutliern  shores  of  Asia  Minor  (Acts  ii.  10;  xiii.  14; 
xiv.  24;  xxvii.  5). 

Cilicia,  I.,  at  first  united  with  Cyprus,  but  Cyprus  was  sepa- 
rated by  Augustus,  and  became  S.  The  eastern  portion  of 
the  southern  shores  of  Asia  Minor.  Its  chief  city  was 
Tarsus,  the  birthplace  of  St.  Paul  (Acts  vi.  9 ;  xv.  23,  41 ; 
xxi.  39;  xxii.  3;  xxiii.  34;  xxvii.  5;  Gal.  i.  21). 

Sj/7'ia,  I.,  a  large  province,  including  most  of  the  countries 
lying  between  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  desert.  Its  capital  was  Antioch  (Luke  ii.  2 ;  Acts  xv.  23, 
41;  xviii.  18;  xx.  3;  xxi.  3;  Gal.  i.  21). 

Achaia,  at  first  S.,  but  made  I.  by  Tiberius,  and  restored  to 
the  Senate  by  Claudius.  Its  capital  was  Corinth^  and  it 
included  the  south  of  Greece.  In  Acts  xx.  2  it  is  called 
Greece  ('EXXat;).  (Acts  xviii.  12 ;  Kom.  xv.  26 ;  1  Cor.  xvi.  15; 
2  Cor.  ix.  2 ;  xi.  10 ;  1  Thess.  i.  7,  8). 

Cyprus,  the  island  known  by  that  name  (Acts  iv.  36;  xi.  19, 20; 
xiii.  4;  xv.  39;  xxi.  3,  16;  xxvii.  4).     See  Cilicia. 

Illyrictim,  including  Dahnatia,  I.,  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Adriatic  (Rom.  xv.  19). 

Macedonia,  originally  S.,  then  made  I.  by  Tiberius,  then 
restored  to  the  Senate  by  Claudius,  the  upper  portion  of 
the  mainland  of  Greece,  lying  between  the  Adriatic  and 
the  Archipelago.  Its  capital  was  Thessalonica  (Acts  xvi. 
9,  10,  12;  xvii.  1 ;  xix.  21,  22,  29;  xx.  1,  3;  Eom.  xv.  26; 
1  Cor.  xvi.  5;  2  Cor.  i.  16;  ii.  13;  vii.  5;  viii.  1;  ix.  2,  4; 
xi.  9;  Phil.  iv.  15;  1  Thess.  i.  7,  8 ;  iv.  10;  1  Tim.  i.  3). 

Crete,  the  well-known  island  now  known  as  Catidia,  was 
united  for  some  time  with  Cyrene.  Its  principal  city  was 
Gortyna  (Acts  xxvii.  7,  12,  13,  21 ;  Tit.  i.  5). 

Egypt,  the  country  bounded  on  the  west  by  Libya,  on  the 
east  by  the  Red  Sea,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean. 
Its  capital  was  Alexandria  (Matt.  ii.  13,  14,  15,  19;  Acts 
ii.  10 ;  vii.  9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 17,  34, 36,  39,  40 ;  xiii.  17 ;  Heb. 
iii.  16;  viii.  9;  xi.  26,  27;  Jude  5 ;  Rev.  xi.  8). 

Cappadocia,  a  province  north  of  Cilicia  in  Asia  Minor  (Acts 
ii.  9 ;  1  Pet.  i.  1). 

These  provinces,  with  the  events  related  in  connection  with 
them,  are  all  more  fully  described  in  Section  5. 
Psalm.     See  Hymn. 


PSALM— PURIFICATION.  225 

Publican,  TiXdjvrjc,  publicanus.  The  Roman  taxes  were  not 
collected,  as  amongst  us,  by  agents  acting  directly  for  the 
government,  but  were  farmed  out  to  the  highest  bidders,  and  the 
farmers  were  technically  called  pnhlicaiii.  These  publicani,  who 
were  necessarily  large  capitalists,  employed  magistri  and  siih- 
magistri  (i.e.  managers  and  sub-managers)  to  overlook  the  actual 
collection,  and  j^ortitores,  who  personally  performed  the  duty  of 
collection.  To  these  portitores  the  name  of  '  publicans '  is  attached 
in  the  New  Testament.  Under  all  circumstances  tax-gatherers  are 
usually  unpopular,  but  the  special  condition  of  Palestine,  where 
many  of  the  inhabitants  regarded  the  payment  of  Roman  taxes  as 
unlawful,  rendered  the  office  peculiarly  the  object  of  popular 
scorn.  Hence  only  the  least  respectable  of  the  population  under- 
took it,  and  these  persons,  being  unrestrained  by  principle  and  con- 
tinually exacting  "more  than  was  due,  brought  still  greater  odium 
on  their  occupation.  Hence  ' to  eat  with  publicans  and  to  be  'a 
friend  of  publicans  '  were  charges  brought  against  our  Lord  ;  and 
the  name  of  pu-blican  is  united  in  seven  passages  with  '  sinners,' 
in  two  with  '  harlots '  (Matt.  xxi.  31,  32),  and  in  one  with  '  a 
heathen'  (Matt,  xviii.  17),  although  it  only  occurs  twenty-one 
times.  The  publicans,  however,  seem  to  have  more  than  justified 
our  Lord's  conduct  towards  them.  They  went  out  to  John  the 
Baptist  to  be  baptised  (Luke  iii.  12);  one  of  their  profession, 
Matthew  or  Levi,  left  it  to  become  a  disciple  and  afterwards  an 
apostle  (Matt.  x.  3  ;  Luke  v.  27),  and  Zacchseus,  a  chief  publican 
of  Jericho,  declared  that  '  he  gave  half  of  his  goods  to  the  poor, 
and  if  he  had  wronged  any,  he  restored  him  fourfold '  (Luke  xix. 
8).  Of  him  our  Lord  declared  that  '  salvation  had  come  to  his 
house,'  and  on  another  occasion,  in  the  parable  of  the  Pharisee  and 
Publican,  he  chose  a  member  of  this  despised  class,  to  shew  that 
the  true  method  of  approaching  God  was  by  imploring  his  mercy, 
and  not  by  self-righteousness  (Luke  xviii.  10-14). 

Purification.  Two  distinct  acts  are  united  under  this  term  in  the 
New  Testament.  1.  ayviajxoc,  any  cleansing  preparatory  to  reli- 
gious acts.  In  this  sense  the  pilgrims  from  Galilee  came  up  to 
Jerusalem  before  the  Passover,  that  they  might  purify  themselves  for 
the  feast  (John  xi.  55),  and  St.  Paul  purified  himself  at  the  con- 
clusion of  his  ^ow  (Acts  xxi.  24-26;  xxiv.  18).  2.  KaBapicTjioQ, 
the  formal  cleansings  demanded  by  the  Mosaic  law  after  pollution 
from  contact  with  the  dead,  or  after  certain  sexual  pollutious,  or 
after  childbirth,  or  after  cleansing  from  leprosy.  To  these  the 
Rabbinical  law  added  much  personal  cleansing  before  and  at 

Q 


226       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

meals.  Allusions  to  these  latter  may  be  traced  in  the  six  waterpots  set 
ready  at  the  marriage  feast  at  Cana,  and  in  the  dispute  which  arose 
between  the  Jews  and  the  disciples  of  John  the  Baptist  '  about 
purifying '  (John  iii.  25).  Of  the  former  purifications  we  have 
examples  in  the  purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary  (Luke  ii.  22),  and 
in  the  command  of  our  Lord  to  the  leper,  whom  he  cured,  to  go 
and  offer  for  his  cleansing  that  which  Moses  commanded  (Luke  v. 
14).  The  Ifiw  as  to  such  offerings  is  to  be  found  in  Lev.  xii.  and 
xiv.  In  Heb.  ix.  13, 14,  there  is  also  an  allusion  to  the  cleansing  of 
defiled  persons  by  means  of  the  '  water  of  separation  '  and  ^  purifi- 
cation for  sin/  obtained  from  the  ashes  of  a  red  heifer,  as  detailed 
in  Num.  xix.  This  cleansing  was  of  a  more  general  character, 
and  applied  to  any  sort  of  defilement,  and  hence  was  well  suited  to 
be  compared  by  the  apostle  to  the  cleansing  of  the  sinner's  con- 
science from  dead  works  by  the  precious  blood  ^f  Christ. 

Purple,  Purple -seller,  Troppvpeoc;,  Trop/JuooTrwXic,  pui'pureus^ 
purpuraria.  This  beautiful  colour  was  obtained  by  the  ancients 
from  Phoenicia,  and  Tyre  was  renowned  throughout  the  world  for 
its  production.  The  use  of  it  was  restricted  to  kings,  the  very 
highest  dignitaries  and  very  wealthy  men  (Luke  xvi.  19),  and  it 
was  so  expensive  that  wool,  well  dyed  with  this  colour,  fetched 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus  about  36/.  the  lb.  It  was  found  in  a 
vein  behind  the  neck  of  a  shell-fish  of  the  Murex  species,  and  some 
controversy  has  arisen  as  to  the  exact  kind  of  Murex  which  pro- 
duced it,  but  the  Murex  truncultis  seems  to  be  the  most  likely 
source.  The  selling  of  purple  was,  as  might  be  expected,  an 
honourable  trade,  and  the  earliest  European  convert,  viz.  Lydia  of 
Philippi,  was  a  '  seller  of  purple'  (Acts  xvi.  14). 

The  use  of  the  colour  being  restricted  as  already  mentioned,  a 
*  purple  robe,'  in  mockery  of  his  kingly  pretensions,  was  one  of  the 
insults  offered  by  the  soldiers  of  Pilate  to  our  Blessed  Lord,  pre- 
vious to  his  crucifixion.  But  this  robe,  although  styled  ^  purple ' 
by  two  of  the  evangelists  (Mark  xv.  17,  20 ;  John  xix.  2,  5), 
was  probably  dyed  with  an  inferior  imitation  of  the  true  colour, 
as  Matthew  (xxvii.  28)  calls  the  colour  'scarlet'  (/coffKn?/?-,  =  Lat. 
coccmeu8,  i.e.  dyed  with  a  colour  obtained  from  the  scarlet  berry 
of  a  species  of  oak). 

In  Rev.  xvii.  3,  4,  a  woman  is  described  sitting  upon  a 
'  scarlet  (kokicivoi')  '  beast,  and  arrayed  in  '  purple  and  scarlet 
colour  (7rop(i>vpq  Kat  KOK/ct'f </j)' ,*  and  from  Rev.  xvii.  18  and  xviii.  10- 
16,  it  is  evident  that  the  woman  represents  a  city,  at  first  'reigning 
over  the  kings  of  the  earth/  but  afterwards  thrown  down,  burned 


PUKPLE— EACA.  227 

and  destroyed.  The  mystic  name  of  this  city  is  given  as  Babylon, 
Pid  the  great  majority  of  commentators  have  identified  it  with 
Papal  Rome.  And  ^  scarlet,'  as  is  well  known,  is  the  recognised 
colour  of  the  dress  of  the  cardinals,  or  princes  of  the  Ptomish 
church. 

Quaternions,  rerpaSwr,  quateifiio.  A  company  of  four  soldiers, 
detached  on  any  particular  duty.  St.  Peter  was  thus  kept  by  four 
quaternions,  each  of  which  guarded  him  for  three  hours  of  the 
night,  two  of  the  four  sleeping  on  either  side  and  two  keeping 
guard  without  (Acts  xii.  4). 

Rabbi,  'Pa(3(3l,  Bahhi,  Heb.  ^?1  =  my  great  one.  In  Mark  x. 
51,  A.  V.  renders  'ValSjSovi  or  "Pa[3j3Gvi'i  by  '  Lord,'  and  in  John  xx. 
IG,  "P(./3/3  ivt  or  'Paj3i3ovvi  is  also  found,  where  K  and  B.  both  read, 

*  and  saith  unto  him  in  Hebrew,  Eabboni ;  which  is  to  say, 
Master.'  A  title  used  to  designate  the  Hebrew  doctors  of  the 
law.  It  only  came  into  use  shortly  before  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
and  existed  in  three  forms,  Bab,  Babbi,  and  Babban,  the  first 
being  of  less  dignity  than  the  second,  and  the  second  than  the 
thir^.  Babban  is  said  only  to  have  been  given  to  seven  men. 
There  were  two  previous  steps  to  being  a  Babbi,  viz.  to  be  a 
scholar,  and  a  companion  to  a  Babbi.  The  ofiice  of  a  Babbi  con- 
sisted in  preaching  in  the  synagogues,  explaining  the  law,  offering 
up  prayers,  resolving  cases  of  conscience,  and  instructing  the  young. 
He  had  also  the  power  of  binding  or  loosing,  i.e.  of  prohibiting  the 
use  of  anything  or  of  permitting  it.  Our  Saviour  appears  to  have 
been  addressed  as  Babbi  without  any  definite  appointment  to  the 
ofiice,  which  was  generally  solemnly  given  by  the  college  of  doctors 
of  the  law.  While  he  appears  to  have  accepted  the  title  for  him- 
self, He  warned  his  disciples  not  to  accept  it  for  themselves,  on  the 
ground  that  one  only  was  their  Master  (A.  V.  (ca9//y*jr?yt-,  but  many 
good  MSS.  dicacTicaXot;)  and  all  they  were  brethren  (Matt,  xxiii.  8). 

Rabboni.     See  Bahhi. 

Raca,  'Pa/ca,  raca,  Heb.    Ni^T  =  empty.     Only  in  Matt.  v.  22, 

*  Whosoever  shall  say  to  his  brother,  Baca,  shall  be  in  danger  of 
the  council;  but  whosoever  shall  say,  Thou  fool  (viwpl),  shall  be 
in  danger  of  hell  fire  {tvoxoc  tic  ti)v  yktvvai>  tov  Trupdc).'  Stier  on 
this  passage  says,  *  Judgment,  high  council,  gehenna,  were  the 
three  degrees  of  penalty  in  Israel.  We  read  that  in  the  tribes 
there  were  inferior  courts  of  judgment  (Deut.  xvi.  18)  ;  in  the  holy 
city  the  so-called  council  of  the  Sanhedrim  (Deut.  xvii.  8),  which 
might  cast  out  of  the  congregation;  and,  finally,  as  the  deepest 


228       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

ignominy,  the  being  cast  out  into  the  valley  of  the  dead  and  of  all 
abominations.  (Valley  of  the  children  of  Hinnom,  where  had  been 
the  service  of  Moloch,  2  Kings  xxiii.  10 ;  Jer.  vii.  31.  The  corpses 
of  malefactors  were  burnt  subsequently,  and  all  the  most  filthy 
refuse  thrown  there ;  whence  in  the  Prophets  we  find  it  used  as  a 
type  of  the  place  of  condemnation  without  the  city  of  God,  Isa. 
XXX.  33 ;  Ixvi.  24 ;  and  the  symbolical  Jewish  style  of  teaching,  the 
truth  in  which  our  Lord  always  appropriated  to  Himself,  had  yet 
further  carried  out  the  figure.) '  .  .  .  Our  Lord  '  therefore  points 
out  the  three  degrees  in  the  expression  of  the  spirit  of  hatred  or 
murder.  First,  the  inward  expression  .  .  .  then  the  progressive 
outbreak  in  the  milder  and  severer  word.'  '  Words  of  the  Lord 
Jesus/  vol.  i.  p.  160. 

Reed,  KoXapioQ,  arundo  (but  in  Mark  xv.  36  and  3  John  13, 
calamus).  A  cane,  attaining  the  height  of  twelve  feet,  and  very 
flexible.  It  grows  plentifully  in  Palestine,  especially  in  the  hot 
Jordan  valley,  and  near  the  warm  springs  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  Our  Lord  refers  to  it  in  the  question  about  John 
the  Baptist.  '  What  went  ye  out  into  the  wilderness  to  see,  a  reed 
shaken  with  the  wind  ?  '  (Matt.  xi.  7 ;  Luke  vii.  24).  It  was  also 
put  into  his  hand  as  a  mock  sceptre,  with  such  a  one  he  was  smitten 
(Matt,  xxvii.  29,  30 ;  Mark  xv.  19),  and  by  means  of  such  a  reed 
a  sponge  full  of  vinegar  or  sour  wine  was  lifted  to  his  mouth  when 
on  the  cross  (Mark  xv. 36).  In  Rev.  xi.  1  'a  reed  like  unto  a  rod' 
is  given  to  the  apostle  to  measure  the  temple  and  the  altar  and 
them  that  worship  therein ;  and  in  Rev.  xxi.  15,  16  it  appears  to 
have  been  restored  to  its  angelic  possessor. 

The  same  word  is  used  in  3  John  13,  where  it  is  translated 
*  pen ' ;  'I  will  not  with  ink  and  pen  write  unto  thee.'  The 
calamus  used  for  writing  was  split  like  our  pens,  the  ink  (fisXar, 
atramentum)  was  probably  thicker,  and  the  paper  (yapr/jg,  charta) 
was  generally  made  from  the  skin  of  the  papyrus  plant,  which  still 
grows  in  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake  Merom. 

Rudder-bands.     See  Ship. 

Rue,  TTTjyavov,  ruta.  A  garden  herb,  of  which  four  species 
exist  wild  in  Palestine.  It  occurs  only  in  Luke  xi.  42,  '  Ye  (i.  e. 
ye  Pharisees)  tithe  mint,  and  rue,  and  all  manner  of  herbs.' 
Matthew  xxiii.  23,  in  the  parallel  passage,  omits  'rue  and  all 
manner  of  herbs,'  and  substitutes  '  anise  and  cummin.' 

Ruler.  The  rendering  of  two  Greek  words.  1.  dpxMv,  applied 
to  Jairus  in  Matt,  ix,  18  and  Luke  viii.  41,  and  explained  in  the 
parallel  passage  in  Mark  v.  22  as  =  apxiovvaybiyoc^  '  a  ruler  of  the 


REED— SACRILEGE.  229 

synagogue/  i.  e.  one  of  the  elders  or  Pamasim.  Other  apxiTvi-a- 
ytjjyoi,  or  '  rulers  of  the  synagogue,'  are  mentioned  in  Luke  xiii.  14 
and  Acts  xiii.  15.  For  a  description  of  the  duties  and  position  of 
these  officials,  see  Synagogue.  The  same  term  is  applied  to  ^  a 
certain  ruler,'  who  asked  the  question,  *  What  shall  I  do  to  inherit 
eternal  life  F  '  (Luke  xviii.  18).  This  person  is  described  in  the 
parallel  passages  in  Matt.  xix.  22,  and  Mark  x.  22  as  '  having  great 
possessions,'  hut  no  statement  is  made  of  his  official  position. 
Nicodemus  is  also  described  as  a  'ruler'  of  the  Jews  (John  iii.  1), 
and  no  doubt  by  this  is  meant  that  he  was  one  of  the  Great  Council, 
or  Sauhedrim,  this  title  being  given  to  such  persons  in  various 
passages  (Luke  xxiv.  20  ;  John  vii.  48 ;  xii.  42  ;  Acts  xxiii.  5,  kc). 
With  the  same  general  sense,  Beelzebub  is  called  the  '  prince 
(apxMv)^  of  the  devils,  and  the  'prince  of  this  world  {clpx^v  rov 
KotTfxov  Toiirov)  '  (John  xvi.  11),  and  the  word  is  translated  'judge' 
in  '  Lest  he  hale  thee  to  the  judge,  and  the  judge  deliver  thee 
to  the  officer,'  &c.  (Luke  xii.  58).  2,  apxirpiKXivoq,  the  'ruler 
of  the  feast,'  or  chairman  at  the  marriage  at  Cana  in  Galilee 
(John  ii.  8). 

In  the  parable  of  the  Talents,  the  phrases  in  A.  V.,  '  I  will  make 
thee  ruler,''  are  more  accurately  rendered,  '  I  will  set  thee  over ' 
(Matt.  xxiv.  45 ;  xxv.  21 ;  Luke  xii.  42). 

Sabbatb*    See  Lord's  Day. 

Sabbatb-day's  journey.     See  Lords  Day,  adjinem. 

Sabaotb,  'SajSadJe,  sabbaoth,  Heb.  ri)^2'!^  =  hosts.  Only  in  Rom. 
ix.  29,  '  Except  the  Lord  of  Sabaoth  had  left  us  a  seed,'  and  in 
Jas.  V.  4,  '  The  cries  of  them  which  have  reaped  are  entered  into 
the  ears  of  the  Lord  of  Sabaoth.''  The  phrase  is  the  Greek  equi- 
valent of  the  Hebrew  '  Lord  of  hosts,'  an  appellation  of  God  very 
frequent  in  the  prophetical  books,  especially  in  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Zechariah,  and  Malachij  never  found  in  the  Pentateuch,  nor  in 
Joshua,  Judges,  Ezekiel,  Job,  or  Solomon.  Gesenius  (from  whom 
the  above  is  taken)  refers  to  Josh.  v.  14,  '  As  captain  (marg.  prince) 
of  the  host  of  the  Lord  am  I  come,'  to  explain  the  meaning  as 
referring  to  angelic  hosts,  but  also  points  out  that  Israel  is  also 
called  the  '  host  of  the  Lord.' 

Sacrilegre,  only  found  in  Rom.  ii.  22,  '  Thou  that  abhorrest 
idols,  dost  thou  commit  sao'ilege  (UpoavXiic;)  ? '  but  the  adjective 
hpoavXoQ  is  used  in  Acts  xix.  37,  '  Ye  have  brought  hither  these 
men,  which  are  neither  robbers  of  churches  (ItpoauXovt;),  nor  blas- 
phemers of  your  goddess.'  Alford  and  others  regard  '  to  commit 
sacrilege '  as  =  '  to  rob  idol  temples,'  but  the  best  intei-pretation 


230       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

seems  to  make  the  expression  =  to  rob  God  of  tlie  offerings  and 
honour  due  to  him.  The  notion  of  burghxriously  entering  a  place 
of  worship  is  foreign  to  the  meaning  of  the  word,  at  least  in  Horn, 
ii.  22. 

Sadducees,  'SadSovKolot,  Sadducaei.  One  of  the  three  principal 
religious  sects  among  the  Jews,  the  other  two  being  the  Pharisees 
and  the  Essenes.  The  derivation  of  their  name  is  uncertain,  some 
deriving  it  from  Sadoc,  a  teacher  of  the  law  about  300  B.C.,  others 
from  Zadok,  the  high-priest,  who  is  conjectured  to  have  been  the 
founder  of  an  aristocratic  party  among  the  priesthood  (to  which 
allusion  is  made-in  Acts  v.  17),  others  again  connecting  the  title 
with  Hebrew  p^V  =  just,  as  if  the  members  of  this  sect  regarded 
moral  uprightness  as  the  one  thing  needful. 

The  principal  tenets  of  the  sect  were  :  1.  A  disbelief  in  the 
doctrine  of  a  resurrection  ;  2.  A  disregard  to  the  Oral  Law,  to 
which  great  attention  was  paid  by  the  Pharisees ;  3.  A  denial  of 
the  existence  of  either  angel  or  spirit ;  but  whether  this  denial 
amounted  to  an  absolute  denial,  or  merely  a  disbelief  in  the  per- 
petuity of  angelic  appearances  and  ministration  (much  as  modern 
Christians  do  not  expect  such  appearances  at  the  present  time, 
while  not  denying  their  occurrence  in  past  times),  is  uncertain.  It 
is  also  probable  that  in  New  Testament  times  the  Sadducees 
represented  the  anti-national  party  in  politics,  and  favoured  the 
Roman  authority  more  than  the  Pharisees. 

All  these  views  are  illustrated  in  the  New  Testament.  Their 
disbelief  in  a  resurrection,  and  in  angelic  existences,  is  distinctly 
stated  in  Actsxxiii.  8,  '•  The  Sadducees  say,  that  there  is  no  resur- 
rection, neither  angel  nor  spirit  j'  and  on  one  occasion  they  are 
described  as  coming  to  our  Lord  with  a  perplexing  question  as  to 
the  resurrection  (Matt.  xxii.  23 ;  Mark  xii.  18 ;  Luke  xx.  27). 
Having  replied  to  this,  Jesus  showed  from  Ex.  iii.  6,  that  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  regarded  by  God  as  living  persons  in  the 
time  of  Moses,  to  whom  God  announced  himself  as  their  God. 
Our  Lord  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  drawn  his  argument  on  the 
resurrection  from  the  Pentateuch,  because  the  Sadducees  did  not 
receive  the  other  portions  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  the  probabi- 
lity is  that  their  rejection  of  these  only  amounted  to  regarding 
them  as  less  authoritative  than  the  Pentateuch.  The  Sadducees 
on  another  occasion  were  found,  in  conjunction  with  the  Pharisees, 
desiring  of  our  Lord  a  sign  from  heaven  ;  and  the  disciples,  after 
their  departure,  were  bidden  beware  of  the  leaven  (i.e.  the  doctrine) 
both  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees.     In  Acts  iv.  1,  *  the  priests, 


SADDUCEES— SAMAEITANS.  231 

and  the  Sadducees '  are  found  connected  together  in  arresting  the 
apostles,  '  being-  grieved  that  they  .  .  .  preached  through  Jesus 
the  resurrection  from  the  dead',  '  in  Acts  v.  17,  the  priestly  party 
are  distinctly  stated  to  have  been  of  '  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees ; ' 
and  in  Acts  xxiii.  the  council  before  which  St.  Paul  was  brought, 
is  partly  composed  of  Pharisees,  and  partly  of  Sadducees. 

Josephus  (Antiq.  18.  1.  3),  states  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Sad- 
ducees was  '  received  but  by  few,  yet  by  those  still  of  the  highest 
dignity ; '  and  in  another  place  he  says,  ^  The  Sadducees  are  able  to 
persuade  none  but  the  rich,  and  have  not  the  populace  obsequious 
to  them,  but  the  Pharisees  have  the  multitude  on  their  side ' 
(Antiq.  13.  10.  6).  And  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  party 
was  comparatively  insignificant  and  uninfluential  in  comparison 
with  the  Pharisees.  In  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  they  are  not  men- 
tioned, and  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  they  disappeared  as 
a  party,  although  some  of  their  opinions  have  been  revived  by  the 
Karaites. 

Samaritans,  'Enixapeirat,  Sa^naritani.  The  origin  of  the  popula- 
tion which  in  the  time  of  our  Lord  inhabited  Samaria,  and  was  then 
called  Samaritan,  is  related  in  2  Kings  xvii.  24-41.  From  this 
passage  it  appears  that  the  race  was  of  Babylonish  origin,  and 
their  religion  a  mixed  one,  partly  consisting  of  idolatrous  rites,  and 
partly  involving  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  But  on  the  return  of 
Judah  from  captivity,  they  demanded,  but  were  not  permitted,  to 
participate  in  the  erection  of  the  Temple  at  .Jerusalem,  and  there 
is  a  strong  probability  that  they  gradually  relinquished  idolatry, 
and  more  fully  adopted  the  Mosaic  ceremonies.  They  obtained  a 
copy  of  the  Law,  built  a  temple  upon  Mount  Gerizim,  made  a  claim 
to  be  the  descendants  of  Jacob  through  Ephraim  and  Manasseh, 
sacrificed  a  passover,  and  kept  a  sabbatical  year.  But  notwith- 
standing this,  the  Jews  persisted  in  regarding  them  as  aliens. 
*  There  be  two  manner  of  nations  which  my  heart  abhorreth,  and 
the  third  is  no  nation,'  writes  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach,  '  they  that 
sit  upon  the  mountain  of  Samaria,  and  they  that  dwell  among  the 
Philistines,  and  that  foolish  people  that  dwell  at  Sichem  '  (Ecclus. 
1.  25,  26).  The  Samaritan  was  cursed  in  the  Jewish  synagogues, 
and  not  permitted  under  any  circumstances  to  become  a  proselyte ; 
he  was  not  admitted  as  a  witness  in  Jewish  courts,  and  no  Jew 
would  have  any  dealings  with  him.  '  Thou  art  a  Samaritan,  and 
hast  a  devil,'  was  said  to  our  Lord,  as  probably  expressive  of  the 
extremest  hatred  (John  viii.  48).  On  the  other  hand,  the  Samaritans 
were  not  behindhand  in  returning  this  hatred;  they  refused  hos- 


232       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

pitality  to  Jewish  pilgrims  (see  Luke  ix.  52,  53),  and  even  lighted 
false  beacon-fires  to  deceive  the  Babylonish  Jews,  to  whom  the 
time  of  the  paschal  new-moon  was  thus  announced  from  Jerusa- 
lem. 

Our  Lord  on  several  occasions  reproved  this  feeling.  He  selected 
as  an  instance  of  charity  and  goodness  a  member  of  this  race,  in 
the  parable  known  as  the  Good  Samaritan  (Luke  x.  33).  To  a 
woman  of  Samavia,  sitting  by  the  well  near  Shechem,  their  chief 
town  (now  Nahloiis),  and  under  the  very  shadow  of  Gerizim,  he 
unfolded  the  doctrine  of  his  Messiahship,  and  the  spiritual  nature 
of  future  Christian  worship,  and  he  afterwards  resided  in  the  city 
for  two  days  (John  iv.).  Of  ten  lepers  who  were  cleansed,  it  is 
specially  recorded  that  the  only  one  who  returned  to  give  the  Lord 
thanks  was  a  Samaritan  (Luke  xvii.  16).  At  the  same  time,  our 
Lord  must  not  be  supposed  to  have  recognised  the  Samaritans'  views 
as  orthodox,  or  to  have  regarded  them  otherwise  than  as  aliens. 
To  the  woman  of  Samaria  he  says  distinctly  ^  Ye  worship  ye  know 
not  what ;  we  know  what  we  worship,  for  salvation  is  of  the 
Jews '  (John  iv.  22) ;  and  when  the  twelve  apostles  are  sent  forth, 
he  says  ^  Into  any  city  of  the  Samaritans  enter  ye  not,  but  go  rather 
to  the  lost  sheep  of  the  House  of  Israel '  (Matt.  x.  5,  6). 

In  Acts  viii.  the  success  of  Philip  the  evangelist  as  a  preacher 
of  Christ,  and  the  discomfiture  of  Simon  Magus  at  Samaria,  are 
recorded,  but  no  further  allusions  to  the  Samaritans  occur  in  the 
New  Testament.  As  a  sect,  they  are  still  not  extinct,  but  con- 
tinue to  celebrate  their  passover  upon  Mount  Gerizim. 

Sapphire.     See  Jewel. 

Sardine.     See  Jeiuel. 

Sardius.     See  Jeivel. 

Sardonyx.     See  Jewel. 

Satan.     See  Devil. 

Scarlet.     See  Purple, 

School,  ffx'oXj/,  schola^  only  found  in  Acts  xix.  9,  ^  He  (i.e.  St. 
Paul)  .  .  .  disputed  daily  in  the  school  of  one  Tyrannus.'  This 
Tyrannus  was  probably  a  teacher  of  philosophy  or  rhetoric,  but 
some  think  that  he  was  a  Jew,  and  his  school  a  place  for  Talmudical 
instruction.     See  Scribe. 

Schoolmaster,  TraidayioyScy  pcxdagogus.  The  designation  of  a 
person  (generally  a  slave)  whose  business  it  was  to  convoy  youths 
and  children  to  the  school,  but  not  generally  used  of  the  teacher 
himself.  Hence  the  law  is  said  by  St.  Paul  to  be  *  our  pcedagogm^ 
to  bring  us  to  Christ,'  who  is  the  teacher  (Gal.  iii.  24,  25).     So 


SAPPHIRE— SCEIBE.  2  3  3 

in  1  Cor.  iv.  lo,  '  thouprh  ye  have  ten  tliousand  instructors  (jraica-- 
yoiyovg)  in  Christ,  yet  have  ye  not  many  fathers.' 

Science.     See  Gnosticism  in  Philosophy. 

Scorpion,  aKopiriov,  scorpio.  A  venomous  animal,  from  six  to 
eight  inches  long,  in  appearance  like  a  lobster,  but  with  the  tail 
proportionately  longer,  and  so  jointed  as  to  be  easily  tumed  in 
every  direction.  At  the  extremity  of  the  tail  is  the  sting,  formed 
of  a  curved  spine,  and  furnished  with  a  venomous  fluid,  which  is 
discharged  into  the  wound  inflicted  by  the  spine.  This  sting  inflicts 
a  very  painful,  but  not  (except  in  rare  instances)  a  fatal  wound. 
This  creature  is  very  abundant  in  Palestine,  lurking  under  stones, 
and  in  the  crevices  of  walls.  It  is  referred  to  by  our  Lord,  in 
Luke  xi.  12,  'If  a  son  .  .  .  shall  ask  an  egg,  will  he  offer  him  a 
scorpion  ?  '  The  power  of  treading  without  hurt  upon  scorpions 
was  also  given  to  the  Seventy.  On  this  point  see  Serpent.  In  Kev. 
ix.  3,  5,  10,  the  mystic  locusts  have  the  power  of  scorpions,  and 
torment  like  the  torment  of  a  scorpion,  and  tails  like  unto 
scorpions. 

Scribe,  ypa^ijiaTivc,  scriha.  The  name  of  a  class  of  Jews  who 
devoted  themselves  to  the  study  and  interpretation  of  the  Law.  In 
early  times  they  were  probably  secretaries  and  copyists,  but  their 
functions  became  gradually  more  extensive,  until  in  New 
Testament  times  they  were  regarded  as  the  official  exponents  of  the 
whole  duty  of  pious  Israelites.  The  title  of  Rabbi,  the  best  seats 
at  feasts  and  in  the  synagogues,  a  long  garment  with  a  broad  blue 
fringe  and  conspicuous  phylacteries,  were  permitted  to  distinguish 
them. 

The  Scribe  was  carefully  trained  for  his  duties  as  a  legal  ad- 
viser, A  preliminary  examination  when  about  the  age  of  thirteen 
tested  his  fitness  for  the  necessary  education.  If  found  competent, 
he  was  then  attached  to  the  school  of  some  Rabbi,  and  there  in 
daily  disputations,  and  especially  by  a  catechetical  method,  he  was 
instructed  in  the  mysteries  of  the  Law  and  the  Rabbinical  interpre- 
tations of  it.  At  the  age  of  thirty,  if  found  competent,  he  was 
solemnly  admitted  to  the  ofiice  of  a  Scribe  by  the  imposition  of 
hands,  and  by  the  reception  from  his  teacher  of  writing  tablets  and 
a  key,  symbolical  of  his  duty  and  his  power  to  open  or  shut  the 
treasury  of  Divine  knowledge.  He  might  then  devote  himself, 
according  to  his  abilities  and  opportunities,  to  instruction,  or  to 
the  making  of  copies  of  the  law  for  public  and  private  use,  or  to 
notarial  business,  or  even  to  other  employments  not  inconsistent 
with  the  study  of  the  law. 


234        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Scribes  and  Pharisees  being  thus  closely  connected,  their  names 
appear  most  commonly  in  conjunction,  and  the  woe  pronounced 
by  our  Lord  against  one  party  included  the  other  (Matt,  xxiii.  2, 13^ 
14,  15,  23,  25,  27,  29 ;  Mark  ii.  16 ;  vii.  1 ;  Luke  xi.  44,  53).  The 
imperfection  of  their  ceremonial  righteousness  (Matt.  v.  20),  their 
hypocrisy  (Mark  xii.  38-40 ;  Luke  xx.  46),  their  rejection  of 
Christ  and  plots  for  his  destruction  (Matt.  xvi.  21 ;  xx.  18 ;  Mark 
X.  33 ;  xiv.  1 ;  liuke  vi.  7  ',  xi.  53 ;  xx.  1,  19  ;  xxii.  2 ;  xxiii.  10 ; 
John  viii.  3),  are  all  referred  to  in  various  portions  of  the  gospels. 
At  the  same  time,  as  amongst  the  Pharisees,  some  members  of  the 
cl'dss  were  better  than  their  profession,  entertained  true  views  of 
religion,  and  were  earnestly  desirous  of  spiritual  light.  Thus  '  a 
Scribe  said.  Master,  I  will  follow  thee  whithersoever  thou  goest ' 
(Matt.  viii.  19),  and  another  '  Scribe  said  unto  him,  Well,  Master, 
thou  hast  said  the  truth ;  for  there  is  but  one  God  ;  and  there  is 
none  other  but  He ;  and  to  love  him  with  all  the  heart,  and  with 
all  the  understanding,  and  with  all  the  soul,  and  with  all  the 
strength,  and  to  love  his  neighbour  as  himself,  is  more  than  all 
whole  burnt  offerings  and  sacrifices'  (Mark  xii.  32,  33).  Of  such 
a  man,  expressing  such  a  sentiment,  our  Lord  might  well  say, 
'  Thou  art  not  far  from  the  kingdom  of  God.'  Nor  did  our  Lord 
undervalue  the  extent  of  the  scribes'  knowledge  of  God's  word  ; 
on  the  contrary  he  speaks  of '  the  scribe  instructed  unto  the  king- 
dom '  (Matt.  xiii.  52),  refers  to  their  arguments  touching  the  com- 
ing of  Elias,  and  the  descent  of  Messiah  from  David  (Matt, 
xvii.  10 ;  Mark  ix.  11 ;  xii.  35),  and  expressly  directs  obedience  to 
their  precepts  when  gathered  out  of  the  law  (Matt,  xxiii.  23). 

After  the  Ascension,  the  hostility  of  the  Scribes  towards  the 
disciples  of  Christ  still  continued.  In  Acts  iv.  o,  we  read  that 
they  '  gathered  against  the  apostles; 'in  Acts  vi.  12,  they  take  part 
with  the  people  (6  Xaoi;)  and  the  elders  in  arresting  Stephen  ;  but 
in  Acts  xxiii.  9,  induced  by  their  party  prejudice  against  the  Sad- 
ducees,  and  finding  that  St.  Paul  was  a  Pharisee,  they  take  his 
part  and  vote  for  the  apostle's  acquittal.  St.  Paul,  however,  held 
them  in  but  light  estimation.  His  only  reference  to  them  is  dis- 
paraging, '  Where  is  the  scribe  ?  where  is  the  disputer  of  this 
world  ?  hath  not  God  made  foolish  the  wisdom  of  this  world  ?  ' 
(1  Cor.  i.  20.) 

Scripture.  Scriptures.  It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work 
to  examine  at  any  length  the  important  question  of  In.'^piration,  of 
which  no  better  discussion  can  be  found  than  in  Dr.  W.  Lee's  In- 
spiration of  Holy  Sa-ipturey  especially  in  the  Notes  and  Appendices. 


SCEIPTUEE. 


235 


Here  it  will  only  be  endeavoured  to  set  forth  the  statements  of 
the  New  Testament  on  the  matter.  1.  In  the  New  Testament  the 
word  ypucj)))  (^  =  that  which  is  loritten)  is  employed  both  in  the  sing. 
and  plur.  to  designate  the  Old  Testament.  The  passages  in  which 
this  usage  occurs  are — 

Matt.  xxi.  42.     Did  ye  never  read  in  the  scriptures ;  The  stone,  &c. 
„     xxii.  29.     Ye  do  err,  not  knowing  the  scriptures. 
„    XX vi.  54.     How  then  shall  the  scriptures  be  fulfilled  ? 
„       „     66.     All  this  was  done,  that  the  scrijjtures  of  the  pro- 
phets might  be  fulfilled. 
Mark  xii.  10.     Have  ye  not  read  this  scrijjture ;  The  stone,  &c. 
„       „     24.     Do  ye  not  therefore  err,  because  ye  know  not  the 
scriptures '? 
Tlie  scriptures  must  be  fulfilled. 
The  scriptu7'e  was  fulfilled,  which  saith.  And  he 

was  numbered,  &c. 
This  day  is  this  scripture  fulfilled  in  your  ears. 
He  expounded  unto  them  in  all  the  scriptures  the 
things  concerning  himself. 
„     „        32.     While  he  opened  to  us  the  scriptures. 
,y     „  44,  45.     All  things  must  be  fulfilled  which  were  written  in 
the  law  cf  Moses,  and  in  the  prophets,  and  in 
the  psalms,  concerning  me.      Then  opened  he 
their  understanding,  that  they  might  understand 
the  scriptures. 
John      ii.  22.     They  believed  the  scripture  and  the  word  which 
Jesus  had  said. 
Search  the  sci'iptures. 


„      xiv.  49. 
„       XV.  28. 

Luke   iv.   21. 
„    xxiv.  27. 


V.  39. 

vii.  38. 

„  42. 

X.  35. 


„      xiii.  18. 
„  xix.  24, 1 
28, 36'.  J 
37. 
„         XX.  9. 


Acts 


i.  16. 
viii.  32. 


As  the  sc?'ipture  hath  said,  Out  of  his  belly,  &c. 
Hath  not  the  scj'ipture  said.  That  Christ  cometh  of 

the  c-eed  of  David  ? 
He  called  them  gods,  to  whom  the  word  of  God 

came,  and  the  scripture  cannot  be  broken  i\vd7]vai). 
That  the  scripture  may  be  fulfilled. 

That  the  scripture  might  be  fulfilled. 

Another  scripture  saith. 

As  yet  they  knew  not  (ovosttuj  ySncrov)  the  scrip- 
ture that  he  must  rise  again  from  the  dead. 

This  scripture  must  needs  have  been  fulfilled. 

The  place  (//  Trtpioxi])  of  the  scripture  which  he 
read  was  this. 


236       ESSENTIALS  OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


Acts 

viii.  35. 

V 

xvii.  2. 

^J 

„    11. 

„  xviii.  24. 

Kom. 

„28. 
i.    2. 

11 

V 
V 

iv.    3. 
ix.  17. 
X.  11. 

xi.  2. 
XV.  4. 

,,      xvi.  26. 

1  Cor.     XV.  3. 

Gal.         iii.  8. 

„  „  22. 

„        iv.  30. 

1  Tim.  V.  18. 

2  Tim.  iii.  16. 

James  ii.  8. 

„  ii.  23. 

„  iv.  5. 

1  Peter  ii.  6. 

2  Peter  i.20. 

iii.  16. 


Philip  .  .  .  began  at  the  same  scripture. 

Paul  .  .  .  reasoned  with  them  out  of  the  scrip- 

tiires. 
They  .   .   .  searched  the  scriptures  daily,  whether 

these  things  were  so. 
A  certain  Jew  named  ApoUos,  an  eloquent  man, 

and  mighty  in  the  scriptures  {pnvaTog  tv  t.  y.) 
Shewing  by  the  scriptures  that  Jesus  was  Christ. 
He  had  promised  before  by  (c>ia)  his  prophets  in 

the  holy  scripttires  (J:i>  ypa(pdi(;  ayiaig). 
What  saith  the  scripture  ? 
The  scrijjture  saith  unto  Pharaoh. 
The  scripture  saith,  Whosoever  believeth  on  him 

shall  not  be  ashamed. 
Wot  ye  not  what  the  scripture  saith  of  Elias  ? 
We  through  patience  and  comfort  of  the  scriptures 

{Sia  riyt"  TrapaK\i]<ytMq  twv  y.)   might  have   (the) 

hope. 
Now  is  made   manifest  by  the  scriptures  of  the 

pi'ophets. 
Christ  died  for  aur  sins  according  to  (/card)  the 

scriptures. 
The  scripture  .  .  .  preached  before  the  gospel 

(7rpofv?jyy«Xt(Taro)  unto  Abraham. 
The  scripture  hath  concluded  all  under  sin. 
What  saith  the  scripture  ? 
The  scripture  saith,  Thou  shalt  not  muzzle  the 

ox,  &c. 
All  sci'ipture  is  given  by  inspiration  of  God,. and  is 

profitable  for  doctrine,  &c.     {traaa  ypap)  Oto- 

Tri'fVGTnc,  Kal  o)  [liXif-ioc;,  &e.) 

If  ye  fulfil  the  royal  law  according  to  the  scrip- 

ture,  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself. 
The  scripture  was  fulfilled  which  saith,  Abraham 

believed  God,  &c. 
Do  ye  think  that  the  scripture  saith  in  vain,  The 

spirit  that  dwelleth  in  us  lusteth  to  envy  ? 
It  is  contained  in  the  scripture,  Behold,  I  lay  in 

Zion,  &c. 
No  prophecy  of  the  scripture  is  of  any  private 

interpretation  (J^iag  i-n-CKlwiux;'). 
In  which  (i.e.  in  St.  Paul's  epist  es)  are  some 


SCRIPTURE.  237 

things  hard  to  be  understood,  which  they  that 
are  unlearned  and  unstable  wrest,  as  they  do 
also  the  other  scriptures,  unto  their  own  destruc- 
tion. 

The  above  is  a  complete  list  of  all  the  passages  in  which  -^paf^ii] 
occurs  in  the  New  Testament,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  (except, 
possibly,  in  John  vii.  38  ;  xx.  9 ;  1  Tim.  v.  18 ;  Jas.  iv.  5 — on 
which  see  Appendix  of  Quotations  ;  and  certainly  in  2  Pet.  iii.  16) 
it  uniformly  signifies  the  Old  Testament  writings.  In  2  Tim. 
iii.  15  another  woid  (jpanj.ia)  is  used,  where  we  read,  *  Thou 
from  a  child  hast  known  the  holy  scriptures  (jd  Upd  ypdmiara 
oXdag),  which  are  able  to  make  thee  wise  unto  salvation.' 

2  Pet.  iii.  16  is  therefore  decisive  as  to  the  application,  in  apos- 
tolic times,  to  St.  Paul's  epistles  of  a  word  never  used  elsewhere 
in  the  New  Testament  except  to  designate  the  Jewish  Scriptures. 
As  to  those  Scriptures,  a  review  of  the  passages  cited  by  our 
Saviour,  and  by  the  New  Testament  writers,  and  of  the  terms  in 
which  citations  are  made,  should  be  sufficient  to  show  that  both 
our  Saviour  and  His  apostles  regarded  those  Scriptures  as  of 
necessary  fnljUment,  as  proceeding  from  a  Divine  author,  and  as  a 
revelation  of  the  Divine  ivill  and  intentions.  And  it  may  further  be 
noticed  that  while  the  quotations  from,  or  allusions  to,  the 
Apocrypha  do  not  exceed  twenty-three,  Mr.  Gough  ('  New  Testa- 
ment Quotations ')  is  able  to  collect  from  the  New  Testament  no 
less  than  614  more  or  less  direct  quotations  of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament. 

2.  The  expression  '  the  Word  of  God '  may  next  be  examined. 
Two  expressions  are  thus  rendered  in  A.V.,  viz. : — 6  Xo-iOi;,  tov  Otov^ 
and  TO  pijfia  Toil  9eov.  The  latter  expression  {t6  pTjua)  is  regarded 
by  Dr.  Lee  (Lect.  iii.  and  App.  J)  as  pointing  '  to  some  Divine 
agency  which  always  accompanies,  or  proceeds  from,  the  Eternal 
"Word,'  and  in  the  passage  '  the  sword  of  the  Spirit,  which  is  the 
word  of  God  (o  kaTiv  piipa  (:'.)  '  (Eph.  vi.  17)  the  same  writer 
regards  the  latter  clause  as  descriptive  of  the  Spirit,  and  not  of  the 
Scripture.  But  the  phrase  '  Word  of  God  (o  Xoyog  r.  r'^,),'  which 
is  universally  recognised  as  the  usual  Old  Testament  formula  of 
prophetic  inspiration,  is  used  in  the  New  Testament  of — 

a.  Jesus  Christ,  continually  in  St.  John's  writings.     See  Word, 
h.  The  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ,  Luke  v.  1. 

c.  The  preaching  of  the  apostles   and   evangelists.  Acts   iv.  31 ; 
vi.  2 ;  xi.  1 J  xiii.  7  j  2  Cor.  iv.  2 ;  1  Thess.  ii.  13,  &c. 


238        ESSENTIALS  OE  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

3.  The  farther  arguments  from  the  New  Testament  itself  for 
the  '  Scriptural '  character  of  the  New  Testament  may  be  here 
briefly  stated.  The  passage  in  St,  Peter  has  been  ah-eady  referred 
to,  in  which  St.  Paul's  epistles  are  reckoned  among  the  '■  Scrip- 
tures.' In  a  similar  way  St.  Paul,  in  1  Tim.  v.  18,  says,  *  For  the 
scripture  saith,  Thou  shalt  not  muzzle/  &c.  (Deut.  xxv.  4),  '  and, 
The  labourer  is  worthy  of  his  reward.'  Now  the  second  quotation 
is  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  occurs  in  Matt.  x.  10. 
Hence  it  is  clear  that  St.  Paul  quotes  our  Lord's  words  as  Scrip- 
ture. Again,  on  four  distinct  occasions  (Matt.  x.  19,  20 ;  Luke 
xii.  11, 12  J  Mark  xiii.  11 ;  John  xiv.)  our  Lord  promised  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  his  disciples,  independently  of  that  promise  which  he 
made  immediately  previous  to  his  ascension,  and  they  claimed 
such  a  guidance  most  distinctl3^  Thus  St,  Peter,  in  the  house  of 
Cornelius,  said,  '  God  hath  showed  me  that  I  should  not  call  any 
man  co.nmon  or  unclean'  (Acts  x.  28),  and  the  assembly  of 
apostles  gave  their  decree  in  the  following  words,  '  It  seemed 
good  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  to  us'  (Acts  xv.  28).  The  inference 
clearly  is,  that  apostles,  thus  assisted  in  speech  and  action,  would 
be  similarly  assisted  in  writing.  Further,  St.  Paul  claims  to 
speak  words  given  by  the  Holy  Spirit  (1  Cor.  ii,  13 ;  1  Thess. 
ii,  13),  and  to  have  received  what  he  delivered  by  express  '  revela- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ '  (Gal.  i.  12  ;  1  Cor.  xi.  23)  ;  and  St,  Peter 
admonishes  the  Church  to  be  '  mindful  of  the  words  which  were 
spoken  before  of  the  holy  prophets,  and  of  the  commandment  of 
us  the  apostles  of  the  Lord  and  Saviour '  (2  Pet,  iii.  2  :  cf.  Jude 
17,  18). 

With  regard  to  the  argument  from  the  use  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment Scriptures  by  the  early  Church,  and  from  their  authority  in 
early  times,  an  exhaustive  account  may  be  found  in  Paley's 
'  Evidences,'  and  need  not  here  be  reproduced. 

The  external  history  of  the  New  Testament,  both  as  a  whole 
and  in  its  several  parts,  is  treated  of  in  the  Introductory  Sec- 
tion. 

Senate,  yipnvma,  seniores.  Only  found  in  Acts  v.  21,  '  The  high 
priest  came,  and  they  that  were  with  him,  and  called  the  council 
together,  and  all  the  senate  of  the  children  of  Israel.'  This 
jEpovnia  was  probably  the  collective  name  of  those  elders,  who 
were  held  in  high  estimation,  but  were  not  officially  reckoned 
among  the  Sanhedrim.  Alford  suggests  that  the  word  is  a  trans- 
lation of  the  form  according  to  which  they  were  summoned. 

Serpent.     Four  words   are    used   in   the   New   Testament  to 


SENATE— SEKPENT.  239 

designate  this  animal.  1.  6^ic,  the  generic  name  of  the  serpent 
tribe.  This  occurs  in  our  Lord's  exhortation  to  confidence  in 
prayer,  on  the  ground  that  even  an  earthly  father  will  not  give 
his  child  a  '  serpent '  when  he  asks  a  fish  (Matt.  vii.  10 ;  Luke 
xi.  11).  '  Power  over  serpents  and  scorpions '  was  one  of  the  gifts 
given  (probably  with  a  view  to  future  missions)  to  the  Seventy 
disciples  after  their  return  from  their  first  mission  (Luke  x.  19), 
and  also  generally  to  those  that  believe,  as  a  sign  of  the  presence 
of  God  with  them  (Mark  xvi.  18).  Stier's  remarks  on  these 
passages  are  very  good.  '  The  genus  rrdaa  7)  Svvajxic  is  most  signi- 
ficantly explained  and  exemplified  by  its  two  most  striking  species, 
serpents  and  scorpions,  which  is  again  an  allusion  to  Ps.  xci. ;  13.  .  .  . 
The  passage  Deut.  viii.  15  is  likewise  remarkable,  in  connection 
with  which  the  Jews  tell  in  their  way,  that  all  the  insects  of  the 
wilderness  had  to  lie  under  the  feet  of  God's  people  that  they 
might  walk  over  them.  .  .  .  Serpents  and  scorpions  are  the 
striking  specimen  and  representative  of  all  that  is  deadly  in  the 
animal  world,  parallel  to  the  thorns  and  thistles  of  the  cursed 
ground  in  the  world  of  plants  (comp.  Ezek.  ii.  6).'  One  practical 
instance  of  the  exertion  of  this  power  was  furnished  by  St.  Paul 
when  shipwrecked  on  the  island  of  Melita.  Here  a  viper  (Jxf-^va), 
coming  out  of  the  wood  which  had  been  collected  for  a  fire, 
fastened  on  the  apostle's  hand,  but  was  shaken  off  and  no  harm 
felt  (Acts  xxviii.  3).  Again,  the  malignity  of  the  serpent  tribe 
is  alluded  to  in  the  metaphorical  application  of  the  word  to  the 
Scribes  and  Pharisees.  Both  John  the  Baptist  and  our  Saviour 
himself  used  this  expression,  coupled  with  '  ye  generation  of  vipers' 
(Matt.  iii.  7 ;  xii.  34 ;  xxiii.  33 ;  Luke  iii.  7).  The  supposed 
subtlety  of  the  serpent  is. alluded  to  in  Matt.  x.  16,  'Be  ye  wise  as 
serpents  and  harmless  as  doves.' 

Several  passages  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  which  serpents  are 
spoken  of,  are  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament.  Such  are  the 
temptation  of  Eve  by  Satan  in  the  form  of  a  serpent  (2  Cor.  xi.  3), 
the  destruction  of  the  Israelites  by  fiery  serpents  (Heb.  D"'2'^b^n 
D'^ii^n-in  =  either  '  venomous  '  or  *  winged  '  serpents,  but  the  words 
are  not  decisive  as  to  the  species)  in  the  wilderness  (1  Cor.  x.  9), 
and  their  healing  by  means  of  a  serpent  of  brass  set  upon  a  pole 
by  Moses  (John  iii.  14).  The  uplifting  of  this  serpent  is  used  by 
our  Lord  as  a  type  of  the  lifting  up  of  the  Son  of  Man. 

Finally,  the  Devil  is  called  '  the  serpent '  (Rev.  xii.  9,  14,  lo; 
XX.  2),  and  the  mystic  horses  in  Rev.  ix.  have  power  in  their 
tails,  their  tails  being  '  like  unto  serpents.' 


240       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAIMENT  STUDY. 

2.  fxi^va  =  a  viper.  See  above  under  o^lq,  on  Acts  xxviii.  3,  and 
on  the  application  of  the  term  to  Scribes  and  Pharisees. 

3.  amrig.  This  word  occurs  in  a  quotation  in  Eom.  iii.  13  from 
Ps.  cxl.  3,  descriptive  of  the  wicked,  of  whom  it  is  said  that '  the 
poison  of  asps  is  under  their  lips.'  In  the  original  the  Hebrew 
word  translated  *  asp '  (n-1£i^5y)  does  not  occur  elsewhere.  The 
asp  may  have  been  either  the  Egyptian  cobra,  which  possesses  the 
power  of  expanding  the  upper  part  of  its  neck,  and  is  very 
venomous,  or  the  cerastes,  a  homed  snake,  which  is  well  known 
in  Palestine. 

4.  kpiriTov,  prop,  a  *  creeping  thing,'  but  translated  ^  serpent '  in 
Jas.  iii.  7.  {'■  Every  kind  of  beasts,  and  of  birds,  and  of  serpents, 
and  of  things  in  the  sea,  is  tamed,  and  hath  been  tamed  of  man- 
kind'). The  reference  here  is  to  the  art  of  snake-charming, 
practised  immemorially  in  the  East.  Usually  the  performer  plays 
upon  a  flute,  and  professes  to  draw  from  their  hiding-places  con- 
cealed reptiles,  which  he  seizes  dexterously  and  deprives  of  their 
fangs.  But  often,  also,  the  snake  charmer  is  provided  with  tamed 
snakes,  which  sway  themselves  in  time  with  the  music,  and  ap- 
pear otherwise  domesticated.  The  cobra  is  the  animal  usually 
operated  on. 

The  worship  of  the  serpent  has  been  shown  by  Mr.  Deane,  in 
his  '  Serpent  Worship,'  to  have  been  at  one  time  or  other  nearly 
universal.  It  still  survives  in  Southern  India  and  a  few  other 
places. 

Sbeep,  TrpofSarov,  ovis.  There  are  at  present  two  main  breeds 
of  sheep  in  Palestine — one  in  the  north,  resembling  the  merino, 
with  fine  wool ;  the  other,  generally  dispersed,  much  larger,  and 
distino-uished  by  an  enormous  amount  of  fat  in  the  tail.  The  latter 
was  probably  the  ancient  breed,  as  the  fat  of  the  tail  is  in  several 
places  alluded  to  (Exod.  xxix.  22 ;  Lev.  iii.  9,  10).  The  method 
of  tending  sheep  in  Palestine  differs  in  some  respects  from  that 
employed  in  this  country.  The  country  being  open,  the  sheep 
wander  by  day  at  will,  but  at  night  they  are  collected  into  folds, 
which  are  either  caves  or  enclosures  of  stone  walls  built  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  here  they  pass  the  night,  under  the  care  of  their  shepherds 
and  the  dogs.  Thus  there  were  shepherds  near  Bethlehem  on  the 
night  of  the  Nativity,  keeping  watch  over  their  flocks  by  night 
(Luke  ii.  8).  The  Eastern  shepherd  also  leads,  rather  than  dt^ives, 
his  flock,  and  is  said  both  to  know  his  own  sheep  by  name  and 
to  be  known  to  them  by  his  voice. 

The  sheep  was  the  especial  animal  of  sacrifice.     It  was  the 


SHEEP— SHEWBREAD.  241 

animal  offered  by  Abel  (Gen.  iv.  4),  and  was  permitted  at  nearly 
every  Mosaic  sacrifice.  At  passover  only  a  lamb  or  a  kid  was 
permitted  to  be  used,  and  the  daily  sin-offerings  were  lambs  (Exod. 
xxix.  39 ;  Num.  xxviii.  4).  In  allusion  to  this  sacrificial  use  of  the 
lamb  our  Blessed  Lord  is  often  referred  to  as  '  the  Lamb '  (1  Pet. 
i.  19 ;  Kev.  v.  12 ;  vii,  14,  &c.),  and  was  called  by  John  the  Baptist 
the  '  Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world '  (John 
i.  29,  36). 

Our  Lord  has  also  made  large  use  of  the  relationship  of  the 
sheep  and  the  shepherd  to  indicate  the  connection  between  himself 
and  his  people.  Thus  He  is  the  '  good  Shepherd,  who  giveth  his 
life  for  the  sheep '  (John  x.  11),  and,  on  the  other  hand,  '  the 
sheep  hear  his  voice,  and  follow  him '  (John  x.  3,  4).  This  idea 
is  referred  to  also  by  St.  Paul,  who  speaks  of  the  Lord  Jesus  as 
*  the  great  Shepherd  of  the  sheep '  (Heb.  xiii.  20),  and  by  St.  Peter, 
who  speaks  of  Jesus  as  '  the  Shepherd  and  Bishop  of  our  souls' 
(1  Pet.  ii.  25),  and  as  '  the  chief  Shepherd '  (1  Pet.  v.  4). 

The  term  '  shepherd '  is  further  extended  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  human  teachers.  Thus  Peter  received  the  charge,  '  Feed 
(jroijiaivf  =  be  a  shepherd  to ;  but  in  vv.  15  and  17  the  word  is 
j86(TKi  =  provide  food  for)  my  sheep  '  (John  xxi.  16)  ;  and  the  same 
phrase  is  used  of  Christian  teachers  in  Acts  xx.  28  (A.  V.  '  feed,' 
but  lit.  '  shepherd ') ;  1  Cor.  ix.  7 ;  1  Pet.  v.  2 ;  and  Jude  12.  But 
in  Rev.  ii.  27  the  same  word  which  signifies  '  to  shepherd '  is, 
singularly  enough,  translated  'rule,'  '  He  shall  rule  (Gr.  7roifiavu  = 
he  shall  shepherd)  them  with  a  rod  of  iron.' 

The  milk  (see  1  Cor.  ix.  7)  and  wool  of  the  sheep  form  its  chief 
value  in  modern  Palestine,  the  animal  itself  being  only  eaten  on 
festive  or  hospitable  occasions.  Its  skin  is  also  made  into  bottles 
(Matt.  ix.  17 ;  Mark  ii.  22 ;  Luke  v.  37,  38),  and  is  used  for  gar- 
ments. The  latter  use  is  referred  to  in  Heb.  xi.  37.  For  these 
two  last  poiuts,  and  for  the  distinction  between  sheep  and  goats, 
see  also  Goat. 

Sheet,  dOovTj,  linteus.  The  designation  of  the  vessel  which 
St.  Peter  at  Joppa  saw  descending  from  heaven.  It  was  '  knit  at 
the  four  corners  (apx^'f)/  1*^*  Alford  says,  'let  down  by  four 
rope-ends.'  The  cognate  word,  696viov,  is  used  of  the  '  linen- 
cloths  '  in  which  our  Lord's  body  was  wrapped ;  but  in  Acts  x.  11 ; 
xi.  5,  deoi'j]  probably  =  a  piece  of  cloth  like  a  sail. 

Sbewbreadf  ol  aproi  Trjg  7T()odkatojQy  ^^a?z€6'  propositiotiis,  and  i) 
•n-poOtaig  riov  aprwi/,  propositio  jjanum.  In  the  holy  place,  or  sanc- 
tuary, of  the  tabernacle  and  temple  stood  a  table  made  of  acacia 


242       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAIVIENT  STUDY. 

wood,  covered  witli  gold,  and  on  this  table  were  placed  every 
Sabbath  twelve  loaves,  the  twelve  which  they  replaced  being  eaten 
by  the  priests  in  the  holy  place.  '  These  loaves  were  made  of  the 
finest  flour,  and  each  contained  two  omers ;  according  to  Jewish 
tradition,  they  were  ten  hand-breadths  long,  five  broad,  and  one 
finger  thick.  On  each  row  pure  frankincense  was  burnt,  either  on 
the  cakes  themselves,  or  in  two  vials  placed  on  the  rows,  as  a  symbol 
that  the  shewbread  was  offered  and  sanctified  to  God'  (Kalisch 
on  Exodus). 

In  the  New  Testament  the  shewbread  is  referred  to  as  an 
example  of  human  necessity  overruling  ceremonial  law.  By  the 
law  the  shewbread  was  only  to  be  eaten  by  the  priests,  but  David, 
in  the  time  of  hunger,  nevertheless  consumed  it  (1  Sam.  xxi.  6 ; 
Matt.  xii.  4;  Mark  ii.  26;  Luke  vi.  4).  Its  existence  as  a  part  of 
the  tabernacle  service  is  also  noted  in  Heb.  ix.  2,  '  There  was  a 
tabernacle  made ;  the  first,  wherein  was  the  candlestick,  and  the 
table,  and  the  sheiohread,  which  is  called  the  sanctuary.' 

Ship.  The  rendering  of  two  words,  (1)  irXolov  and  (2)  ttXoi- 
apiov,  except  in  Acts  xxvii.  41,  where  vavq  occurs.  The  ship  which 
our  Lord  appears  to  have  continually  used  is  described  as  to  ttXoXov. 
In  Mark  iii.  9  we  read  that  Jesus  ^  spake  to  his  disciples,  that  a 
small  ship  (TiXoidpiov)  should  wait  on  him,'  and  after  this  we  have 
constant  mention  of  a  vessel  so  employed,  and  designated  by  the 
name  of  '  the  ship  '  (rb  ttXoZov).  In  this  vessel  our  Lord  was 
enabled  to  cross  the  Sea  of  Galilee  at  his  will,  and  in  this  he  pro- 
bably calmed  the  tempest.  In  connection  with  this  ship  some 
difficulty  has  been  occasioned  by  the  passage  of  John  vi.  22,  where 
we  read,  '  The  day  following,  when  the  people  which  stood  on  the 
other  side  of  the  sea  saw  that  there  was  none  other  boat  (-n-Xoiapiov) 
there,  save  that  one  whereunto  his  disciples  had  entered,  and  that 
Jesus  himself  went  not  with  his  disciples  into  the  boat  (TrXoidpiov), 
but  that  his  disciples  were  gone  away  alone ;  (Howbeit  there  came 
other  boats  (TrXoLctpia)  from  Tiberias  .  .  .),  when  the  people  there- 
fore saw  that  Jesus  was  not  there,  neither  his  disciples,  they  also 
took  shipping  (Ivk^rjaav  a'f  r«  TrXcTa).'  A  very  satisfactory  solution 
of  the  obscurity  is  suggested  by  Mr.  Macgregor  ('  Rob  Roy  on  the 
Jordan,'  p.  355),  viz.  that  the  TrXoidpiov  was  the  boat  belonging 
to  the  ship,  left  by  the  disciples  for  Jesus  to  use,  but  not  used  by 
Him.  So  in  John  xxi.  8,  after  the  Second  Miraculous  Draught  of 
Fishes,  the  disciples  are  said  to  have  come  to  land  '  in  a  little  ship ;' 
but  the  Greek  is  kv  r<^  -n-Xoiapicp  =  in  the  boat,  i.e.  the  boat  belonging 
to  the  ship.    In  New  Testament  times  the  Sea  of  Galilee  was 


SHIP— S^'OW.  243 

probably  crowded  with  such  Tessels,  employed  both  as  passenger  and 
cargo-boats  and  in  the  fishing  trade,  wliich  was  then  considerable. 

The  *  ship  '  of  the  Gospels  was  probably  only  a  small  vessel ;  but 
in  the  Acts  the  larger  vessels  used  in  navigating  the  Mediterranean 
are  mentioned.  In  his  coasting  voyages  and  in  crossing  from  Asia 
to  Greece,  and  vice  versa,  much  use  of  ships  by  St.  Paul  is  implied, 
and  in  his  journey  to  Rome  three  ships  are  mentioned :  (I)  a  ship 
of  Adramyttium,  which  conveyed  him  from  Csesarea  to  Myra ; 
(2)  a  ship  of  Alexandria,  into  which  he  changed  at  Myra,  and 
which  was  wrecked  at  Melita;  (3)  another  Alexandrian  ship, 
whose  sign  was  Castor  and  Pollux,  which,  after  wintering  at 
Melita,  conveyed  him  from  Melita  to  Puteoli.  As  the  second 
vessel  contained  276  persons,  besides  a  cargo  (probably  of  wheat), 
its  size  was  evidently  considerable  j  and  the  third,  which  conveyed 
the  crew  of  the  second  besides  its  own  crew  and  cargo,  was  pro- 
bably larger  still.  The  record  of  these  voyages  is  found  in  Acts 
xxvii.  and  xxviii.,  and  a  few  particulars  may  be  here  subjoined  as 
to  various  nautical  terms  there  employed.  In  xxvii,  40,  the 
*  rudder-bands  '  are  referred  to.  Now  the  ancient  ships  were  not 
steered  by  hinged  rudders,  but  by  two  oars,  projecting  one  on  each 
side  of  the  stern.  When,  therefore,  anchors  were  thrown  out 
at  the  stern,  these  rudders  had  to  be  lashed  tight,  and  when 
the  anchors  were  drawn  up  they  were  again  disengaged.  At 
the  head  of  the  vessel  were  frequently  painted  two  eyes,  and  hence 
the  word  av-ocpQaXntiv  (lit.  =  to  set  the  eyes  towards),  rendered 
in  A.  V.  by  ^  bear  up  into '  (xxvii.  15)  the  wind.  '  Helps  '  or 
undergirders  were  ropes  passed  round  the  hull  and  made  fast  on 
deck,  to  assist  in  holding  the  timbers  of  the  ship  together.  Again, 
we  read  that  ^  in  many  days  neither  sun  nor  stars  appeared '  (xxvii. 
20)  :  the  importance  of  this  arises  from  the  steering  having  been 
conducted  almost  wholly  b}^  celestial  observations.  Ancient  anchors 
were  much  the  same  as  modern  ones,  but  without  flukes,  and  it 
was  the  custom  to  cast  anchors  from  the  stern  as  well  as  from  the 
prow  (xxvii.  29).  The  word  uprtfiojv  (A.  V.  mainsail),  in  xxvii. 
40,  should  probably  be  '  foresail.'  The  usual  rig  of  Roman  ships 
was  a  square  and  very  large  mainsail,  and  a  foresail.  If  necessary, 
more  masts  than  one  were  employed,  but  the  same  square  sail  was 
set  on  each. 

Sboes.     See  Latchet. 

Sign  of  a  ship.     See  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Snow,  x""^'?  ^"■^-  In  the  coast  plains  of  Palestine  snow  is  un- 
known, and  it  is  also  rare  in  central  and  southern  Palestine.   But  on 

k2 


244       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

the  mountains  of  Hermon  and  Lebanon  (  =  the  white  mountain) 
it  is  constantly  present.  In  the  New  Testament,  snow  is  only- 
referred  to  as  imaging  the  splendour  of  our  Redeemer's  garments 
(Matt,  xxviii.  3 ;  Mark  ix.  3),  and  hair  (Rev.  i.  14). 

Son  of  God,  (">  viug  rov  Otoii  (explicitly  in  Matt.  xvi.  16 ;  xxvi. 
63;  Markiii.  II;  Luke  iv.  9,  41;  xxii.  70;  John  i.  34,  49;  v. 
25;  vi.  69;  ix.  35;  xi.  4,  27 ;  xx.  31:  Acts  viii.  37;  ix.  20; 
2  Cor.  i.  19 ;  Gal.  ii.  20 ;  Eph.  iv.  13 ;  Heb.  iv.  14 ;  vi  6 ; 
vii.  3 ;  X.  29 ;  1  John  iii.  8 ;  iv.  15 ;  v.  5,  10,  12,  13,  20 ;  Rev. 
ii.  18 ;  and  implicitly  in  many  other  passages,  as  Mark  i.  11 ; 
1  John  ii.  22),  Filius  Dei.  The  shorter  form  vwi;  Qtov  =  a  son  of 
God  also  very  frequently  occurs,  but  this  is  also  applied  even  to 
human  beings,  as  Romans  viii.  14 ;  ix.  26.  The  longer  form  is 
never  applied  in  the  New  Testament,  except  to  our  Lord  himself. 
In  Matt.  xvi.  16,  and  John  vi.  69,  Peter  so  applies  it ;  in  Matt. 
xxvi.  63,  the  high-priest ;  in  Mark  iii.  11,  unclean  spirits ;  in  Luke 
iv.  9,  the  tempter;  in  Luke  iv.  41,  daemons ;  in  Luke  xxii.  70,  the 
council ;  in  John  i.  34,  John  the  Baptist ;  in  John  i.  49,  Nathanael ; 
in  John  v.  25  ;  ix.  35;  xi.  4,  our  Lord  himself;  in  John  xi.  27, 
Martha ;  in  John  xx.  31,  the  evangelist  John.  Attention  should 
be  particularly  addressed  to  John  ix.  35-37,  which  is  the  most 
definite  passage  in  which  our  Lord  himself  explicitly  declares  his 
eternal  Sonship  of  God.  In  the  Old  Testament,  the  expression 
'  Son  of  God '  appears  to  be  applied  in  three  ways :  (1)  God  enters 
into  the  relationship  of  Father  to  all  Israel  (Deut.  xxxii.  6  ;  Isaiah 
Ixiii.  16 ;  Hosea  xi.  1),  and  hence  entitles  Israel  '  my  son,'  '  my 
firstborn '  (Exod.  iv.  22,  23).  Hence  those  who  are  truly 
Israelites  in  spirit  as  well  as  in  name  are  specially  termed  sons 
(Ps.  Ixxiii.  15;  Prov.  xiv.  26).  (2)  Judges  are  termed  '  sons  :' 
*  I  have  said,  ye  are  gods  (Elohim) ;  and  all  of  you  are  children  of 
the  most  High.'  (3)  Supernatural  Beings,  except  perhaps  in 
Gen.  vi.  2  ('  The  sons  of  God  came  in  unto  the  daughters  of  men  '), 
have  this  title  (Job  i.  6 ;  ii.  1 ;  xxxviii.  7).  The  expression 
<  My  Son,'  '  The  Son,'  is  thus  used  prophetically  of  the  Messiah 
(Ps.  ii.  7,  12  ;  Lxxxix.  27),  and  Nebuchadnezzar  seems  to  have 
used  the  phrase  to  signify  a  Divine  manifestation  (Dan.  iii.  25). 
On  this  head  see  Liddon's  '  Bampton  Lectures,'  Lect.  1. 

In  what  way  our  Lord  was  '  the  Son  of  God '  is  exhaustively 
discussed  by  Bishop  Pearson  oji  the  Creed.  He  gives  the  follow- 
ing reasons  :  1.  That  he  was  by  the  Spirit  of  God  born  of  the 
Virgin  Mary ;  2.  that  he  was  designed  to  so  high  an  office  by  the 
special  and  immediate  will  of  God ;  so  that  by  \irtue  hereof  he  must 


SON  OF  aOD— SON   OF  MAN.  245 

be  acknowledged  the  Son  of  God  ;  3.  because  he  was  raised  imme- 
diately (i.e.  without  the  employment  of  an  intervening  agency) 
by  God  from  the  deadj  4.  that  he  is  made  actually  heir  of  all 
things  in  his  Father's  house ;  5.  that  he,  and  he  alone,  had  an 
essentially  Divine  being,  antecedently  to  his  conception  in  the 
Virgin's  womb,  and  that  the  essence  of  this  Divine  being  was 
communicated  to  him,  after  the  manner  of  a  proper  generation. 

Bishop  Wordsworth  abundantly  shows,  in  Smith's  Mble 
Dictionary,  that  the  real  reason  of  the  unanimous  condemnation 
which  our  Lord  received  from  the  Sanhedrim  was  not  merely  that 
he  assumed  to  be  the  Christ,  but  that  he  claimed  to  be  both  the 
Christ  mid  the  Son  of  God.  Thus  we  find  that  the  Jews  sought 
to  kill  him  '  because  he  not  only  had  broken  the  Sabbath,  but  said 
also  that  God  was  his  {'iciov  =  his  own)  Father,  making  himself 
equal  with  God '  (John  v.  18) ;  that  they  took  up  stones  to  cast 
at  him,  when  he  said  '  Before  Abraham  was,  I  am '  (John  viii.  58, 
59),  and  when  he  said  '  I  and  my  Father  are  one  (gr)  '  (John  x.  30, 
31,  cf.  ver.  33)  ;  and  that  the  belief  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of 
God  is  made  a  criterion  of  saving  faith  (Acts  viii.  37  (?)  ;  ix,  20; 
Rom.  X.  9).  When,  however,  Bishop  Wordsworth  declares  that 
the  Jews  did  not  expect  the  Christ  to  be  '  Son  of  God,'  he  is  in 
opposition  to  Bishop  Pearson,  who  has  a  long  and  learned  note  on 
this  point. 

The  epithet  tiovoyfv)]c  (A.  V.  'only  begotten  ')  is  attached  to  v\6q 
in  John  i.  14,  18  :  iii.  16,  18  ;  1  John  iv.  9,  The  same  word  is 
applied  to  (1)  the  widow's  son  at  Nain  (Luke  vii.  12),  (2)  the 
daughter  of  Jairus  (Luke  viii.  42),  (3)  the  lunatic  child,  healed 
by  Jesus  (Luke  ix.  38),  and  in  these  passages  is  rendered  '■  only.' 

Son  of  Man,  6  vwq  tov  dvBpioTrov,  or  vIoq  av9poj~ov,jilins  hominis. 
A  title  of  our  Lord,  of  frequent  use  in  the  New  Testament,  but 
chiefly  in  the  Gospels.  The  only  passages  where  it  occurs  elsewhere 
are  Acts  vii.  56  (Stephen  .  .  .  '  looked  up  steadfastly  into  heaven, 
and  saw  the  glory  of  God,  and  Jesus  standing  at  the  right  hand  of 
God,  and  said.  Behold,  I  see  the  heavens  opened  and  the  Son  of  Man 
standing  on  the  right  hand  of  God  ^ ;  Rev.  i.  13  ('  In  the  midst  of 
the  seven  candlesticks  one  like  unto  the  Son  of  Man  ')  ;  and  Rev. 
xiv.  14  ('  Upon  the  cloud  one  sat  like  unto  the  Son  of  Man '). 
In  the  Gospels,  the  expression  is  only  used  by  our  Lord  himself, 
and  there  indicates  his  suffering  character  (Matt.  viii.  20  ;  xii.  32, 
40 ;  xvii.  9, 12,  22 ;  xxvi.  2,  24 ;  Mark  ix.  9, 12  ;  x.  33  ;  xiv.  21,  41 ; 
Luke  ix.  22, 44,  58  ;  xi.  30  ;  xxii.  22, 48 ;  xxiv.  7  ;  John  viii.  28)  ; 
his  fellowship  with  mankind  (Matt.  xi.  19  -,  xx.  28 ;  Mark  ii.  10, 28  j 


246       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Luke  vii.  34  ;  John  xii.  32,  34 ;  xiii.  31) ;  his  federal  headship  and 
fitness  as  the  final  judge  of  mankind  (Matt.  xii.  8 ;  xiii.  41 ;  xvi.  13, 
27,  28  ;  xix.  28  ;  xxiv.  30,  37, 39,  44 ;  xxv.  13,  31 ;  xxvi.  64 ;  Mark 
viii.  38  ;  xiii.  26  ;  Luke  vi.  5,  22  ;  ix.  26  ;  xii.  8,  40;  xvii.  22,  24, 
26,  30;  xxi.  27,  36;  xxii.  69;  John  i.  51 ;  v.  27;  vi.  53,  62;  xii. 
23)  ;  and  his  love  for  mankind  (Matt.  xiii.  37 ;  xviii.  11 ;  Mark  x. 
45  ;  Luke  v.  24 ;  ix.  56 ;  xii.  10  ;  xix.  10 ;  John  iii.  13-16 ;  vi.  27). 
It  is  further  evident  from  Luke  xxii.  69,  70,  that  the  Jews 
understood  the  phrase  as  a  claim  to  the  Messiahship.  This  arose 
from  the  application  of  the  term  in  Daniel  vii.  13. 

The  efifect  of  the  assumption  of  this  title  by  Jesus,  taken  in 
conjunction  with  his  assumption  of  the  correlative  title  '  Son  of 
God/  is  necessarily  to  establish  the  perfection  of  his  htiman  nature, 
alongside  of  the  perfection  of  his  divine  nature.  As  the  Son  of 
Man,  he  was  born  of  a  woman,  and  made  under  the  law  (Gal.  iv. 
4),  he  was  Lord  of  the  Sabbath-day  (Matt.  xii.  8),  sufiered  for 
our  sins  (Matt.  xvii.  12  ;  Mark  viii.  31)  ;  has  power  on  earth  to 
forgive  sins  (Matt.  ix.  6)  ;  was  betrayed,  rejected,  suffered  and 
died,  rose  again,  is  now  in  heaven,  and  will  come  again  as  judge 
(see  previous  references),  for  God  '  will  judge  all  men  by  that 
man  whom  he  hath  ordained.'  '  As  it  had  been  addressed  to  the 
prophet  Ezekiel '  (eighty-nine  times), '  the  title  Son  of  Man  seemed 
to  contrast  the  frail  and  short-lived  life  of  men  with  the  bound- 
less strength  and  the  eternal  years  of  the  Infinite  God.  And 
as  applied  to  Himself  by  Jesus,  it  doubtless  expresses  a  real 
humanity,  a  perfect  and  penetrating  community  of  nature  and 
feeling  with  the  lot  of  humankind.'  Liddon's  '  Bampton  Lec- 
tures,' Lect.  1. 

Soothsaying:.     See  Magic. 

Sop,  \pioniov,  panis,  huxella.  At  the  passover  supper,  it  was  the 
custom  to  dip  the  unleavened  bread  in  a  sauce  made  of  bitter 
herbs.  The  giving  of  such  a  '  sop  '  to  Judas  pointed  out  to 
the  apostle  John,  leaning  on  Jesus '  bosom  at  the  last  supper,  who 
should  be  the  betrayer  (John  xiii.  26,  27,  30). 

Sorcerer,  Sorcery.     See  Magic. 

Sow.     See  Swine. 

Sparrow,  arpovOiov,  passer,  mentioned  twice,  as  being,  despite 
its  insignificance,  the  object  of  Divine  care.  In  Matt.  x.  29,  we 
have,  '  Are  not  two  sparrows  sold  for  a  farthing  ?  and  one  of  them 
shall  not  fall  on  the  ground  without  your  Father.'  In  Luke  xii. 
6,  we  read,  '  Are  not  five  sparrows  sold  for  two  farthings,  and  not 
one  of  them  is  forgotten  before  God  ?  '    We  may  infer  from  these 


SOOTHSAYING— LORD'S  SUPPEE.       24^ 

passages  that,  as  at  the  present  day,  small  birds  anciently  formed  an 
article  of  food  in  Palestine.  In  Eastern  shops  at  present  long 
strings  of  sparrows  and  other  small  birds  are  sold,  both  uncooked 
and  cooked,  and  the  catching  of  such  birds  forms  a  common  oc- 
cupation. 

Spikenard,  vdpSoc,  only  occurring  in  conjunction  with  the 
adjective  iriariKr,,  which  conjunction  Vulg.  translates,  in  Mark  xiv. 
3,  Nardus  sjncatus,  and  in  John  xii.  3,  Nardus  pisticus,  whereas 
A.  V.  translates  in  both  cases  '  spikenard.'  The  difficulty  lies  in 
determining  the  meaning  of  TriaTiKt],  which  some  consider  to  be 
equivalent  to  'genuine,'  but  others  to  mean  'liquid,'  such  a  liquid 
ointment  being  known  to  have  been  used  by  the  Romans.  It  is 
only  referred  to  in  John  xii.  3,  and  Mark  xiv.  3,  where  we  read 
that  as  Jesus  sat  at  meat  in  the  house  of  Simon  the  leper,  at 
Bethany,  Mary,  the  sister  of  Lazarus,  took  an  alabaster  vessel, 
containing  a  pound  (Xirpav)  of  this  ointment,  and  having  broken 
the  vessel  anointed  first  the  head  and  then  the  feet  of  Jesus,  and 
then  wiped  his  feet  with  her  hair.  The  cost  of  this  ointment 
seems  to  have  called  forth  the  anger  of  Judas  and  ^others,  who 
valued  it  at  300  pence,  or  about  121.  10s. 

This  precious  perfume  is  not  a  product  of  Palestine,  but  is  im- 
ported from  India,  where  it  is  manufactured  from  the  root  of  the 
Nardostachys  Jatamansi,  which  grows  in  the  Himalaya  mountains, 
in  Nepaul  and  Bhootan. 

Spunge,  ffTToyyocy  spongia.  Sponges  consist  of  a  congeries  of 
horny  filaments,  by  which  a  gelatinous  substance,  which  is  the 
really  living  part  of  the  sponge,  is  supported.  They  are  found  in 
great  abundance  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  adhering  to 
submarine  rocks,  and  Smyrna  is  at  present  the  great  mart  for  them. 
Their  use  was  as  common  amongst  the  Romans  as  amongst  ourselves, 
and  at  the  crucifixion  a  sponge  dipped  in  vinegar  (i.e.  sour  wine)  was 
offered  to  our  Lord  on  the  end  of  a  reed,  just  before  his  death  (Matt, 
xxvii.  48 ;  Mark  xv.  36  ;  John  xix.  29). 

Steward.     See  Chmnherlain. 

Stoics.     See  Philosophers. 

Strong^  Drink,  aiicepa,  sicera.  Only  once  used,  in  Luke  i.  15, 
where  the  angel  Gabriel  predicts  of  John  the  Baptist  that  '  he  shall 
drink  neither  wine  nor  strong  drink.'  This,  in  fact,  answered  to  the 
Nazarite  vow  (Num.  vi.  2,  3),  and  the  word  siceyrt  answers  to  the 
Hebrew  '^'2V^,  a  generic  term  for  any  sweet  drink,  fermented  or 
unfermented,  such  as  palm-wine,  an  infusion  of  dates,  and  the  like. 

Supper  of  tlie  Iiord.     See  Lord's  Slipper. 


248       ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAIVIENT  STUDY. 

Swaddlingr-clothes.  In  Luke  ii.  7,  we  read  that  tlie  Virgin 
Mary 'wrappedin  swaddling-clothes  (imrapyavwan'^pminisinvolvit)  ' 
the  infant  Jesus,  and  in  Luke  ii.  12  he  is  described  as  ^wrapped 
in  swaddling-clothes  (kcrirapyavMiJisvov).^  Swaddling-clothes  consist 
of  a  tight  bandage,  enveloping  the  whole  of  an  infant's  body,  and 
leaving  only  the  head  exposed.  Such  bandages  are  still  commonly 
used  for  infants  in  various  continental  countries,  as  well  as  in  the 
East. 

Swine.  This  animal  was  held  in  utter  abomination  by  the 
Jews,  and  is  only  mentioned  in  a  few  places  in  the  New  Testament. 
1.  In  proverbial  phrases ;  one  used  by  our  Lord,  '  Neither  cast  ye 
your  pearls  before  swine  (xoTpot)  '  (Matt.  vii.  6) ;  the  other, 
applied  in  2  Peter  ii.  22,  to  backsliders.  '  The  true  proverb,  The 
dog  is  turned  to  his  own  vomit  again ;  and  the  sow  (vq)  that  was 
washed  to  her  wallowing  in  the  mire.'  2.  In  the  incident  of  the 
healing  of  the  man  with  the  legion.  In  this  case  there  was  a 
large  herd  of  swine  on  the  mountains  east  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee, 
and  the  evil  spirits,  having  been  cast  out  of  a  man,  were  permitted 
to  enter  into  them  (Matt.  viii.  28-34 ;  Mark  v.  1-20 ;  Luke  viii. 
26-39).  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  keeping  of  these  swine  was 
not  unlawful,  as  the  persons  who  kept  them  might  not  have  been 
Jews.  3.  In  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  where  the  depth  of  the 
younger  son's  degradation  is  indicated  by  his  being  sent  into  the 
fields  to  feed  ,nvme,  and  desiring  to  fill  his  belly  with  the  husks 
(probably  the  locust-bean)  which  the  swine  did  eat  (Luke  xv.  16). 

Sycamine,  nvKdnivog,  morus.  Only  mentioned  in  Luke  xvii.  6, 
in  the  phrase  '  If  ye  had  faith  as  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  ye  might 
say  unto  this  sycamine  tree.  Be  thou  plucked  up  by  the  root,  and 
be  thou  planted  in  the  sea ;  and  it  should  obey  you.'  We  know 
it  as  the  black  mulberry  tree.  It  is  very  common  in  Palestine, 
especially- in  the  Lebanon,  where  it  is  grown  in  connection  with 
silk-worm  rearing. 

Sycomore,  avizofiopka^  sycomorris.  A  common  tree  in  the  hot 
maritime  plains  and  Jordan  valley  of  Palestine.  Into  this  tree, 
which  is  easy  to  climb,  by  reason  of  a  short  trunk  and  low  spread- 
ing branches,  Zacchaeus  the  publican  climbed  at  Jericho,  in  order 
to  get  a  sight  of  our  Lord  as  he  passed  by  (Luke  xix.  4).  The 
tree  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  English  plane-tree,  some- 
times called  by  the  same  name.  It  is  an  evergreen,  of  the  fig- 
species,  and  produces  a  coarse  sweetish  fruit  something  like  the 
fig,  but  not  so  valuable.  Gathering  the  sycomore  fruit  was  in 
consequence  but  a  poor  trade,  and  that  the  prophet  Amos  followed 


SWADDLING-CLOTHES— TARES.  249 

thig  trade  is  probably  adduced  in  order  to  call  attention  to  his 
bumble  social  position  (Amos  vii.  14). 

Tabernacle,  (jkt]vji,  (rKf/voc,  tabernnculum.  1.  Equivalent  to  ^tent' 
(a  word  which  does  not  occur  in  A.  V.  of  the  New  Testament),  but 
translated  in  the  New  Testament  by  '  tabernacle  '  with  this  signi- 
fication, except  in  Luke  xvi.  9  Q  Make  to  yourselves  friends  of  the 
mammon  of  unrighteousness,  that  when  ye  fail,  they  may  receive 
you  into  everlasting  habitations  (nlioviovg  (XKrjvdc).^  Thus,  Peter 
said  on  the  occasion  of  the  Transfiguration  '  Let  us  make  three 
tabernacles,  one  for  thee,  and  one  for  Moses,  and  one  for  Elias ' 
(Matt.  xvii.  4 ;  Mark  ix.  5  ;  Luke  ix.  33)  ;  Abraham  is  said  to 
have  dwelt  in  tabernacles  (Heb.  xi.  9).  2.  By  metaphorical  usage, 
a  cognate  word  (aKiivM^xn)  is  also  used  to  signify  the  human  body, 
*  As  long  as  I  am  in  this  tabernacle'  (2  Peter  i.  13,  14).  In  all 
other  places  the  word  designates  the  tabernacle  constructed  by 
Moses  in  the  wilderness,  and  for  this  see  under  Temple. 

Tabernacles,  Feast  of.     See  Feast. 

Table,  rpa-n-tZ^a,  mensa.  Besides  the  ordinary  application  to  the 
common  article  of  furniture  (which,  however,  in  Eastern  countries 
is  raised  only  a  few  inches  from  the  ground),  this  word  has  several 
topical  significations.  (1)  The  tables  of  the  money-changers  over- 
thrown by  our  Lord  in  the  temple  (Matt,  xxi,  12  ;  Mark  xi.  15  ; 
John  ii.  15).  (2)  The  phrase  '  to  serve  tables  {haKovCiv  rparrtiiiaig)  ' 
(Acts  vi.  2)  is  used  by  the  apostles  to  describe  the  duty  of  distribu- 
ting alms,  which  they  were  unwilling  to  undertake,  and  for  which 
they  ordained  seven  men.  It  probably  indicates  that  the  widows 
were  maintained  at  a  public  table.  (3)  'To  partake  of  the  table 
of  the  Lord  and  of  the  table  of  devils  '  are  pronounced  in  1  Cor.  x. 
21  to  be  incompatible  ;  and  as  the  '  cup  of  the  Lord '  is  mentioned 
in  the  context,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  phrase  nearly  =  to 
partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  (4)  The  table  of  shewbread  is  men- 
tioned in  Heb.  ix.  2.     See  Sheivbread. 

Where  it  is  said,  in  Luke  i.  63,  that  Zach arias,  being  then  dumb, 
called  for  a  *  writing-table  '  and  thereon  wrote  the  name  '  John,' 
which  he  wished  to  be  given  to  his  son,  the  term  used  is  TcivaKi^iov 
=  a  small  tablet,  probably  covered  with  wax,  upon  which  writing 
could  be  effected  with  a  pointed  stylus. 

Tares,  Ki^dvia,  zizania.  A  kind  of  rye-grass,  known  as  the 
Bearded  Darnel,  and  abundant  in  Palestine.  Its  seeds  are  poison- 
ous both  to  men  and  animals.  Until  the  time  for  the  formation  of 
the  ear,  the  plant  is  exactly  like,  wheat;  but  when  the  ear  has 
appeared  the  difference  is  perceptible,  and  the  fields  are  obliged  to 


250       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

be  carefully  weeded,  in  order  to  free  the  wheat  crop  from  danger. 
The  word  only  occurs  in  the  parable  of  the  Tares  and  the  Wheat 
(Matt.  xiii.  24-30). 

Taxing-,  (XTToypap),  descriptio,  professio.  The  census  made  when 
Cyrenius  was  first  governor  of  Syria.  At  this  census  our  Lord's 
parents  went  up  to  Bethlehem  to  be  '  taxed '  {diroypacptaBai,  lit. 
''to  he  enrolled)  (Luke  ii.  2).  The  same  taxing  is  again  alluded 
to  by  Gamaliel,  in  that  speech  before  the  Sanhedrim,  in  which  he 
coimsels  leaving  the  apostles  to  themselves.  '  After  this  man ' 
(i.e.  Theudas,  spoken  of  in  previous  verse),  'rose  up  Judas  of 
Galilee,  in  the  days  of  the  taxing '  (Acts  v.  37).  An  account  of 
the  taxing  in  which  Judas  is  mentioned  is  given  in  Josephus, 
iVnt.  18.  6.  1.     See  also  Judas  in  Section  5. 

Temple.  The  equivalent  in  A.  V.  of  two  words — 1.  Upov,  temp- 
lum  =  a  sacred  enclosure  of  any  kind.  Thus  in  Acts  xix.  27,  the 
Temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus  receives  this  designation.  But 
the  word  is  generally  used  to  designate  the  whole  of  the  sacred 
structure  at  .Jerusalem,  including  its  courts  and  precincts.  In  this 
sense  it  occurs  sixty-eight  times  in  the  New  Testament,  but  ex- 
clusively in  the  Gospels  and  Acts.  2.  va6(;,  templum  =  the  building 
in  the  midat  of  the  hpovf  comprising  only  the  Holy  and  Most 
Holy  places.  Thus  it  occurs  as  that  by  which  oaths  were  sworn 
(Matt,  xxiii.  16,  17,  21)  j  as  the  place  between  which  and  the 
altar  Zacharias  was  slain  (Matt,  xxiii.  35)  ;  as  that  to  which  our 
Lord  likened  his  own  body  (Matt.  xxvi.  61  ;  Mark  xiv.  58 ;  John 
ii.  19,  20,  21)  J  as  separated  into  two  chambers  by  a  veil  (Kara-i- 
raGfiu)  rent  at  the  crucifixion  (Matt,  xxvii.  51 ;  Mark  xv.  38 ; 
Luke  xxiii.  45  j  cf.  Heb.  x.  20);  as  the  place  where  Zacharias 
ofiered  incense  and  saw  the  angel  (Luke  i.  9,  21,  22)  ;  as  the 
'  temples  made  with  hands  '  in  which  God  would  not  dwell  (Acts 
vii.  48 ;  xvii.  24)  ;  as,  notwithstanding,  the  earthly  dwelling-place 
of  the  Almighty,  that  should  only  be  inhabited  by  him,  and  to  sit 
(icaOicrai)  in  which  is  therefore  a  special  blasphemy  of  Antichrist 
(2  Thess.  ii.  4)  ;  as  the  Church  of  God,  both  individually  and 
collectively  (1  Cor.  iii.  16,  17 ;  vi.  19;  2  Cor.  vi.  16;  Eph.  ii.  21 ; 
Eev.  iii.  12) ;  as  the  mystical  temple  of  the  Apocalypse  (Rev.  vii. 
15 ;  xi.  1,  2,  19  ;  xiv.  15,  17  ;  xv.  5,  6,  8  ;  xvi.  1,  17).  Several 
other  interesting  passages  may  be  noted.  Thus  in  Rev.  xxi.  22, 
we  read  of  heaven,  that  there  is  no  '  temple  (vaSg) '  therein ;  but 
this  does  not  signify  that  there  is  no  Up6v,  It  indicates  that 
instead  of  the  Shekinah  manifested  in  the  midst  of  an  earthly 
iipov,  God  himself  is  personally  present,  as  the  vaog  of  the  sur- 


TAXING— TEIMPLE.  251 

rounding  sacred  precincts.  Again,  we  read  of  Demetrius  and  his 
fellow-craftsmen  at  Ephesus,  that  they  made  '  silver  slirines  (laowc)' 
for  Artemis ;  and,  observing  that  vaoQ  is  the  Holy  Place  of  a 
temple,  we  see  that  what  was  constructed  was  probably  a  small 
model  of  that  part  of  the  great  temple.  In  Matt,  xxvii.  5,  where 
Judas  is  said  to  have  cast  down  the  pieces  of  silver  in  the  '  temple 
{vaog)/  the  word  appears  to  have  obtained  a  general  signification, 
as  only  the  priests  could  enter  into  the  Holy  Place,  properly 
designated  by  this  term. 

The  temple,  thus  consisting  of  the  \ep6v  and  vaSg  proper,  which 
was  standing  in  our  Lord's  time,  is  now  entirely  destroyed.  Its 
destruction  was  commenced  by  burning  during  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Titus  (a.d.  70),  and  all  traces  of  the  vaoe  have  been 
now  so  completely  removed,  that  much  controversy  still  exists 
even  as  to  its  position  within  the  sacred  enclosure.  The  enclosure 
of  the  lepov  still  remains  sacred,  and  surrounded  by  probably  the 
original  walls,  in  the  form  of  a  space  (called  the  Haram-es-Sherif, 
or  'Noble  Sanctuary')  measuring  about  1,350  feet  by  870 feet,  and 
on  the  south-east  corner  of  modern  Jerusalem.  In  this  space  a 
mosque,  called  the  Dome  of  the  Rock,  is  now  built  near  the  centre, 
and  the  remaining  portion  of  the  space  is  empty.  The  temple  of 
our  Lord's  times  is  generally  supposed  to  have  occupied  the  southern 
portion  of  this  space,  while  the  Tower  of  Antonia  stood  at  the 
north-east  comer,  and  the  temple  and  tower  were  connected  by 
cloisters  on  the  western  side.  This  temple  was  built  by  Herod 
the  Great,  being  commenced  B.C.  20.  The  va6g  itself  was  com- 
pleted in  a  year  and  a  half,  but  the  surrounding  buildings  occupied 
eight  years  more,  and  so  many  additions  were  constantly  made 
that  the  work  was  not  finally  completed  until  a.d.  50.  The 
structure  was  rather  a  restoration  of  the  temple  of  Zerubbabel 
than  a  new  building,  and  Herod  promised  the  Jews  that  no  portion 
of  Zerubbabel's  temple  should  be  pulled  down  until  everything 
was  in  readiness  for  its  immediate  rebuilding.  The  general  plan 
of  Herod's  temple  involved  a  succession  of  rectangular  enclosures, 
one  within  the  other.  Around  the  outer  enclosing  wall  ran 
cloisters  or  '  porches  '  of  a  very  magnificent  description,  that  on 
the  south  known  as  the  Royal  Torch,  and  that  on  the  east  as 
Solomon^s  Torch  (John  x.  23 ;  Acts  iii.  11 ;  v.  12).  These  cloisters 
enclosed  an  open  space,  known  as  the  Court  of  the  Gentiles, 
beyond  which  no  Gentile  was  permitted  to  go.  Within  the  Court 
of  the  Gentiles,  but  on  a  raised  platform,  was  another  quadrangular 
enclosure,  divided  into  two  unequal  portions,  the  larger  to  the 


252       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

west  and  the  smaller  to  the  east.  The  smaller  eastern  division 
was  called  the  Court  of  the  Women,  and  the  entrance  into  it  was 
probably  the  Beautiful  Gate,  at  which  they  laid  the  cripple  healed 
by  Peter  and  John  (Acts  iii.).  The  western  or  larger  division  of 
this  platform  was  again  subdivided  into  an  inner  and  outer  court. 
The  outer  court  ran  round  the  northern,  eastern,  and  southern 
sides,  and  was  called  the  Coiirt  of  Israel.  The  inner  court  was 
called  the  CoitJi,  of  the  Priests,  and  at  its  western  end  stood  the 
vnoQ  itself.  The  vaog  consisted  of  a  lofty  porch,  100  cubits  high, 
facing  to  the  east,  and  two  chambers  divided  by  a  costly  em- 
broidered veil  into  the  Holy  and  the  Most  Holy  Places.  In  the  Holy 
Place  were  the  altar  of  incense,  the  candlestick,  and  the  shewbread 
table  ;  in  the  Most  Holy  there  was  probably  nothing.  In  front  of 
the  vaoQ  was  the  great  altar. 

This  temple,  as  has  been  stated,  was  founded  upon  the  temple 
of  Zerubbabel  (consecrated  B.C.  457 ;  see  Ezra  vi.  15),  and  the 
construction  and  dimensions  of  which,  except  in  the  loftiness  of 
the  porch  of  the  vaog,  and  in  the  absence  of  surrounding  buildings, 
were  in  all  likelihood  much  the  same.  Zerubbabel's  temple  had 
been  rendered  necessary  by  the  complete  destruction  of  a  previous 
temple  on  the  same  site,  prepared  for  by  David,  but  built  by 
Solomon  in  B.C.  996,  and  totally  destroyed  by  the  Chaldeans  in 
B.C.  484.  Previously  to  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  the  worship  of 
Jehovah  had  been  conducted  in  a  Tabernacle,  originally  constructed 
by  Moses,  after  '  a  pattern  shown  him  in  the  mount '  (Heb.  viii.  5). 
This  tabernacle  is  much  referred  to  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(especially  Heb.  ix.),  where  the  worship  carried  on  in  it  is  partly 
described.  Its  shape  and  arrangements  were  the  models  upon 
which  the  succeeding  temples  were  constructed.  It  appears  to 
have  consisted  of  two  main  parts — (1)  A  tabernacle,  formed  on 
three  sides  of  wooden  boards,  but  having  the  fourth  side  open, 
and  the  top  covered  with  a  fine  linen  covering.  This  tabernacle, 
like  the  temple,  was  divided  by  a  curtain  into  a  Holy  Place  and  a 
Most  Holy  Place,  in  the  latter  of  which  were  the  ark  and  the 
mercy-seat.  (2)  A  tent,  within  which  the  tabernacle  was  placed. 
Around  the  tent,  thus  containing  the  tabernacle,  was  an  enclosure 
made  by  linen  curtains  hung  on  brazen  posts. 

Theatre,  Qsarpov,  theatrmn,  spectaculum.  The  theatre  of  a 
Greek  town  was  not  only  devoted  to  dramatic  entertainments,  but 
was  used  as  a  place  of  public  concourse.  Most  of  the  theatres 
were  open  to  the  air,  although  capable  of  being  sheltered  from  the 
sun  by  an  awning.     A  permanent  architectural  scene  was  built 


THEATKE— TITHE.  253 

upon  the  stage,  and  the  curtain  which  divided  the  stage  from  the 
audience  drew  up  from  the  bottom  instead  of  being  let  down  from 
the  top.  The  only  theatre  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  is 
that  of  Ephesus.  Here  public  gymnastic  and  musical  perform- 
ances took  place  during  the  month  of  May  in  honour  of  the 
goddess  Diana.  The  expenses  of  these  performances,  to  which 
the  entrance  was  gratuitous,  were  defrayed  by  ten  men,  selected 
from  the  principal  cities  of  the  province  of  Asia,  and  called 
Asiarchs  ('  Aauipxat,  A.  V.  '  Chief  of  Asia  : '  Acts  xix.  31).  These 
Asiarchs,  in  recompense  for  their  expenditure,  were  regarded  as 
holding  a  highly  honourable  office,  and  held  during  its  tenure  a 
sort  of  sacerdotal  position,  being  clothed  in  purple,  wearing  gar- 
lands, and  being  invested  with  authority  over  the  games.  From 
Acts  xix.  31,  it  appears  that  certain  of  these  Asiarchs  were  friendly 
to  St.  Paul,  and,  as  they  must  have  been  men  of  high  position,  this 
fact  throws  some  additional  light  on  the  progress  which  the 
Gospel  was  then  making.  In  1  Cor.  iv.  9,  the  word  (Jka-pov  is 
rendered  '  spectacle,'  '  We  are  made  a  spectacle  unto  men  and 
angels.' 

Thistle.     See  Thorn,  Section  2. 

Thorn.  1.  &Kav9a,  sjnna.  Probably  the  zizyphus,  or  jujube  tree, 
very  common  in  Palestine,  and  found  both  as  a  dwarf  shrub  and 
as  a  tree.  It  is  referred  to  in  the  proverbial  expression,  '  Do  men 
gather  grapes  of  thorns  ? '  (Matt.  vii.  16 ;  Luke  vi.  44),  and  also 
in  the  parable  of  the  Sower  (Matt.  xiii.  7,  22 ;  Mark  iv.  7,  18 ; 
Luke  viii.  7,  14).  Out  of  its  boughs  the  soldiers  are  supposed  to 
have  plaited  the  crown  of  thorns  which  they  placed  in  derision  on 
our  Saviour's  head  (Matt,  xxvii.  29 ;  Mark  xv.  17;  John  xix.  2, 5). 
It  is  also  referred  to  in  Heb.  vi.  8,  where  St.  Paul  says,  '  The  earth 
■which  bringeth  fbrth  briers  and  thorns  is  rejected,  and  nigh  unto 
cursing.'  2.  rpijSoXoc,  trihulus.  Mentioned  along  with  uKavdai, 
in  Matt.  vii.  16  {'  thistles,'  A.  V.),  and  Heb.  vi.  8  ('  briers,'  A.  V.), 
for  which  see  above.  It  is  generally  identified  with  Ventaurea 
caldtrapuy  a  species  of  thistle  very  prevalent  in  cornfields.  3. 
(idrog,  rubus.  A  bramble-bush,  and  translated  '  a  bramble '  in 
Luke  vi.  44  :  '  neither  of  a  bramble  bush  gather  they  grapes.'  In 
other  places  it  refers  to  the  bush  (probably  of  shittnh  or  acacia), 
in  which  God  appeared  to  Moses  in  Midian,  and  is  so  used  by  our 
Lord  (Mark  xii.  26 ;  Luke  xx.  37),  and  by  St.  Stephen  before  the 
Sanhedrim  (Acts  vii.  30,  35). 

Tithe,  dtKarrj  (lit.  =  fl  tenth,  and  so  rendered  in  Heb.  vii.  2,  4), 
dedma.    The  word  itself  is  only  found  in  Heb.  vii.  2,  4,  8,  9,  but 


254       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

the  verb  SsKarSu)  =  I  tithe,  decimas  siimere,  is  found  in  Heb.  vii.  6, 
9 ;  and  aTro^t Karow  in  Matt,  xxiii.  23  ('  ye  jjay  tithe  of  mint  and 
anise  and  cummin  ')  ;  Luke  xi.  42,  ('  ye  tithe  mint  and  rue  and  all 
manner  of  herbs ')  ;  Luke  xviii.  12  ('  I  give  tithes  of  all  that  I  pos- 
sess (fcrwfiai)  ' ',  and  Heb.  vii.  5,  ('  the  sons  of  Levi  .  .  .  have  a  com- 
mandment to  take  tithes  of  the  people ').  The  word  Tithe  (  = 
tenth)  explains  itself.  It  signifies  that  portion  of  goods  which  is 
given  to  God's  service.  In  Heb.  vii.  an  elaborate  argument  is 
advanced  to  explain  why  tithes  were  paid  by  Abraham  to  Melchi- 
sedek,  king  of  Salem,  the  '  priest  of  the  most  high  God/  (Gen. 
xiv.  20),  and  Jacob's  vow  must  have  been  of  similar  import,  when 
he  said  '  Of  all  that  thou  shalt  give  me,  I  will  surely  give  the 
tenth  unto  thee  '  (Gen.  xxviii.  22).  This  duty  of  devoting  a  tenth 
portion  of  property  to  the  service  of  God  was  systematised  and 
made  legal  under  the  Mosaic  system,  and  the  funds  thus  set  apart 
were  appointed  for  the  maintenance  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (Lev. 
xxvii.  30;  Num.  xviii.  21,  24;  2  Chron.  xxxi.  5,  6,  12 ;  Neh.  xiii. 
12 ;  Prov.  iii.  9 ;  Mai.  iii.  8,  10).  As  a  counterbalance  to  this, 
none  of  the  land  of  Palestine  was  apportioned  to  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  and  therefore,  both  as  a  matter  of  commandment  and  of 
simple  justice,  the  system  of  tithes  was  unassailable.  In  New 
Testament  times  the  duty  of  paying  tithes  was  pushed  by  the 
Pharisees  and  their  disciples  to  a  ridiculous  point,  and  regarded 
as  one  of  the  very  first  duties  of  the  law.  No  Pharisee  would  buy 
or  sell  that  which  had  not  been  tithed,  and  tithes  were  exacted  of 
the  minutest  article.     See  references  above,  and  under  Pharisee. 

The  duty  of  giving  to  the  support  of  Christian  ministers  is  not 
directly  based  by  the  New  Testament  upon  the  tithe  system,  but 
enough  is  nevertheless  said  to  show  that  the  same  principle  was 
considered  to  apply.  Thus  our  Lord  directed  his  seventy  dis- 
ciples not  to  take  provisions  with  them  on  their  evangelistic 
journeys,  but  to  rely  for  a  maintenance  on  the  hospitality  of  their 
hosts  from  time  to  time  ('  In  the  same  house  remain  eating  and 
drinking  such  things  as  they  give,  for  the  labourer  is  worthy  of  his 
hire,'  Luke  x.  7).  Referring  to  this,  St.  Paul  claimed  for  him- 
self and  other  ministers  a  right  to  be  maintained,  in  1  Cor.  ix., 
especially  in  ver.  14,  '  Even  so  hath  the  Lord  ordained,  that  they 
who  preach  the  gospel  should  live  of  the  gospel.'  The  same  duty 
is  referred  to  in  Gal.  vi.  6  ('  Let  him  that  is  taught  in  the  word  com- 
municate (koivojvutoj)  unto  him  that  teacheth  in  all  good  things  '). 

Tittle.     See  Jot. 

Townclerk,  6  ypafifianvg,  scriba.    The  title  of  an  official  usually 


TITTLE— TREASUEY.  255 

appointed  in  Greek  cities.  He  kept  the  archives,  was  the  public 
reader  of  decrees  in  the  assemblies,  was  present  when  money  was  de- 
posited in  the  temple,  and  corresponded  on  behalf  of  the  state.  Some- 
times he  gave  the  name  to  the  year  (see  Conybeare  and  Howson, 
chap.  16).  The  '  townclerk  '  of  Ephesus  only  is  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament.  By  his  influence  and  dexterous  advice  the  tumult 
caused  in  that  city  by  the  false  accusers  of  the  Christians  was  suc- 
cessfully appeased  (Acts  xix.  35).  Alford  confirms  this  New  Testa- 
ment account  by  giving  an  Ephesian  inscription  from  Boeckh,  in 
which  a  ypaufxaTivQ  appears,  and  Conybeare  and  Howson  quote  Mr. 
Akerman  for  coins  on  which  the  same  official  title  is  found.  The 
word  ypafXfxaTtvQ  itself  is  regularly  translated  by  A.  V.  in  other 
places  of  the  New  Testament  '  scribe.' 

Tradition.     See  Pharisee. 

Trance,  f/corao-ig,  mentis  excessus,  stupor  mentis.  A  condition 
into  which  fell  (1)  St.  Peter  upon  a  housetop  at  Joppa,  when  he 
saw  the  vision  of  the  descending  she^t  (Acts  x.  10 ;  xi.  5)  :  (2) 
St.  Paul  when  praying  in  the  temple  after  his  return  from  Damas- 
cus (Acts  xxii.  17),  and  when  caught  away  into  Paradise  (2  Cor. 
xii.  1-4).  Into  such  trances  also,  produced  by  immediate  Divine 
influence,  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  were  probably  thrown 
when  describing  that  which  they  saw  '  in  vision ; '  and  St.  John, 
when  '  in  the  spirit '  in  Patmos,  was  possibly  in  such  a  trance.  In 
a  similar  way,  Balaam  declared  himself  to  be  fallen  '  into  a  trance, 
having  his  eyes  open  ; '  and  it  is  recorded  of  Mahomet,  of  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi,  Ignatius  Loyola,  and  others,  that  they  fell  into  some 
such  ecstatic  state.  Its  exact  nature  is  exceedingly  obscure,  but 
it  may  be  described  as  a  condition  in  which  so  high  a  degree 
of  contemplative  mental  excitement  exists  that  the  patient  is 
lost  to  all  external  impressions.  Mesmeric  catalepsy  and  som- 
nambulism probably  resemble  the  trance  so  far  at  any  rate  as 
outward  manifestations,  and  a  condition  of  mental  exaltation  of 
similar  kind  is  frequently  produced  at  the  present  day  in  the  course 
of  religious  revivals.  In  these  cases  the  countenance  becomes 
pale,  the  body  rigid  and  unconscious,  and  the  person  aflfected  often 
utters  loud  cries.     No  ill  eflfects  afterwards  supervene. 

Treasury,  ya^o(pv\a.Kiov^  gazophylacium  (but  6  KopfSava,  corhana^ 
in  Matt,  xxvii.  6).  Under  this  word  are  signified  (1)  The  temple 
treasure  itself,  referred  to  in  Matt,  xxvii.  6  (see  above)  and  Mark 
vii.  11.  See  under  Corhan.  (2)  A  place  where  voluntary  gifts 
were  cast  in  for  the  temple  use.  Here  our  Lord  sat  and  watched 
the  rich  casting  in,  and  blessed  the  poor  widow  who  cast  in  two. 


256       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

mites  (Mark  xii.  41 ;  Luke  xxi.  1).  Here  also,  if  John  viii.  1-11 
he  authentic,  the  woman  taken  in  adultery  was  brought  for  our 
Saviour's  judgment,  and  here  he  delivered  his  discourse  on  Him- 
self as  the  Light  of  the  world  (John  viii.  20).  Such  a  chamber  is 
described  in  Josephus  (Ant.  19.  6.  1),  as  a  place  where  Agrippa 
hung  up  his  golden  chain,  and  is  there  said  to  have  been  '  within 
the  limits  of  the  temple,'  but  no  data  exist  for  accurately  deter- 
mining its  position.  Alford  and  Clarke  say  that  it  was  in  the 
Court  of  the  Women,  but  give  no  authority  for  the  statement. 

Tribute.  The  equivalent  in  A.  V.  of  1.  (popog,  trihutum.  This 
word  occurs  in  Eom.  xiii.  6,  7  :  '  For  this  cause  pay  ye  tribute  also  ; 
for  they  (i.e.  rulers,  ver.  3)  are  God's  ministers  .  .  .  Kender  there- 
fore to  all  their  dues,  tribute  to  whom  tribute.'  Here  the  reference 
is  to  direct  payment  to  the  Koman  authorities  for  state  purposes. 
Such  a  tribute  was  paid  both  by  Roman  citizens  and  by  conquered 
nations,  and  its  amount  was  fixed  by  the  discretion  of  the  empe- 
rors. Censuses  were  made  of  all  property  throughout  the  empire 
and  persons  were  charged  according  to  their  property.  Smith's 
Classical  Dictiojiary  (under  Vectigal)  instances  the  case  of  Cilicia, 
and  Syria,  in  which  this  tax  amounted  to  one  per  cent,  of  a  person's 
property,  to  which  a  tax  upon  houses  and  slaves  was  added.  Com- 
paring this  with  an  income-tax,  and  supposing  the  average  profit  up- 
on property  to  be  ten  per  cent.,  it  is  evident  that  this  was  equivalent 
to  an  income-tax  of  rather  less  than  two  shillings  in  the  pound. 
The  same  word  is  used  in  Luke  xxiii.  2  to  designate  the  tribute 
paid  to  Caesar,  and  called  ici'ivaog  by  Matthew  and  Mark.  2.  kiivooc, 
census.  Used  in  Matt.  xvii.  25  by  our  Lord  himself,  in  reply  to 
those  who  demanded  whether  he  paid  tribute  {r^d  SiSpaxfia), 
'  Of  whom  do  the  kings  of  the  earth  receive  custom  (rsXtj)  or 
tribute  ?  '  It  is  also  used  by  Matthew  and  Mark  in  their  descrip- 
tions of  the  incident  in  which  the  Pharisees  bring  the  question  '  Is 
it  lawful  to  give  tribute  to  Csesar  (i.e.  the  Roman  emperor)  or  no  ? ' 
(Matt.  xxii.  17;  Mark  xii.  14).  But  Luke  (as  mentioned  above) 
uses  (popoQ  (xxiii.  2).  The  designation  of  Roman  tribute  by  such 
a  name  will  be  clear  from  that  already  stated  under  (>)6poQ.  The 
amount  of  the  tribute  having  been  fixed  according  to  a  ce7isus,  the 
name  was  easily  applied  to  the  payment  itself.  3.  rd  ciSpaxfia 
only  occurs  in  Matt.  xvii.  24.  We  read  that,  '  when  they  were 
come  to  Capernaum,  they  that  received  tribute  came  to  Peter  and 
said,  Doth  not  your  master  pay  tribute?^  Referring  to  this  'tribute' 
our  Lord  in  ver.  25  says  '  Of  whom  do  the  kings  of  the  earth  receive 
custom  (jiXn)  or  tribute  (*fj>aoi)  ?  '     Finally,  the  piece  of  money 


TRIBUTE— VINE.  257 

with  which  the  tribute  is  paid  is  called  in  ver.  27  *  orarripa,  staferemJ 
Most  commentators  are  agreed  that  the  payment  here  referred  to 
is  that  of  the  half-shekel,  paid  yearly  by  all  pious  Israelites  for  the 
support  of  the  temple.  Such  a  yearly  payment  (but  of  one-third 
of  a  shekel)  was  agreed  on  in  the  times  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x. 
32),  and  Josephus  speaks  of  that '  half-shekel,  which  every  one,  by 
the  custom  of  our  country,  offers  unto  God'  (Ant.  18.  9.  I).  In 
our  Lord's  time  this  payment  had  recently  become  compulsory, 
and  not  voluntary,  and  the  essence  of  our  Lord's  remarks  in  Matt, 
xvii.  no  doubt  is  that,  on  the  one  hand,  He,  as  the  Divine  Son, 
should  be  free  from  payment  towards  his  Father's  earthly  house  ; 
yet,  on  the  other  hand,  not  to  offend  weaker  brethren  in  indifferent 
things,  he  would  pay  both  for  Peter  and  Himself  the  customary 
half-shekel  for  each,  or  a  shekel  for  the  two. 

Tribute-inoney«  vojutcr^a  tov  nrivaovj  nuinisma  census  (Matt, 
xxii.  19  only).     See  Tribute. 

Turtle-dove.     See  Dove, 

Veil.     See  Temple. 

Vine,  Vineyard,  dfnrtXoQy  d/iTrtXwv,  vitiSf  vinea.  One  of  the 
most  common  trees  of  Palestine,  the  dry  and  hot  climate  of  which 
is  peculiarly  suitable  for  its  cultivation.  The  red  varieties  are 
most  commonly  cultivated,  but  the  white  are  also  grown.  The 
vine  requires  a  light  soil,  and  is  not  averse  to  a  stony  soiL  It  is 
grown  either  as  a  runner  against  walls,  houses  and  stakes,  or  on 
horizontal  trellises  elevated  from  six  to  eight  feet  above  the  ground, 
to  which  the  main  stem  is  led,  and  over  which  the  branches  run, 
forming  an  agreeable  shade.  In  the  New  Testament,  the  vine  is 
used  in  John  xv.  as  a  figure  to  illustrate  the  connection  between 
the  Redeemer  and  his  people — '  I  am  the  vine  and  ye  are  the 
branches.  He  that  abideth  in  me,  and  I  in  him,  the  same  bringeth 
forth  much  fruit.'  In  the  same  chapter  (ver.  1)  the  Divine  Father 
is  referred  to  as  the  '  husbandman '  or  vinedresser ;  and  referring  to 
the  extensive  pruning  which  the  vine  requires  in  order  to  make  it 
fruitful,  our  Lord  says  (ver.  2),  '  Every  branch  that  beareth  fruit, 
he  purgeth  (KuOaipu  =  pruneth)  it,  that  it  may  bring  forth  more 
fruit.'  The  same  strain  of  ideas  is  to  be  noted  in  the  comparison 
of  God's  people  to  a  vineyard.  This  occurs  in  the  parables  of  (1) 
The  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard  (Matt.  xx.  1-16);  (2)  The  Vineyard 
let  out  to  Husbandmen  (Matt.  xxi.  33-41 ;  Mark  xii.  1-9  ;  Luke 
XX.  9-16) ;  (3)  The  Father  and  Two  Sons  (Matt.  xxi.  28-32) ;  (4)  The 
Fig-tree  planted  (as  fig-trees  are  often  planted  in  odd  corners)  in 
the  Vineyard  (Luke  xiii.  6-9) ;  (5)  and  in  1  Cor.  ix.  7,  where  St. 


258       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Paul,  referring  to  the  right  of  a  minister  to  be  maintained  by  the 
people,  asks,  *Who  planteth  a  vineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the 
fruit  thereof  ? ' 

In  Rev.  xiv.  18  the  world  in  general  is  also  likened  to  *  a  vine,' 
and  the  Last  Day  to  the  vine-harvest.  And  in  James  iii.  12  the 
suitability  of  holy  language  for  the  lips  of  Christian  people  is 
illustrated  by  the  fig,  the  olive,  and  the  vine,  each  bearing  its  own 
fruit,  and  not  that  of  another  tree.  ^  Can  a  vine  bear  figs  ?  '  See 
Grapes. 

Viper.     See  Serpent. 

"Wedding:.     See  Marriage  Rites. 

IVliale.  The  word  thus  translated  in  Matt.  xii.  40,  where  it  is 
said  that '  Jonas  was  three  days  and  three  nights  in  the  ivhaWs 
{tov  Kr]Tovg)  belly,'  really  means  nothing  more  than  'great  fish;' 
in  the  Old  Testament  the  phrase  is  '  the  Lord  prepared  a  great 
fish '  (Jonah  i.  17).  The  whale's  throat  is  much  too  narrow  to 
permit  it  to  swallow  a  man,  but  several  of  the  shark  tribe  are  well 
able  to  swallow  a  man  whole,  and  have  been  frequently  known  to 
do  so.  The  story  of  Jonah  in  the  fish's  belly  is  brought  forward 
by  our  Lord  as  a  type  of  his  own  entombment  in  '  the  heart  of 
the  earth '  (Matt.  xii.  40)  ;  and  Dr.  Westcott,  who  seems  to 
think  that  the  exactness  of  fulfilment  of  the  type  is  not  sufficiently 
met  by  our  Lord's  rising  on  the  third  day,  calls  attention  to  a 
certain  amount  of  obscurity  which  still  hangs  over  the  length  of 
the  entombment  (Introduction  to  Gospels,  chap.  6,  note). 

TVTieat,  mrog,  triticiim.  The  cultivation  of  wheat  has  always 
been  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Palestine,  and  it  is  still 
a  corn-exporting  country.  The  sowing  time  is  about  November  or 
December,  and  harvest  comes  in  May.  The  processes  of  cultivation 
are  very  rude,  little  or  no  manure  being  used,  and  no  attention  being 
paid  to  rotation  of  crops.  The  corn  is  thrashed  out  by  the  feet  of 
animals,  or  by  the  employment  of  a  stone  roller,  or  by  the  use  of  a 
flail.  The  winnowing  is  managed  either  by  simply  tossing  the 
corn  into  the  air,  when  the  breeze  carries  off  the  chafi*,  or  by  the 
aid  of  a  winnowing  fan.  When  thus  obtained,  the  grain  is  ground 
in  a  hand-mill,  worked  generally  by  two  women,  sitting  opposite 
each  other. 

All  these  operations  are  referred  to  in  various  ways  in  the  New 
Testament.  Thus  (1)  sowing  is  referred  to  in  the  parable  of  the 
Sower  (Matt.  xiii.  3  ;  Mark  iv.  3  ;  Luke  viii.  5),  in  the  parable  of 
the  Tares  and  the  Wheat  (Matt.  xiii.  27),  in  the  comparison  of 
ministerial  work  to  sowing  (1  Cor.  iii.  6-8;  ix.  11),  in  the  com- 


VIPER— WINE. 


259 


parison  of  death  and  burial  to  sowing  of  seed  (John  xii.  24 ;  1  Cor. 
XV.  36,  42-44),  and  in  the  comparison  of  good  works  to  the  sowing 
of  good  seed  (2  Cor.  ix.  6, 10 ;  Gal.  vi.  7,  8).  (2)  The  growth  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  is  compared  to  the  growth  of  corn  amidst  difficul- 
ties, in  the  parables  of  the  Sower,  and  the  "Wheat  and  Tares.  (3) 
The  harvest  is  taken  to  represent  the  end  of  the  world  (Matt.  xiii. 
30,  39  5  Mark  iv.  29 ;  Rev.  xiv.  15),  or  the  results  of  the  procla- 
mation of  the  gospel  (Matt.  ix.  37,  38 ;  Luke  x.  2 ;  John  iv.  35). 
(4)  The  winnowing  represents  the  separation  of  the  good  from  the 
wicked  by  the  coming  of  Christ  (Matt.  iii.  12 ;  Luke  iii.  17).  (5) 
The  women  grinding  at  the  mill  together  and  one  taken  and  the 
other  left  at  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man,  show  the  selective 
nature  of  God's  judgment. 

iVine.  Three  words  describe  this  liquid  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment— 1.  yXtvKOQ,  mustum  (A.  V.  'new  wine  '),  only  in  Acts  ii.  13, 
where  some,  mocking  the  apostles  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  said, 
*  These  men  are  full  of  new  wine.'  Dr.  Tristram  considers 
this  to  have  been  that  wine  which  is  made  from  the  first  Sowings 
of  the  grape,  subject  only  to  the  pressure  of  its  own  weight  in  the 
wine-fat ;  but  others  regard  it  as  equivalent  to  the  juice  of  the  grape, 
preserved  by  boiling  in  its  original  sweetness.  2.  oKoq,  a  liquid 
offered  twice  to  our  Lord  during  his  crucifixion,  (a)  On  arriving 
at  Golgotha,  Matthew  says  that  '  they  gave  him  vinegar  (o^oc, 
but  {^  has  *  wine,'  and  Vulg,  vinum)  mingled  with  gall,  and  when 
he  had  tasted,  he  would  not  drink'  (xxvii.  34).  Mark  confirms 
t<  by  saying,  '  They  gave  him  wine  (oTvoc;)  mingled  with  myrrh,  but 
he  received  it  not '  (xv.  2.3).  (h)  On  the  cross.  This  is  mentioned 
by  all  the  evangelists,  as  here  subjoined: — 


Matt,  xxvii.  48 

Mark  xv.  36 

Luke  xxiii.  36 

John  xix.  29,  30 

One  of  them  ran,  and 

One  ran  and  filled 

The       soldiers 

There  was  set  a  vessel 

took  a  sponge,  and 

a  sponge  full  of 

also    mocked 

fuU  of  vinegar  (6|o?), 

filled  it  with  vinegar 

vinegar     (5|os), 

him,       com- 

and    thej'    filled    a 

(o|o?),  and  put  it  on 

and  put  it  on  a 

ing    to    him. 

sponge  with  vinegar, 

a  reed  (xaAa/ixos),  and 

reed    (KaA.a/u.o?), 

and    offering 

and  put  it  upon  hys- 

gave him  to   drink 

and  gave  him  to 

him    vinegar 

sop,   and    put  it  to 

{enoTL^ef  avrov). 

drink    {eiroTt^ev 

(6^oj). 

his    mouth.      When 

avTov), 

Jesus  therefore  had 
received  the  vinegar, 
he  said 'It  is  finished.' 

It  does  not  appear  from  this  narrative  that  our  Lord  actually 
drank  any  of  the  wine  thus  presented,  but  that  He  allowed  it  to 
be  placed  to  his  lips,  in  order  that  He  might  fulfil  the  prophecy, 

s2 


260       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

'  They  gave  me  gall  for  my  meat,  and  when  I  was  thirsty,  they 
gave  me  vinegar  {Heb.  X'O^)  to  drink '  (Ps.  Ixix.  21),  This  6^oq 
or  ^  vinegar '  was  probably  wine  which  had  undergone  both  the 
vinous  and  acetic  fermentations.  3.  oIvoq,  vinum.  Dr.  Tristram 
(*  Natural  History  of  the  Bible,'  p.  411)  is  of  opinion  that  there  is 
no  ground  for  supposing  that  any  unfermented  preparation  of 
grape-juice  was  used  ordinarily.  But  this  statement  is  carefully 
discussed,  and,  in  the  present  writer's  opinion,  thoroughly  refuted, 
by  *  The  Temperance  Bible  Commentary,'  an  elaborate  and  ex- 
haustive work ;  and  Dr.  Tristram  himself  points  out  that,  even  at 
the  present  day,  many  vineyards  are  held  in  Palestine  by  Moham- 
medans, who  use  the  fruit  for  eating,  either  fresh  or  dried  in  the 
form  of  raisins,  or  for  the  preparation  of  boiled  grape-juice,  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  East  under  the  name  of  dibs.  In  the  writer's 
opinion,  oIvqq  may  refer  either  to  fermented  or  unfermented  wine, 
and  the  context  alone  can  determine  what  is  the  exact  sort  in- 
tended. The  word  occurs  thirty-three  times  in  the  New  Testament, 
as  follows : — 1.  New  wine  is  to  be  put  into  new  skin-bottles  (Matt. 
ix.  17  (thrice)  ;  Mark  ii.  22  (four  times)  ;  Luke  v.  37,  38  (thrice)  ). 
2.  Wine  offered  to  our  Saviour  at  Golgotha  (Matt,  xxvii.  34  (so 
in  ^)  ;  Mark  xv.  23).  3.  John  the  Baptist  was  to  drink  no  wine 
(Luke  i.  15;  vii.  33).  4.  The  Good  Samaritan  pours  wine  and 
oil  into  the  traveller's  wounds  (Luke  x.  34).  5.  Wine  formed  at 
the  marriage  at  Cana  (John  ii.  3-10  (four  times)  ;  iv.  46).  6.  It  is 
good  not  to  drink  wine  if  a  brother  stimible  thereby  (Rom.  xiv. 
21).  7.  Drunkenness  reproved  (Eph.  v.  18 ;  1  Tim.  iii.  8 )  Tit. 
ii.  3).  8.  Timothy  to  use  a  little  wine  medicinally  (1  Tim.  v.  23). 
9.  The  rider  on  the  black  horse  not  to  hurt  the  oil  and  the  wine 
(Rev.  vi.  6).  10,  The  wine  of  the  fornication  of  the  mystic 
Babylon  (Rev.  xiv.  8;  xvii.  2;  xviii.  3).  11.  The  wine  of  Divine 
wrath  (Rev.  xiv.  10;  xvi.  19;  xix.  15).  12.  Amongst  the  mer- 
chandise of  the  mystic  Babylon  (Rev.  xviii.  13).  Various  com- 
pounds of  the  word  are  also  mentioned.  Thus  our  Lord  was 
accused  by  the  Pharisees  of  being  a  '  wine-bibber  (oij'07ror?jg) ' 
(Matt,  xi.  19 ;  Luke  vii.  34) ;  the  bishop  must  not  be  '  given  to 
wine'  (TrdpoivoQ :  1  Tim.  iii.  3;  Titus  i.  7)  ;  and  'excess  of  wine' 
(o(VoiiXvyjat  =  rather  'drunken  excesses,'  1  Pet.  iv.  3)  is  not  per- 
mitted to  Christians. 

The  term  '  wine '  is  not  used  in  the  New  Testament  of  the 
liquid  in  which  our  Lord  instituted  one  portion  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  It  is  termed  in  every  case  the  '  fruit  of  the  vine  (jiwrtna 
TTjg  dfiKiXov)^  (Matt.  xxvi.  29;  Mark  xiv.  25;  Luke  xxii.  18j. 


WINE-FAT— WORD.  261 

Fermented  wine  was  obviously  not  lawful  at  the  Passover,  when 
the  Jews  put  away  all  leaven  (or  ferment)  out  of  their  houses. 
What  liquid  was  used  can  scarcely  be  determined  with  certainty, 
further  than  that  it  must  have  been  a  product  of  the  vine.  The 
modem  Jews  for  the  most  part  use  a  liquid  obtained  from  steeping 
dried  grapes  in  water.     See  Fme,  Wine-press, 

"Wine-fat.     See  Wine-press. 

"Wine-press,  or  "Wine-fat,  X^voq  or  viroXfjviovj  torcuhr  (but 
in  Mark  xii.  1,  and  Eev.  xiv.  19,  20,  laeus).  The  wine-press  is 
the  ordinary  and  necessary  adjunct  of  the  vineyard.  It  generally 
consists  of  two  troughs,  excavated  if  possible  in  the  rock,  one 
being  on  a  higher  level  than  the  other.  From  near  the  bottom  of 
the  higher  trough  a  pipe  or  conduit  runs  to  the  lower  one.  The 
grapes  are  cast  into  the  higher  trough,  and  the  liquid  which  runs 
off  from  the  pressure  produced  by  the  weight  of  the  grapes  is  first 
collected.  The  grapes  in  the  upper  trough  are  then  crushed  by 
the  naked  feet  and  legs  of  men,  who  jump  in  and  tread  them 
until  all  the  liquid  has  been  expressed.  The  '  wine-press '  is  re- 
ferred to,  as  having  been  dug  (i.e.  excavated  in  the  rock)  by  the 
householder,  in  the  parable  of  the  Vineyard  let  out  to  Husbandmen 
(Matt.  xxi.  33 ;  Mark  xii.  1),  and  the  '  wine-press  of  the  wrath  of 
God'  is  referred  to  mystically  in  Rev.  xiv.  19,  20 j  xix.  15.  See 
Vine. 

"Witclicraft.     See  Magic. 

^XTolf,  XvKog,  lupus.  The  wolf  of  Palestine  is  a  larger  animal 
than  the  European  wolf,  and  of  a  pale  fawn  colour.  He  does  not 
hunt  in  packs,  but  is  solitary.  He  is  still,  as  ever,  the  terror  of 
the  Syrian  shepherds,  who  are  compelled  by  his  depredations  to 
watch  their  flocks  carefully  by  night,  and  to  defend  them  by 
means  of  dogs.  This  habit  of  destructiveness  to  flocks  is  the 
point  laid  hold  of  in  the  New  Testament  in  those  passages  in 
which  wolves  are  mentioned.  False  teachers  are  thus  denounced 
by  our  Lord  as  '  wolves  in  sheep's  clothing '  (Matt.  vii.  15),  and 
by  St.  Paul,  who  warns  the  elders  of  Ephesus  that  after  his  de- 
parture *  grievous  wolves '  should  enter  among  them,  *  not  sparing 
the  flock  '  (Acts  xx.  29).  The  apostles  were  similarly  sent  forth 
'as  sheep  in  the  midst  of  wolves '  (Matt.  x.  16),  and  the  seventy 
disciples  '  as  lambs  among  wolves '  (Luke  x.  3).  Finally,  the 
unfaithful  minister  is  denounced  (in  opposition  to  the  Good 
Shepherd,  who  giveth  his  life  for  the  sheep)  as  *an  hireling'  who 
*8eeth  the  wolf  coming,'  and  fleeth  (John  x,  12). 

"Word,  (1)  6  \6yog,  verhum.     A  term  used  only  by  St.  John  to 


262       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

designate  the  Eternal  Son.  It  occurs  in  Jolin  i.  1 — ^  In  the  begin- 
ning was  the  Word,  and  the  Word  was  with  God,  and  the  Word 
was  God '  C  9ibg  i)v  6  Aoyog,'  which  cannot  mean  '  God  was  the 
Word,'  because  in  Greek  the  article  distinguishes  the  subject 
from  the  predicate,  and  is  here  attached  to  *  Word.'  Hence  Word 
and  not  God  is  the  subject).  Also  in  John  i.  14. — '  The  Word 
was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt  Qaiciivojaev  =  tahei'nacled)  among 
us,'  with  which  cf.  1  John  i.  1.  Also  in  1  John  v.  7  (a  doubt- 
ful passage),  '  There  are  three  that  bear  record  in  heaven, 
the  Father,  and  the  Word,  and  the  Holy  Ghost.'  Also  in 
Rev.  xix.  13,  'His  name  is  called  The  Word  of  God,'  and 
in  V.  16  this  same  person  is  called  'King  of  Kings,  and  Lord 
of  Lords.'  From  these  passages,  and  their  context,  it  is  evident 
that  this  Word — 1.  Is  Divine.  2.  Becomes  incarnate.  3.  Is 
a  person.  4.  Is  the  Agent  by  whom  all  things  are  created,  and 
all  mankind  will  hereafter  be  judged.  5.  Is  the  Life  and  the 
Light  of  men^  6.  Is  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (John  i.  15).  The  word 
Logos  appears  to  have  been  used  to  designate  our  Divine  Saviour, 
in  order  to  present  Him  as  the  Manifestation  and  Kevealer  of 
the  Father's  will.  The  Wisdom  of  God  appears  as  personified 
in  Job  (xxviii.  12)  and  Proverbs  (viii.,  ix.)  ;  a,nd  in  the  Apocrj^phal 
books  of  Ecclesiasticus  (i.  1-10 ;  xxiv.  1-21)  and  the  Wisdom  of 
Solomon  (vi.  22-ix.  18)  the  personification  is  still  more  evident. 
In  Wisdom  xviii.  15  the  Word  is  presented  as  an  angel  leaping 
down  from  heaven.  The  idea  thus  originating  was  still  further 
enlarged  in  the  philosophical  systems  of  the  Alexandrian  Jews, 
and  Philo-Judaeus,  a  learned  .Jew  of  Alexandria,  who  endeavoured 
to  reconcile  the  Greek  philosophy  and  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
who  was  of  advanced  age  in  a.d.  40,  not  only  personifies  the 
Logos,  but  identifies  the  Wisdom  and  Word  of  God,  calls  the  Word 
the  '  elder  son  {TrptaPvTtpog  viag)  of  God,'  the  *  image  of  God,'  his 
*  first-born,'  '  the  preparer  of  the  Cosmos,'  &c.,  &c.  Hence  the 
idea  of  a  Word  of  God  was  not  new  to  the  early  Christians,  and 
they  were  prepared  to  accept  that  revelation  of  Jesus  as  the 
Incarnate  Word  which  St  John  has  been  permitted  to  make  to  us. 
(2).  The  '  word  of  God '  is  also  the  A;  V.  rendering  of  the  im- 
portant expression  to  ptjua  tov  Oeov.  It  seems  probable  that  this 
phrase  refers  to  the  Holy  Spirit  (Rom.  x.  17 ;  Eph.  v.  26 ;  Heb.  i. 
3 ;  vi.  5 ;  xi.  3 ;  1  Pet.  i.  25).  In  the  passage,  '  The  sword  of 
the  Spirit,  which  is  the  word  of  God  (pn/ia  tov  9(ov)  '  (Eph.  vi. 
17),  the  reference  of  the  relative  '  which  '  to  '  sword  '  or  '  Spirit ' 
seems  doubtful.     The  inspiration  of  John  the  Baptist  is  certainly 


WORM— YOKE.  263 

spoken  of  aa  the  coming  to  him  of  the  prjixa  rov  Qtov  (X.uke  iii.  2), 
and  in  John  vi.  63  we  read,  *  The  words  (rd  p.)  which  I  speak 
nnto  you,  they  are  spirit,  and  they  are  life,' 

(3).  With  regard  to  The  Word  of  God  as  applied  to  the  Scrip- 
tures, see  under  Scripture. 

IVorm,  ffKcjXt]^,  vermis.  The  only  sort  of  worm  spoken  of  in 
the  New  Testament  is  the  maggot  that  springs  from  putrefaction. 
See  Exod.  xvi.  20 ;  Isai.  xiv.  11.  Our  Lord  thrice  uses  the  phrase 
(quoted  from  Isai.  Ixvi.  24),  '  Their  worm  dieth  not/  to  indicate 
an  eternity  of  gnawing  punishment  (Mark  ix.  44,  46,  48).  In 
Acts  xii.  23  we  read  that  Herod  Agrippa  I.  was  '  eaten  of  worms 
{aKUj\T]K6(3pojTog)/  or  maggots.  The  exact  nature  of  this  disorder 
does  not  appear.  Josephus,  whose  account  of  the  death  in  many 
points  corresponds  with  the  Acts,  merely  says,  '  When  he  had 
been  quite  worn  out  by  the  pain  in  his  belly  for  five  days,  he 
departed  this  life '  (Ant.  19.  8.  2).  But  the  same  writer  de- 
scribes the  fatal  disorder  of  Herod  the  Great  as  similarly  affecting 
Hhe  bottom  of  his  belly'  and  '  producing  worms '  (Ant.  17.  6.5), 
and  Antiochus  Epiphanes  died  of  a  similar  disease  (2  Mace.  ix. 
6-9,  '  The  worms  rose  up  out  of  the  body  of  this  wicked  man,  and 
whiles  he  lived  in  sorrow  and  pain,  his  flesh  fell  away '). 

Wormwood,  a\piv9o(;,  Absitithitmi.  The  name  of  a  star  which 
fell  from  heaven  (Rev.  viii.  11).  Most  commentators  agree  in 
taking  this  to  signify  some  chief  minister  falling  into  heresy; 
according  to  some,  Arius ;  according  to  others,  some  future  false 
teacher.  ^  Wormwood '  itself  is  a  plant,  of  the  natural  order  of- 
Composites,  deriving  its  name  from  its  having  been  long  popularly 
regarded  as  a  remedy  for  worms.  Several  species  are  found  in 
Palestine. 

Writingr-table.     See  Table. 

Toke.    See  Oxen. 


264       ESSENTIALS  OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


PART     II. 

WORDS  USED  IN"  THE  A.  V.  OP  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  WHICH  HAVE 
EITHER  BECOME  OBSOLETE,  OR  ARE  NOW  LIABLE  TO  HAVE  A 
SENSE  ATTACHED  TO  THEM  DIFEERING  PROM  THE  ORIGINAL 
MEANING   OF   THE   TRANSLATORS. 

admiration,  sub.  (Oavfxa,  admiratio)  simple  wonder,  not  necessarily 
implying  approval. 

I  wondered  with  great  a.    Eev.  xvii.  6. 
adventure,  v.  a.  (Sovvai  kavrov,  se  dare)  venture. 

he  would  not  a.  himself  into  the  theatre.     Acts  xix.  31. 
adversary,  subs.  {dvriSLKog,  adversarius)  opponent  in  a  law  suit. 

agree  with  thine  a.  quickly.     Matt.  v.  25. 

when  thou  goest  with  thine  a.     Luke  xii.  58. 

avenge  me  of  mine  a.     Luke  xviii.  3. 
affect,  V.  a.  {IriKovv,  cBmulari)  desire  to  win  over. 

they  zealously  a.  you,  hut  not  well.     Gal.  iv.  17. 

it  is  good  to  he  zealously  a.  in  a  good  thing.     Gal.  iv.  18. 
affection  (set  aff.  on)  v.  {ippovftv,  sapere)  to  consider. 

set  your  a.  on  things  above.     Col.  iii.  2. 
alleg-e,  v.  w.  (rrapaTiOsvai,  insmuare)  show  by  proof,  not  merely 
affirm  to  be  the  case. 

a.  that  Christ  must  needs  suffer.    Acts  xvii.  3. 
allow,  V.  a.  (^avvfvSoKsiVf  consentire;  yivuxTKtiVf  intelliycre;  SoKifia^tiVf 
probare)  approve  after  trial. 

ye  a.  (a)  the  deeds  of  your  fathers.     Luke  xi.  48. 

that  which  I  do,  I  a.  (y)  not.     Eom.  vii.  16. 

we  were  a.  (d)  of  God  to  be  put  in  trust  with  the  Gospel. 
1  Thess.  ii.  4. 
anon,  adv.  (tv9vg,  contmuo,  statim)  immediately. 

a.  with  joy  he  receiveth  it.     Matt.  xiii.  20. 

a.  they  tell  him  of  her.     Mark  i.  30. 
Apprebend,  v.  a.  (^KaTaXafx(3dvtiVf  comprehendere)  grasp. 

that  I  may  a.  that  for  which  I  am  a,  of  Christ  Jesus.     I  count 
not  myself  to  have  a.    Phil.  iii.  12,  13. 


OBSOLETE  AND  ARCHAIC  WORDS.  265 

approve,  v.  a.  (SoKL^a^nv,  prohare)  make  trial  of. 

thou  a.  the  things  that  are  more  excellent.     Rom.  ii.  18. 
ye  may  a.  things  that  are  excellent.     Phil.  i.  10. 

barbar-ian,  'ous,  adj.  (jSdpfSapog,  barbarus)  not  speaking  Hebrew, 
Greek,  or  Latin, 
the  b.  people  shewed  us  no  little  kindness.     Acts  xxviii.  2. 
the  b,  sn-w  the  venomous  beast.     Acts  xxviii.  4. 
1  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and  to  the  b.     Rom.  i.  14. 
I  shall  seem  to  him  a  b.,  and  he  a  6.     1  Cor.  xiv.  11. 
b,,  Scythian,  bond  nor  free.     Col.  iii.  11. 

bas-e,  -er,  adj.  (ayopaXog,  quidnm  de  vidgo)  idler ;  (aysvfjCf  igtiobilis) 
of  low  birth;  (ja-n-dvoc,  humilis)  of  humble  appearance, 
not  necessarily  in  a  bad  sense. 

certain  lewd  fellows  of  the  baser  sort  (ay op.).     Acts  xvii.  5. 

b.  things  (dyiv.)  hath  God  chosen.     1  Cor.  i.  28. 

who  in  presonce  am  b.  (r.).     2  Cor.  x.  1. 

bistaoprick,  si(b.  (j-KiTKOTti],  episcopatus)  overlookership,  not  neces- 
sarily a  clerical  office, 
his  b.  let  another  take.    Acts  i.  20. 

by  and  by,  (tv9vc,  tvOiojg,  continuo,  statim ',  l^avrrjc,  statim)  imme- 
diately. 

b.  and  b.  (ev.)  he  is  offended.     Matt.  xiii.  21. 

give  me  b.  and  b.  (t^.)  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist.  Mark 
vi.  25. 

b.  and  b.  (ev.)  ...  sit  down  to  meat.     Luke  xvii.  7. 

the  end  is  not  b.  and  b.  (ev.).     Luke  xxi.  9. 

carriag'e,  (take  up  c.)  v.  {sTrLaKevd^en'f  prcsparare),  set  forth  on  a 
journey, 
we  took  up  our  c.  and  went  up  to  Jerusalem.     Acts  xxi.  15. 

cbambering-i  sub.  (Ko'irai,  cubtlia)  indulgence  in  lust. 

let  us  not  walk  in  c.  and  wantonness.     Rom.  xiii.  13. 

compass,  (fetch  a  c.)  v.  (irapupxeaOai,  circumlegere)  travel  by  a 
circuitous  route. 
prefetched  a  c.  and  came  to  Rh^am.     Acts  xxviii.  13. 

conscience,  sub.  {(ruvrjOda,  avvti^-qnic^  consctentia)  consciousness, 
some  with  c.  (frrvt;.)  of  the  idol  eat.     1  Cor.  viii.  7. 
the  worshippers  (<tvvsi.)  had  no  more  c.  of  sins.     Heb.  x.  2. 

conversation,  sub.  (TroXirff^ia,  and  cognate  TroXirtvuv,  conversation 
conversor),  citizenship. 


266        ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

let  your  c.  he  as  becometh  the  gospel.     Phil.  i.  27. 
our  c.  is  iii  heaven.     Phil.  iii.  20. 
In  other  passages  c.  =  manner  of  life. 

corn,  sub.  (kSkkoq,  gramim)  gTain. 

except  (the)  c.  of  wheat  fall  into  the  ground.     John  xii.  24. 

covet,  V.  a.  {IriXovv,  cemulari)  desire  earnestly,  not  always  sinfully. 
c.  earnestly  the  best  gifts.     1  Cor.  xii.  31. 
c.  to  prophesy.     1  Cor.  xiv.  39. 

creature,  suh.  (/crtVif,  creatura)  (1)  any  created  thing,  (2)  an  act 
of  creation. 

(1)  the  c.  was  made  subject  to  vanity.     Pom.  viii.  20. 

(2)  any  man  in  Christ  is  a  new  c.     2  Cor.  v.  17. 

and  many  other  passages. 

damnation  and  kindred  words,    (Kpivtiv  and   derivatives,  Judi' 

ciuni)  judgment,  &c.,  not  necessarily  of  a  condemnatory 

character, 
how  shall  ye  escape  the  d.  of  hell  ?     Matt,  xxiii.  33. 
ye  shall  receive  greater  d.     Mark  xii.  40 ;  Luke  xx.  47. 
the  resurrection  of  d.     John  v.  29. 
whose  d.  is  just.     Rom.  iii.  8. 
they  receive  to  themselves  d.     Pom.  xiii.  2. 
eateth  and  drinketh  d.  to  himself.     1  Cor.  xi.  29. 
that  they  might  be  d.,  which  believed  not.     2  Thess.  ii.  12. 
having  d.   because  they  have  cast  off   their  first  faith.     1 

Tim.  V.  12. 
their  d.  slumbereth  not.     2  Pet.  ii.  3. 
The  modern  sense  of  d.  is  implied  in  Mark  iii.  29  j  Mark  xvi. 

16 ;  Pom.  xiv.  23  j  and  2  Peter  ii.  1. 

dispensation,  suh.  (o'lKovonia^  dispensatio)  the  management,  or 

stewardship  of  a  matter, 
but  if  against  my  will,  a  d.  of  the  gospel  is  committed  unto 

me.     1  Cor.  ix.  17. 
in  the  d.  of  the  fulness  of  times.     Ep.  i.  10. 
if  ye  have  heard  of  the  d.  of  the  grace  of  God.     Ep.  iii.  2. 
the  d.  of  God  which  is  given  to  me  for  you.     Col.  i.  25. 

disposition,  suh.  (^Siarayy'],  dispositio)  commandment  (?) 

who  have  received  the  law  by  the  d.  of  angels.     Acts  vii.  53. 

doctor,  suh.  {^iSdaKoXo^,  doctor)  teacher. 

sitting  in  the  midst  of  the  d.    Luke  ii.  40. 


OBSOLETE  AND  AECHAIC  WORDS.  267 

Pharisees  and  d.  of  the  law.     Luke  v.  17. 
Gamaliel,  a  d.  of  the  law.    Acts  v.  34. 

doctrine,  sub.  {SLda\rj,  dtSamcaXlaf  doctrma),  act  of  teaching. 
He  said  unto  them  in  his  d.     Mark  iv.  2 ;  xii.  38. 
except  I  speak  by  d.     1  Cor.  xiv.  6. 
every  one  of  you  hath  a.  d.     1  Cor.  xiv.  26. 
give  attendance  to  d.  (Sidaa).     1  Tim.  iv.  13. 
take  heed  to  thyself,  to  thy  d.  (SiSaa).     1  Tim.  iv.  16. 

enable,  v.  a.  (iv^wafxovv^  confortare)  give  strength  to. 

I  thank  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord,  who  hath  e.  me.    1  Tim.  i.  12. 

estates.     In  Mark  vi.  21,  A.V.  gives  *  chief  e.'  =  chief  men,  but  Gr. 

has  only  oi  npCJToi  =  thejlrst. 
evangrellst,  suh.  {tvayyiKiarrjQ,  evangelistd)  preacher,  not  limited  to 
the  writers  of  the  four  gospels. 
Entering  into  the  house  of  Philip  the  e.     Acts  xxi.  8. 
He  gave  .  .  .  some  prophets,  and  some  e.     Ep.  iv.  11. 
do  the  work  of  an  e.     2  Tim.  iv.  5. 
See  also  p.  167. 

exchangrer,  sub.  (t pair e^it rig,  numularius)  banker. 

thou  oughtest  to  have  put  my  money  to  the  e.     Matt.  xxv.  27. 

express  imag-e,  (xapaKT-irjpj^^wra)  stamped  impression, 
who,  being  the  e.  i.  of  his  person.     Heb.  i.  3. 

flux  (bloody  f.),  sub.  (dvaivrepiov,  dysenteria).     The  disease  now 
called  dysentery. 
the  father  of  Publius  lay  sick  of  a  b.  /.     Acts  xxviii.  8. 
See  also  p.  173. 

forwardness,  and  derivatives  (derivatives  of  o-Trou^jy,  soUicitudo)f 

zeal,  energy,  not  merely  officiousness. 
who  have  begun  to  be  /.  (TrpotvfjpxaaOs)  a  year  ago.     2  Cor. 

viii.  10. 
being  more/,  he  went  unto  you.     2  Cor.  viii.  17. 
the  same  which  I  also  was/,  to  do.     Gal.  ii.  10. 

go  beyond,  v.  a.  {vTrsplSaiveiv,  circumvenire)  overreach. 

that  no  man  g.  b.,  or  defraud,  his  brother.     1  Thess.  iv.  6. 
e^overnor  of  the  feast,  sub.  {apxirpiKXivoq,  architriclinus),  chair- 
man at  a  banquet. 

Bear  it  to  the  g.  of  the  f.    John  ii.  8. 
governor,  sub.  (oIkovo^qq,  actor)  steward  of  an  estate. 

the  heir  is  under  tutors  and  a.  Gal.  iv.  2. 


268       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

governor,  sub.  (6  evOvvcov,  dirigens),  pilot. 

whithersoever  the  g.  listeth.     James  iiL  4. 
See  also  p.  179. 
beips,  sub.  {l3ori9slaif  adjutoria)  ropes  passed  under  the  keel  of  a 
ship  to  strengthen  it. 
they  used  h.,  undergirding  the  ship.    Acts  xxvii.  17. 

,  sub.  (avri\rj\ptig,  opitulationes')  an  order  of  ministers. 

after  that  miracles,  then  gifts  of  healing,  h.,  governments. 
1  Cor.  xii.  28. 
See  also  p.  183. 

bonesty,  and  deriv.,  goodness,  fair   reputation,  not  necessarily 

trustworthiness, 
look  out  seven  men  of  h.  report  (jiapTvpovfiEvoi,  boni  testimonii). 

Acts  vi.  3. 
walk  h.  (tixrxn/J-ovojg,  honeste)  as  in  the  day.     Rom.  xiii.  13. 
walk  h.  {ell.  h.)  toward  them  that  are  without.     1  Thess. 

iv.  12. 
lead  life  in  all  godliness  and  A.  {atixvorriQ,  castitas).     1  Tim. 

ii.  2. 
In  other  passages,  the  word  used  is  koKoq  =  of  fair  appearance. 

illuminate,  v.  a.  ((puTi^tn'^  illuminare)  enlighten. 

after  that  ye  were  ^.,  ye  endured  a  great  fight.     Heb.  x.  32. 

incontinent,  adj.  (aKparrjg^  incontinens)  without  self-restraint,  not 
necessarily  referring  only  to  sins  of  sensuality, 
false  accusers,  i.,  fierce.     2  Tim.  iii.  3. 

instantly,  adv.  (aTrovdaiojg,  iv  tKTevdg)  earnestly. 

they  besought  him  i.  {air.  solicite).     Luke  vii.  4. 

serving  God  *.  (Iv  Ikt.  Xarpevov,  deservientes)  day  and  night. 

Acts  XX vi.  7. 
similarly  the  adjective  ^  instant,'  in  Luke  xxiii.  23 ;  Eom.  xii. 
12^  2Tim.  iv.2. 

jangling:,  (vain  j.),  sub.  (fxaTaioXoy'ia,  vaniloquiurn)  vain  talking. 
Some  have  turned  aside  to  v.  j.     1  Tim.  i.  6. 

latcliet,sM&.  {ipaq,  corrigia)  small  thong,  or  lace,  used  for  fasten-^ 
ing  the  shoe, 
the  I  of  whose  shoes  I  am  not  worthy  to  unloose.     Mark  i. 
7 ;  Luke  iii.  16. 
See  also  p.  188. 


OBSOLETE  AND  AECHAIC  WOEDS.  269 

let,  V.  a.  (kwXuhv,  proJiibere ;  kcitsxh-v,  tenere)  hinder. 

I  was  minded  to  come  unto  you,  but  tvas  I.  (kwX.)  hitherto. 

Rom.  i.  13. 
he  who  now  /.  (/car.)  (will  I.).     2  Thess.  ii.  7. 

lewd-ness,  {Ttovr]pQg,pa^iovpyr]ixa'KovT]p6v)  wicked-ness. 

certain  /.  (jrov.,  malm)  fellotvs  of  the  baser  sort.     Acts  xvii.  5. 
if  it  were  a  matter  of  wrong,  or  wicked  I.  (p.  ir.,  f acinus)    Acts 
xviii.  14. 

llg^btness,  sub.   QXa(f>pla,  levitas)  thoughtlessness,  not  involving 
immodesty, 
when  I  was  thus  minded,  did  I  use  /.     2  Cor.  i.  17. 

list,  V.  n.  (OsXeiv,  jSovXioOai,  velle)  wish. 

they  have  done  to  him  whatsoever  they  I.     Matt.  x\ii.  12  ; 

Mark  ix.  13. 
the  wind  bloweth  where  it  I.     John  iii.  8. 
whithersoever  the  governor  l.  (/3).     James  iii.  4. 

loft,   (third  I.)  sub.  (rpiaTsyovj  tertium  coeiiaculum).     Story  of  a 
house. 
Eutychus  fell  down  from  the  third  I.     Acts  xx.  9. 

malice,  -iousness  (kukIo,  malitia)  ungodly  living. 

not  with  leaven  of  m.  and  wickedness.     1  Cor.  v.  8,  and  in 
Rom.  i.  29 ;  1  Cor.  xiv.  20  j  Eph.  iv.  31  j  Col.  iii.  8  j  Tit. 
iii.  3 ;  1  Pet.  ii.  16. 
malicious,  (ttovi]p6q,  malignus)  wicked,  prating  with  m.  words. 

3  John  10. 
nephew,  sub.  (ticyovoc,  nepos)  grandchild. 

if  any  widow  have  children  or  w.     1  Tim.  v.  4. 
novice,  sub.  (vsoi^vToCf  neophytus)  one  newly  come  to  the  faith, 
not  a  w.,  lest  he  fall  into  the   condemnation   of  the   devil. 
1  Tim.  iii.  6. 
observe,  v.  a.  (awrnptiv,  custodire)  ti'eat  with  respect. 

Herod  feared  John  the  Baptist,  and  o.  him.     Mark  vi,  20. 
offend,  V.  a.  {rncavdaXi^eiv,  scandaliza7'e),  cause  to  sin. 

Whoso  shall  o.  one  of  these  little  ones.      Matt,  xviii.  6,  and 

many  other  passages. 
But  in  Jas.  ii.   10,  iii.  2,  the  word  Trraiuu  (to  stumble)  is 
rendered  '  offend  '  by  A.V. 
particularly,  adv.  (/caO'  'iv  tKarrrov^  per  singida)  one  bv  one. 

he  declared  p.  what  things  God  had  wrought.     Acts  xxi.  19. 


270       ESSENTIALS  OP  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

passion,  sw6.  (ro  7raO£Tj',^3fl5seo)  suffering. 

he  shewed  himself  alive  after  his^.     Acts  i.  3. 

piety,    (shew  p.),  v.    {tv(re(Sdvj    regere    domuni)    exhibit    filial 
affection, 
let  them  first  learn  to  shew  p.  at  home.     1  Tim.  v.  4, 

prevent,  v.  a.  (oOdveir,  Trpo(p.,  preevenire)  to  be  beforehand  with, 
when  he  was  come  into  the  house,   Jesus  p.  him.    Matt. 

xvii.  25. 
we  that  are  alive,  shall  not  ^^.  them  that  are  asleep.    1  Thess. 
iv.  15. 
pricks,  sub.  (Kfvrpov,  stimulus)  spur,  goad. 

it  is  hard  for  thee  to  kick  against  the  p.    Acts  ix.  5  (?)  j 
xxvi.  14. 

profiting:,  sub.  {-TrpoKoin'],  profectus')  progress. 

that  thy  p.  may  appear  unto  all  men.     1  Tim.  iv.  15. 

proper,  adj.  (acrrtToc,  elegans)  beautiful. 

because  they  saw  that  he  was  aj5.  child.     Heb.  xi.  23. 

propbet,  and  deriv.  (irpocpiiTTjc,  j}rop)heta,  and  deriv.)  Preacher, 
expounder,  as  in  Acts  xv.  32 ;  Rom.  xii.  6  ;  1  Cor.  xiii.  2,  8  ; 
Eph,  iv.  11,  kc.  The  modern  sense  is  found  in  Matt.  xiii.  14j 
Jude  14. 
provision,  and  deriv.  (jrpovoia^  irpovoilvj  TrpofSXeireiVy,  providere) 
fore-seeing, 
very  worthy  deeds  are  done  to  this  nation  by  thy  providence. 

Acts  xxiv.  2. 
provide  things  honest  in  the  sight  of  all  men.     Rom.  xii.  17. 
providing  for  honest  things.     2  Cor.  viii.  21. 
God  having  provided  better  things  for  us.     Heb.  xi.  40. 
In  other  passages  the  word  has  its  modern  sense. 
provoke,  -ingr  v.  a.  {ipsQi'CtLv^  irapolivanoQ^  provocare)  arouse-ing. 
your  zeal  hath  p.  very  many.     2  Cor.  ix.  2. 
let  us  consider  one  another  to  p.  unto  love.     Heb.  x.  24. 
publican,  sub.  (jeXojvrjg,  puhlicanus)  tax-gatherer.     See  p.  225. 
quick,  adj.  {iCJv,  vivus)  living. 

he  was  ordained  to  be  the  judge  of  q.  and  dead.     Acts  x.  42. 
Jesus  Christ  who  shall  judge  the  q.  and  the  dead.     2  Tim. 

iv.l. 
the  word  of  God  is  q.  and  powerful.     Heb.  iv.  12. 
him  that  is  ready  to  judge  the  q.  and  the  dead.     1  Peter  iv.  5. 


OBSOLETE  AND  ARCHAIC  WORDS.  271 

relig-ion,  sub.  (OpijtrKila,  religio).     Worship. 

according  to  the  straitest  sect  of  our  r.     Acts  xxvi.  5. 
pure  r.  and  undefiled  before  God  and  the  Father.     James  i.  27. 
In  Gal.  i.   13,  'I  profited  in  the  Jews'  religion/  the   Greek 
expresses  J.  r.  by  'lovSaianoq,  and  the  Vulgate  by  Judaismus. 
savour,  v.  a.  (cppoveh^,  sapere).     Think. 

Thou  s.  not  the  things  which  be  of  God.     Matt.  xvi.  23 ; 
Mark  viii.  33.     But  elsewhere,  s.  =  odour. 
set  to  a  seal,  v.  a.  (acppaylZeiv,  signare)  give  sealed  testimony. 

He  .  .  .  hath  s.  to  his  s.  that  God  is  true,     John  iii.  33. 
several-Iy,  adj.  and  adv.     separate. 

To  every  man  according  to  his   s.  {ISiav,  propriam)  ability. 

Matt.  XXV.  15. 
To  every  man  s.  QSl^f  Vulgate  omits  the  word)  as  he  will. 

1  Cor.  xii.  11. 

Every  s.  (elg  eKaamc,  singulae)  gate  was  of  one  pearl.     Rev. 
xxi.  21. 
silly,  adj.  merely  expressive  of  the  diminutive, 

who  lead  captive  s.  women  (jwaiKapia,  mulierculae).     2  Tim. 
iii.  6. 
single,  adj.  {cnrXovq,  simplex),  directed  only  to  one  object. 

If  thine  eye  be  s.   Matt.  vi.  22  j  Luke  xi.  34. 
some,  j^row.  {nq,  quis).     Used  as  a  singular. 

for  a  good  man  s.  would  even  dare  to  die.     Rom.  v.  7. 
sometime  or  sometimes,  adv.  {-on,  aliquando)  once. 

ye  who  s.  were  far  off  are  made  nigh.     Eph.  ii.  13. 

you  that  were  s.  alienated.     Col.  i.  21. 

in  the  which  ye  also  walked  s.     Col.  iii.  7. 

the  spirits,  which  s.  were  disobedient.     1  Pet.  iii.  20. 
sufficient,  -ency,    QiKavoQy   i/cav6rjjf,   suffidens,   snfficientid)    able, 
ability. 

s.  to  such  a  man  is  this  punishment.     2  Cor.  ii.  6. 

who  is  s.  (idoneus)  for  these  things  ?     2  Cor.  ii.  16. 

not  that  we  are  s.  of  ourselves  .  .  .  but  our  s.  is  of  God. 

2  Cor.  iii.  5. 

tabernacle,  sub.  (aKrjvr],  tabernaculum)  simply  a  tent. 

let  us  make  here  three  t.     Matt,  xvii,  4 ;  Mark  ix.  5  ]  Luke 

ix.  33. 
I  will  build  again  the  t.  of  David.     Acts  xv.  16. 
If  the  house  of  this  t.  (rrKi)vog,  domus)  be  dissolved.     2  Cor. 

V.  1. 


272       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

we  that  are  in  this  t.  {(tki'ivoc,  tabernaculuni)  do  groan.   2  Cor. 

V.  4. 
Abraham  dwelling  in  t.    Heb.  xi.  9. 
as  long  as  I  am  in  this  t.     2  Peter  i.  13. 
knowing  that  shortly  I  must  put  off  my  t     2  Peter  i.  14. 
he  opened  his  mouth  against  God,  to  blaspheme  his  .  .  .  t. 

Rev.  xiii.  6. 
the  temple  of  the  t.  of  testimony  in  heaven,     Eev.  xv.  5. 
the  t.  of  God  is  with  men.     Kev.  xxi.  3. 
In  other  passages  tabernacle  refers  to  the  moveable  worship-tent 

of  Moses. 
See  p.  249. 
table,  sub.  (TrXa?,  tahda)  a  writing  tablet.     Of.  Luke  i.  63. 

not  in  t.  of  stone,  but  in  fleshy  t.  of  the  heart.     2  Cor.  iii.  3. 
See  also  p.  249. 

tavern,  sub.  (Ta(3fpvi],  taberna)  a  shop. 

They  came  to  meet  us  as  far  as  .  .  .  The  three  taverns.    Acts 
xxviii.  15. 

title,  sub.  (tItXoc,  tif.tdus)  an  inscription. 

Pilate  wrote  a  2^.  .  .  This  t.  read  many  of  the  Jews.     John 
xix.  19,  20. 

translate,  v.  a.  (utraTiOevai,  transferre)  remove  to  heaven. 

Enoch  was  t.  that  he  should  not  see  death,  kc.     Heb.  xi.  5. 

unction,  sub.  {xplcrnay  undio)  anointing. 

Ye  have  an  u.  from  the  Holy  One.     1  John  ii.  20. 

underg^ird,  v.  a.     See  Helps,  on  p.  183. 

usury,  sub.  (tokoq,  usura)  interest,  not  necessarily  in  a  bad  sense. 
I  might  have  received  mine  own  with  u.     Matt.  xxv.  27; 
Luke  xix.  23. 

vile,  adj.  humble,  dirty,  not  necessarily  in  a  bad  sense. 

who   shall   change   our   v.  body  (to  awjwa  tijq   TaTrtivojanjjQ, 

corpus  humilitatis).  Phil.  iii.  21. 
a  poor  man  in  v.  {pvirapog,  sordidus)  raiment.     James  ii.  2. 

virtue,  sub.  {Svvanig,  vij'tus)  curative  influence. 

V.  had  gone  out  of  him.     Mark  v.  30  ;  Luke  vi.  19. 
In  other  passages  '  virtue  '  has  its  modern  sense. 

-wblsperer,  sub.  {^^iQvpiarrlQj  susurro)  slanderer. 

full  of  envy,  murder  .  .  .  malignity )  w.     Rom.  i.  29. 


273 


SECTION    V. 

DICTIONARY    OF   BIOGRAPHY  AND    GEOGRAPHY. 


%*  The  Latin  words  affixed  to  each  word  are  the  Vulgate  renderings  of  the  Greek. 


Aaron  [pHK,  meaning  not  ascertained,  'Aapibv,  Aaro7i]  tlie 
elder  brother  of  Moses,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  son  of  Amram  and 
Jochebed.  By  divine  appointment  he  became  '  spokesman '  for 
his  brother  Moses  to  the  people  and  before  Pharaoh,  and  was  made 
use  of  as  his  minister  in  the  performance  of  the  miracles  in  Egypt. 
Together  with  Hur,  he  bore  up  the  hands  of  Moses  during  Joshua's 
battle  with  Amalek  (Exod.  xvii.  12).  During  the  forty  days' 
absence  of  Moses  in  Moant  Sinai,  he  was  induced  by  the  people  to 
make  a  molten  calf,  but  was  pardoned  at  his  brother's  intercession, 
and  soon  afterwards  invested  with  the  high-priesthood.  This 
office  was  limited  for  ever  to  his  family,  and  the  Mosaic  priesthood 
was  named  after  him  the  '  order  of  Aaron'  (Heb.  vii.  Jl).  He  was 
not  permitted  to  enter  the  promised  land,  but  died  upon  mount 
Hor  (Num.  xx.  27,  28),  his  garments  and  official  dignity  having 
been  previously  transferred  to  his  son  Eleazar. 

Elisabeth,  mother  of  John  the  Baptist,  was  a  'daughter  of 
Aaron '"  (Luke  i.  5),  and  Stephen  in  his  speech  before  the  Sanhe- 
drim, refers  to  the  making  by  him  of  the  molten  calf  (Acts  vii. 
40,  41).  *  Aaron's  rod  that  budded '  is  also  enumerated  in  Heb.  ix. 
4,  as  among  the  contents  of  the  ark.  The  particulars  of  the  bud- 
ding are  given  in  Num.  xvii.,  where  we  find  that  God's  choice  of 
Aaron  as  his  priest  was  thus  affirmed.  Twelve  rods,  one  for  each 
tribe,  were  laid  up  in  the  tabernacle,  and  it  was  declared  that  the 
tribe  whose  rod  should  bud,  should  have  the  priesthood  given  to 
it.  Aaron's  name  was  written  upon  the  rod  of  Levi,  and  on  the 
morrow  his  rod  was  found  to  have  budded.  That  he  was  not  self- 
chosen,  but  '  called  of  God  '  was  thus  made  apparent,  and  the 
divine  character  of  his  call  is  recognised  in  Heb.  v.  4. 

T 


274        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Abaddon  [f^il^^  =  destruction,  'AfSaSSwv,  Abaddon].  '  The  angel 
of  the  bottomless  pit,  whose  name  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  is  Abaddon, 
but  in  the  Greek  tongue  hath  his  name  Apollyon.'  flev.  ix.  11.  In 
the  Old  Testament,  Abaddon  sometimes  =  destruction  (Job  xxxi.  12; 
Ps.  Ixxxviii.  11)  and  sometimes  is  nearly  equivalent  to  Sheol,  the 
place  ot  departed  spirits  (Job  xxvi.  6 :  xxviii.  22 ;  Prov.  xy.  11 ; 
xxvii.  20). 

ikbel  \y'^\)  =  hreatJi,  and  hence  something  transitory,  "AfiiK,  Abel]. 
The  second  son  of  Adam.  He  was  a  keeper  of  sheep,  and  offered 
a  sacrifice  to  God  of  his  flock,  at  the  same  time  as  his  brother  Cain 
oifered  a  sacrifice  of  the  fruits  of  the  ground.  The  Lord  had  respect 
to  his  offering,  and  this  so  excited  the  jealousy  of  his  brother  that  he 
rose  against  him  and  slew  him  (Gen.  iv.  1-8).  Our  Lord  mentions 
Abel  as  the  first  martyr  (Matt,  xxiii.  35;  Luke  xi.  51).  St.  Paul 
declares  his  sacrifice  to  have  been  offered  'by  faith  (Trtirfj),'  and 
that  the  'blood  of  sprinkling  {pai'Tianac;)  speaketh  better  things 
than  that  of  Abel '  (tleb.  xii.  24).  By  this  in  all  probability  is  meant 
that  the  blood  of  Abel  cried  aloud  for  vengeance  (Gen.  iv.  10), 
while  on  the  contrary  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  pleads  with  God 
on  behalf  even  of  his  murderers. 

£U3ia.  [ri^^'^^  =  ivhose  father  is  Jehovah,  'Af3ia,  Ahi'as].  1.  Son  of 
Poboam,  and  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  7).  He  is 
called  in  tlie  Old  Testament  both  Abijah,  and  Abijam,  and  reigned 
three  years,  making  successful  war  upon  Jeroboam,  and  falling  in 
old  age  into  sensual  sins. 

2.  A  Levite,  who  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  of  priests  arranged  by  David.  Zacharias,  father  of  John  the 
Baptist,  belonged  to  this  course  (Luke  i.  5).    See  Friest  in  Sect.  4. 

iLbiathar  \_'\T\\'^^=father  of  plenUj,'AiiiaOap,  Abiathar].  Son 
of  Ahimelech  the  priest,  and  afterwards  high-priest  himself.  He 
escaped  from  the  massacre  of  the  priests  at  Nob,  and  having  joined 
David,  became  his  faithful  follower  and  companion,  both  in  his 
early  struggles  and  in  his  subsequent  prosperity.  For  some  reason, 
not  now  to  be  ascertained,  a  double  priesthood  appears  to  have 
been  set  up  during  the  reign  of  David  so  that  Zadok  and  Abiathar 
were  high-priests  of  equal  rank.  DuringAbsalom's  rebellion,  Abiathar 
continued  faithful  to  David,  but  when  Adonijah  set  himself  up  as 
king  in  David's  latter  days,  he  'following  Adonijah  helped  him.' 
His  share  in  this  revolt  was  soon  punished.  After  a  short  joint 
priesthood  with  Zadok  (1  Kings  iv.  4),  he  was  banished  by 
Solomon  to  Anathoth,  his  native  village^  being  spared  from  death 


ABADDON— ABEAH  AM.  275 

because  he  had  borne  the  ark  before  David,  and  been  afflicted  in 
all  wherein  David  was  afflicted.  By  his  exile,  the  prophecy 
against  the  house  of  Eli  (1  Sam.  ii.  31-35)  was  fulfilled. 

Our  Lord  thus  refers  to  a  portion  of  Abiathar's  history,  '  Have 
ye  not  read  what  David  did,  when  he  had  need,  and  was  an  hungred, 
he  and  they  that  were  with  him.  How  he  went  into  the  house 
of  God  in  the  days  of  Abiathar  the  high-priest  Q771  'A.  dpxi^p^f^^'} 
which  some  translate  '  in  that  section  of  the  scripture  called 
Abiathar  '),  and  did  eat  the  shewbread '  (Mark  ii.  26).  In  the  Old 
Testament  narrative,  Ahimelech  is  said  to  have  been  high-priest  at 
the  time  referred  to,  but  the  bread  belonged  to  the  sons  of  the 
high-priest  as  well  as  to  the  high -priest  himself  (Lev.  xxiv.  9), 
and  it  is  quite  possible  (if  the  translation  of  A.  V.  be  a  correct  one) 
that  Abiathar  was  the  actual  giver  of  the  bread  to  David. 

Abilene  [^'AQiXiivrj,  Abilhia],  a  district  of  which  Lj^sanias  was 
tetrarch  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius  Csssar  (a.b.  28),  when 
John  the  Baptist  commenced  his  mission  (Luke  iii.  1).  It  took 
its  name  from  Abila,  now  Abil,  its  chief  city,  situated  on  the 
river  Barada  (called  in  the  Old  Testament  Ahand),  eighteen  miles 
north-west  of  Damascus.  The  district  included  a  portion  of  the 
valley  between  the  ranges  of  Libanus  and  Antilibanus,  and  Abila 
was  situated  in  the  gorge  where  the  Abana  or  Barada  breaks 
through  the  range  of  Antilibanus  before  spreading  itself  over  the 
plain  of  Damascus.  The  exact  limits  of  the  district  have  not  been 
ascertained. 

iLbiud  ['A/3toi;^,  Abmd'\,  one  of  the  ancestors  of  Jesus  Christ,  son 
of  Zorobabel  and  father  of  Eliakim  (Matt.  i.  13). 

Abraliam  [DH^lt^  =  father  of  a  multitude ;  but,  at  first  D^^K 
= father  of  elevation,  'Aj3ijadjji,  Ahrahani],  son  of  Terah  and  ancestor 
of  the  Hebrew  nation.  He  was  a  native  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 
Leaving  Chaldsea  with  his  father,  and  his  relative  Lot,  he  came  to 
Haran,  said  to  be  in  Mesopotamia  (see  Haran).  In  Haran,  Terah 
died,  and  Abraham  received  a  divine  promise  '  Get  thee  out  of  thy 
country  and  from  thy  kindred,  and  from  thy  father's  house,  unto  a 
land  that  I  will  shew  thee :  and  I  will  make  of  thee  a  great  nation, 
and  I  will  bless  thee  and  make  thy  name  great ;  and  thou  shalt  be 
a  blessing:  and  I  will  bless  them  that  bless  thee,  and  curse  him 
that  curseth  thee :  and  in  thee  shall  all  families  of  the  earth  be 
blessed  '  (Gen.  xii.  1-.3), 

Abraham  now  crossed  the  Jordan  into  Canaan,  where  he  received 
a  second  promise,  '  Unto  thy  seed  will  I  give  this  land.'     From 

t2 


276       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Canaan  lie  went  for  a  wliile  into  Egypt,  and  thence  returned  to 
Canaan,  and  was  buried  at  Macpelab,  or  Hebron,  at  the  age  of 
175  years.  During  bis  residence  in  Canaan  be  rescued  bis  kins- 
man Lot  from  tbe  bands  of  four  Canaanitisb  cbiefs,  and  in  return- 
ing from  battle  met  JMelcbisedek,  king  of  Salem,  '  tbe  priest  of  tbe 
most  bigb  God  (fv'Pi?  '?s^^  inb),'  and  gave  bim  titbes  of  all.  Tbe 
promise  of  innumerable  seed  was  renewed  to  bim,  and  confirmed 
by  tbe  birth  of  Isaac,  wbile  bis  faitb  was  further  tried  by  a  com- 
mand to  sacrifice  Isaac.  This  command  be  unhesitatingly  obeyed, 
but  was  at  tbe  last  moment  prevented  by  divine  interposition  from 
actually  slaying  his  son.  In  Canaan  also  Abraham  received  the 
covenant  of  circumcision.  By  his  wife  Sarah  or  Iscah,  (see  Gen. 
xi.  29)  be  was  the  father  of  Isaac,  when  Sarah  was  past  the  usual 
child-bearing  age ;  by  Hagar,  Sarah's  maidservant,  he  became  the 
father  of  Ishmael ;  and  by  Keturab,  whom  he  married  after  Sarah's 
death,  of  six  other  children  (see  Gen.  xxv.  1,  2). 

Reference  is  made  to  Abraham  in  tbe  New  Testament  as — (1) 
Tbe  great  ancestor  of  the  Jews  ;  see  Matt.  iii.  0,  Luke  iii.  8,  '  We 
have  Abraham  to  our  father.'  See  also  John  viii.  33,  37,  39,  40, 
62,  53,  and  Heb.  ii.  16,  '  He  took  on  him  (kmXafjiSdrsTai)  the  seed 
of  Abraham.'  (2)  One  who  'rejoiced  to  see  the  day  of  Christ, 
and  seeing  it  was  glad/  John  viii.  56.  By  this  the  intercourse 
of  Abraham  with  God  is  probably  intended.  In  thus  seeing  God, 
Abraham  saw  Christ;  comp.  Gen.  xviii.  (3)  Enjoying  a  state  of 
blessedness  after  death,  and  being  seen  by  tbe  rich  man  in  the 
parable  with  Lazarus  in  bis  bosom  (Luke  xvi.  24).  (4)  As  a  re- 
markable instance  of  faitb,  in  leaving  his  country  at  God's  com- 
mand (Acts  vii.  2-8  -,  Heb.  xi.  8),  and  in  offering  up  Isaac  (Heb. 
xi.  17  ;  James  ii.  21).  (5)  As  the  person  in  whose  seed  the  promise 
that  in  it  '  all  tbe  nations  of  tbe  earth  should  be  blessed  '  was  to  be 
fulfilled.  St.  Paul  referring  to  this  in  Gal.  iii.  16,  says  *To 
Abraham  and  bis  seed  were  the  promises  made.  He  saith  not, 
and  to  seeds  (roif  aTrkp^amv),  as  of  many ;  but  as  of  one,  And  to 
thy  seed  {ji^  airipfiaTi)  which  is  Christ.'  Here  tbe  stress  lies  upon 
the  contrast  of  the  singular  to  the  plural ;  but  the  Hebrew  V!)!} 
which  =  (TTTsp/^a,  is  used  as  a  collective  noun.  Olshausen  finely 
explains  this,  '  Tbe  difference  between  the  seed  of  Abraham 
according  to  the  flesh,  and  according  to  the  spirit,  with  regard  to 
their  relation  to  God's  gracious  promises,  is  what  tbe  stress  laid  on 
tbe  singular  is  to  point  out.  Now,  if  any  one  asks  if  that  idea  is 
purposely  included  in  the  singular  (T7rS|0|ua  by  the  author  of  Genesis, 


ACELDAMA— ACHAI  A.  277 

we  shall  certainly  not  be  able  to  affirm  it.  But  St.  Paul  bad,  by 
the  illumination  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  full  power  ...  to  unveil  the 
innermost  truth  of  the  idea  according  to  the  meaning  of  Him  that 
promises  and  prophesied.'  In  the  east,  the  usual  name  by  which 
Abraham  is  still  referred  to  is  El-Khalil,  or  '  the  friend/  i.e.  of 
God. 

ikceldazna  [5^9*^  ^pH  =Ji€ld  ofhlood,  'AKeXcafxci,  Haeeldama,  A. 
Acheldamach,  B.  Aceldamach],  a  portion  of  ground  declared  by 
Peter,  at  the  selection  of  Matthias,  to  have  been  purchased  by 
Judas  '  with  the  reward  of  iniquity  ;  and  falling  headlong,  he  burst 
asunder  in  the  midst,  and  all  his  bowels  gushed  out.  And  it  was 
known  unto  all  the  dwellers  at  Jerusalem;  inasmuch  as  that  field 
is  called  in  their  proper  tongue,  Aceldama,'  Acts  i.  18,  19,  But  it 
should  be  carefully  noticed  that  this  is  a  report  of  what  Peter 
said,  and  the  source  of  his  information  appears  from  his  own  words 
to  have  been  common  report.  The  real  circumstances  attending 
the  purchase  of  Aceldama  (unknown  at  the  time  of  Peter's  speech) 
are  stated  with  correctness  by  an  inspired  writer  to  have  been 
that  the  priests,  unwilling  to  put  the  money  returned  by  Judas 
into  the  treasury,  bought  with  it  the  '  potter's  field,  to  bury 
strangers  in.'  The  place  is  now  shown  as  a  narrow  terrace  half 
way  up  the  southern  side  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  south  of  Jeru- 
salem.    See  Potters  Field  in  Section  4. 

Acbaia  ['Abator,  Achaia],  originally  the  name  of  a  narrow  strip 
of  country  extending  along  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus, 
between  the  mountains  and  the  sea.  In  B.C.  281,  the  inhabitants 
of  four  towns  in  the  north-west  of  this  district,  viz.  : — Dyme, 
Patrge,  Tritrse,  and  Pharse,  formed  a  league  for  the  purpose  of 
throwing  off  the  Macedonian  yoke.  This  league,  called  the 
Achaean  League,  was  soon  joined  by  many  other  towns,  and 
became  very  powerful.  In  B.C.  148,  the  League  declared  war 
against  Rome,  and  in  B.C.  146  was  broken  up  by  the  capture  of  its 
principal  city,  Corinth,  by  Mummius.  The  whole  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, with  the  adjacent  islands  and  the  southern  portion  of 
North  Greece,  was  afterwards  erected  into. a  senatorial  province 
governed  by  a  proconsul,  and  with  Corinth  for  its  capital.  In 
A.D.  16,  Tiberius  made  the  province  imperial,  governed  by  a  pro- 
curator, but  Claudius  restored  it  to  the  Senate.  Thus  Gallio, 
before  whom  Paul  was  brought  when  at  Corinth,  is  correctly 
described  as  the  dvOinrarog  =  proconsul  (A.  V.  '  deputy  : '  Acts 
xviii.  12). 

Achaia  is  in  three  places  joined  with  Macedonia  (Rom.  xv.  2Gj 


278        ESSENTIA.LS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

1  Thess.  i.  7,  8),  apparently  to  designate  the  whole  of  Greece.  The 
zeal  of  the  Achaean  Christians  in  contributing  to  the  necessity  of 
the  poor  saints  at  Jerusalem  is  also  lauded,  and  held  up  as  an 
example  to  the  Macedonian  Christians  (Rom.  xv.  26 ;  2  Cor. 
ix.  2).  Epsenetus  (Rom.  xvi.  5)  and  the  household  of  Stephanas 
(1  Cor.  XVI.  15)  are  both  mentioned  as  the  first-fruits  (ciTrapxri)  of 
Achaia;  but  j«;  B.  &  A.  substitute  Asia  for  Achaia.  If,  however, 
the  reading  '  Achaia '  is  to  be  sustained,  Epasnetus  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  member  of  the  household  of  Stephanas,  who 
lived  at  Corinth,  a  city  between  which  and  Rome  there  was  much 
intercourse.  The  cities  of  Corinth  and  Athens  and  the  port  of 
Cenchreae  were  situated  in  Achaia,  and  details  regarding  those 
places  are  given  under  their  names. 

Acliaicus  ['AxoV.vdc,  Achaicus'],  a  Corinthian  Christian,  men- 
tioned along  with  Fortunatus  and  Stephanas,  as  having  visited 
Paul  at  Ephesus,  and  with  them  refreshing  his  spirit  as  well  as 
that  of  the  Corinthian  Church  (1  Cor.  xvi.  17). 

Acbixn  [p!?^  =  ?i:7/om  God  stre7igthe7is  (?),  'A^nV,  Achmi],  one  of 
the  ancestors  of  Jesus  Christ,  son  of  Sadoc,  and  father  of  Eliud 
(Matt.  i.  14). 

Achaz  [THt^  =  possessor,  "A^o?,  Achaz],  a  king  of  Judah,  who 
reigned  B.C.  744-728.  He  is  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Ahaz, 
and  was  an  idolatrous  prince,  although  the  prophets  Isaiah,  Hosea, 
and  Micah  all  prophesied  during  his  reign.  His  history  is  re- 
counted in  2  Kings  xvi. ;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  In  the  New  Testament, 
he  only  appears  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  9). 

Adam  [DIJ^,  perhaps  =  recJewf^,  'A^a/^,  Adani],  the  name  given 
by  God  to  our  first  parents  (Gen.  v.  2),  but  generally  attributed 
only  to  the  first  man.  The  name  appears  to  be  connected  with 
Adamah  ('  And  Jehovah  Elohim  formed  Adam  of  the  dust  of  the 
Adamah  (A.V.  ground),'  Gen,  ii.  7),  which  again  is  derived  from 
the  verb  Adam,  to  be  red.  The  history  of  his  creation,  fall  and 
actions  more  or  less  occupies  Gen.  i.  26  to  Gen.  v.  5.  In  the  New 
Testament  he  is  referred  to  as— (1)  the  first  man,  1  Cor.  xv.  45  ; 
(2)  the  introducer  of  death  into  the  world  by  means  of  sin,  Rom. 
V.  14 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  22 ;  (3)  as  superior  to  Eve  in  priority  of  creation, 
and  as  not  having  been  deceived  {ovk  rjirariiBr}),  1  Tim.  ii.  13,  14. 
The  term  'the  last  Adam '  (o  '^axaToq  'Acafx)  is  applied  to  Christ 
in  1  Cor.  xv.  45,  and  under  this  name  Christ  is  characterised  as 
'  a  quickening  '  or  life-giving  '  spirit.' 

Addi  ['A^^/,  Addi\  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  son  of 
Cosam,  and  father  of  Melchi  (Luke  iii.  28). 


ACHAICUS-  AGAR.  279 

Adraxnyttium  [^'ASpai.ivTT7]}'6v,  Adrim'ietina^  ^dj.],  the  town 
from  which  the  ship  came,  iu  which  Paul,  on  his  voyage  to  Rome, 
was  conveyed  from  Csesarea  to  Myra,  in  Lycia  (xlcts.  xxvii.  2). 
It  lies  at  the  head  of  a  deep  gulf  on  the  coast  of  Mysia^  in  the 
north-west  corner  of  Asia  Minor. 

Adria  [6  'Acpiac,  Adria],  the  sea  in  which  the  ship  of  Paul  and 
his  companions  was  driven  ^  up  and  down '  (dia-^npon'fVMv  iniihv) 
immediately  before  its  striking-  upon  the  shores  of  Melita  (Acts 
xxvii.  27).  The  present  restriction  of  the  name  to  the  Gulf  of 
Venice  did  not  exist  in  ancient  times,  when  it  was  applied  not 
only  to  that  sea,  but  to  the  sea  between  Crete  and  Sicily  also. 

.Sneas  [AiVia^,  Eneas'],  a  man  of  Lydda  who  had  kept  his  bed 
eight  years,  being  sick  of  the  palsy,  aud  whose  instantaneous  cure 
by  Peter  caused  all  that  dwelt  at  Lydda  and  Saron  to  turn  to  the 
Lord  (Acts  ix.  32-55), 

2:non  [Au'wj/,  ^^norf],  a  place  near  to  Salim,  where  John  the 
Baptist  was  baptising,  '  because  there  was  much  water  there  ' 
(John  iii.  23).  Its  position  is  disputed,  some  fixing-  it  near  to 
Shechem,  or  JVablous,  others  on  the  Jordan,  about  twenty  miles 
south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  others  in  a  valley  five  miles  north-east 
of  Jerusalem.     Clark  says,  '  not  known.' 

Ag-abus  ["Ayo/3oc,  A(/ahus],  a  prophet  who  came  from  Jerusalem 
to  Antioch  (in  Syria),  and  '  prophesied  that  there  should  be  great 
dearth  throughout  all  the  world  (t))v  oitcovj-ikvtiv^,  which  came  to 
pass  in  the  days  of  Claudius  Csesar '  (Acts  xi,  28) .  At  a  later 
date  the  same  prophet  came  down  to  Csesarea,  and  there,  having 
bound  his  own  hands  and  feet  with  Paul's  girdle,  prophesied  that 
the  owner  of  the  girdle  should  be  bound  by  the  Jews  and  delivered 
to  the  Gentiles  (Acts  xxi.  10,  11).  The  fulfilment  of  the  latter 
prediction  was  literally  complete  (cf.  Acts  xxiv.  1-9),  but,  as  no 
universal  famine  occurred  during  the  reign  of  Claudius,  although 
four  partial  famines  occurred,  it  has  been  thought  that  Agabus 
referred  to  a  great  scarcity  in  Judtea  in  the  fourth  year  of  Claudius. 
Josephus  calls  this  scarcity  '  the  great  famine.' 

Agar  [n^n  =Jlight,  'A^ap,  Agar],  called  in  the  Old  Testament 
Hagar,  an  Egyptian  bondwoman,  handmaid  to  Sarai,  Abram's 
wife,  and  by  her  given  to  Abram  as  a  concubine.  By  Abram  she 
became  the  mother  of  Ishmael,  and  ancestress  of  the  Arabians. 
On  two  occasions  (Gen.  xvi.  and  Gen.  xxi.)  she  was  driven  out 
by  the  jealousy  of  Sarai,  and  on  both  she  was  succoured  by  an 
angel.  In  Gal.  iv.  22-25  her  position  as  a  bondmaid,  aud  her 
son's  position  as  the  son  of  a  bondmaid,  are  allegorically  contrasted 


280       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

with  the  position  of  Sarah  and  her  son  Isaac.  With  them  Paul 
compares  the  two  covenants.  In  Sarah  and  Isaac,  he  sees  Jerusalem 
which  is  above,  the  mother  of  '  the  children  of  promise.'  In 
Hagar  and  Ishmael  he  sees  Mount  Sinai  in  Arabia,  and  Jerusalem 
which  now  is  with  its  children  in  bondage ;  in  other  words,  the 
covenant  of  the  law  as  opposed  to  the  covenant  of  grace.  This 
allegory  is  assisted  by  the  fact  that  the  name  '  Hadschar,'  or 
Hagar  (meaning  *  a  rock '),  is  actually  used  by  the  Arabs  to  de- 
signate Mount  Sinai.  In  support  of  this,  Olshausen  adduces  the 
Arabic  name  of  Petra,  now  called  Elh-hagar,  '  The  Rock  City/  as 
an  illustration.  But  Lachmann  omits  Agar  altogether  from  v.  25, 
and  reads,  '  For  this  Sinai  is  a  mountain  in  Arabia,  and  answereth,' 
&c.     J^  is  with  him,  but  B.  and  A.  are  against  him. 

Ag-rippa  ['AypiTTTrac,  AgnpjJo].     See  llei^od. 

Alexander  [^AkklavopoQ,  Alexander\  the  name  of  several  dif- 
ferent persons  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  1.  The  son  of 
Simon  the  Cyrenian,  who  was  compelled  to  bear  our  Lord's  cross 
(Mark  xv.  21),  2.  One  of  the  kindred  of  Annas  the  high-priest, 
and  a  member  of  the  court  before  which  Peter  was  brought  after 
curing  the  lame  man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Temple  (Acts  iv.  6). 

3.  An  Ephesian  Jew,  put  forward  by  the  Jews  to  defend  their  cause 
during  the  great  tumult  excited  by  Demetrius  the  silversmith. 

4.  One  who,  together  with  Hymenseus,  concerning  faith  made 
shipwreck  (1  Tim.  i.  20).  As  he  probably  resided  at  Ephesus,  he 
may  be  identical  with  Alexander  the  coppersmith.  5.  A  copper- 
smith (6  xaXfcsi/f),  who  did  much  evil  to  Paul,  and  of  whom 
Timothy  is  bidden  by  Paul  to  be  ware  also  (2  Tim.  iv.  lo).  Cony- 
beare  and  Howson  suggest  the  identity  of  3.  and  5. 

Alexandria  [adj.  'AXtt,avSp6VQ,  'AXe^avSpivSc,  Alexandrinus],  a 
famous  city  on  the  north  shore  of  Egypt,  founded  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  B.C.  332,  and  still  existing.  It  occupied  the  peninsula 
which  separates  the  Lake  Mareotis  from  the  Mediterranean,  as 
well  as  the  island  of  Pharos,  which  was  joined  to  the  mainland 
by  a  dyke  or  causeway.  Its  commerce  was  extensive,  especially 
in  corn,  which  was  exported  thence  in  large  quantities;  and  it 
was  also  famous  for  its  vast  library,  destroyed  by  Amrou,  lieutenant 
of  the  caliph  Omar,  in  a.d.  640.  It  was  also  the  chief  seat  of  the 
system  of  philosophy  known  as  Neoplatonism,  of  which  Philo 
Judseus  (B.C.  20-A.D.  50)  may  be  considered  the  precursor.  Alex- 
andria was  the  residence  of  a  vast  number  of  Jews,  and  here  the 
Greek  version  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  known  as  the  Septuagint, 
or  LXX.  (from  the  number  of  its  seventy  translators ;  the  Lat. 


AaEIPPA— AMPHIPOLIS.  281 

septiiaginta  meaning  '  seventy  '),  was  produced  at  the  beginning  of 
the  third  century  B.C.  Apollos,  an  eloquent  Christian  preacher, 
very  much  associated  with  Paul,  and  to  whom  Luther  and  others 
attribute  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  is  stated  to  have  been  born 
at  Alexandria  (Acts  xviii.  24),  and  some  even  suppose  that  Paul 
derived  certain  Alexandrine  notions  from  this  source.  The  Alex- 
andrine Jews  had  a  synagogue  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi.  9),  and  the 
ship  which  conveyed  Paul  from  Myra  to  Melita,  and  was  wrecked 
on  the  shores  of  the  latter  place,  was  an  Alexandrine,  employed  in 
the  corn  trade  (Acts  xxvii.  6,  38). 

i^lpliaeus  \^\X(paioQ,  Ali^hcetis],  1.  The  father  of  James,  one  of 
the  apostles  (Matt.  x.  3 ;  Mark  iii.  18 ;  Luke  vi.  15 ;  Acts  i.  13). 
Considerable  difficulty  attends  the  identity  of  the  various  persons 
called  James  in  the  New  Testament,  and  these  are  discussed  under 
James.  But  the  received  opinion  respecting  Alphaeus  identifies 
him  with  Cleophas  (or,  more  properly,  KXw-ac,  Clopas)  of  John 
xix.  25.  Hence  he  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  father  of 
Joses,  Jude,  and  Simon,  the  '  brethren '  or  cousins  (?)  of  our  Lord, 
and  the  brother-in-law  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Of  his  personal  his- 
tory and  character  nothing  is  known.  2.  The  father  of  Matthew 
or  Levi,     Some  few  commentators  identify  him  with  (1). 

Aminadab  l2'iytpV_  =  kindred  of  the  piince,  'AixivaSafS,  Ami- 
nadah\  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  son  of  Aram,  and  father  of 
Naasson.  In  the  Old  Testament  he  is  called  Amminadab  (Exod. 
vi.  23,  &c.),  but  nothing  is  recorded  of  him  but  his  name,  and  in 
the  New  Testament  he  only  occurs  in  the  genealogies  (Matt.  i.  4; 
Luke  iii.  33). 

Amon  [)'lDX  =  rt  workman,  'AndJv,  Amon],  the  idolatrous  son 
and  successor  of  Manasseh,  king  of  Judah.  He  ascended  the 
throne  B.C.  642,  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  and  was  assassinated  by 
his  servants  two  years  afterwards.  Li  the  New  Testament  he 
appears  as  an  ancestor  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  i.  10). 

Amos  [X'\'0^  =  strong,  'Afnog,  Amos'].  1.  One  of  the  ancestors  of 
Jesus  Christ,  son  of  Naum,  and  father  of  Mattathias  (Luke  iii.  25). 
2.  The  prophet  Amos,  who  prophesied  concerning  Israel  in  the 
days  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah  (b.c.  810-758),  and  Jeroboam  II., 
king  of  Israel.  In  the  New  Testament  he  is  not  mentioned  by 
name,  but  two  of  his  predictions  (v.  25-27;  ix.  11,  12)  are  quoted 
in  Acts  vii.  42-43 :  xv.  15-17. 

Amphipolis  ['AficpiTroXig,  Awp/iipolis'],  a  city  of  Macedonia,  on 
the  river  Strymon,  not  far  from  its  mouth.     The  river  nearly 


282        ESSENTIi.LS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

encircled  the  town,  whence  its  name.  It  was  originally  called 
Henneahodi^  or  '  Nine  Ways,'  but  in  B.C.  437  the  Athenians  took 
it,  and  changed  its  name.  Under  the  Homan  empire  it  was  the 
capital  of  Macedonia  pri?Qa,  and  the  Via  Egnatia  passed  through 
it.  Paul  aDd  Silas,  on  their  journey  from  Philippi  to  ApoUonia 
and  Thessalonica,  passed  through  it  (Acts  xvii.  1). 

Araplias  [_'A[i7rXiac,  Ampliatus],  a  Christian  greeted  in  Eom. 
xvi.  8. 

Ananias  ]T^^l)i_  =  iohom  Jehovah  guards^  'Avavlag,  Ananias]. 
1.  The  husband  of  Sapphira.  Having  a  possession  he  sold  it,  and, 
keeping  back  part  of  the  price,  he  laid  the  remainder  at  the 
apostles'  feet,  pretending  that  he  was  contributing  the  whole  of 
the  produce  of  the  sale.  Peter  declared  this  to  be  ^  lying  to  the 
Holy  Ghost,'  and  Ananias,  hearing  this,  fell  down  dead.  His  wife 
Sapphira,  coming  in  shortly  afterwards,  reiterated  the  same  false- 
hood, and  was  similarly  struck  dead  (Acts  v.  1-10). 

2.  A  disciple  at  Damascus,  ^  a  devout  man  according  to  the  law,' 
directed  by  a  vision  to  go  to  the  house  of  Judas  in  the  street  called 
Straight  (Ei/Of  to),  and  put  his  hands  upon  Saul,  that  he  might  receive 
his  sight.  Ananias  at  first  hesitated,  recalling  the  evil  which  Saul 
had  done  to  the  Christians  in  Jerusalem,  but  afterwards  he  obeyed. 
Immediately  upon  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  Ananias,  Saul 
received  his  sight,  arose,  and  was  baptised  (Acts  ix.  10-18 ;  xxii. 
12-16).    Ananias  is  said  to  have  become  bishop  of  Damascus. 

3.  A  Jewish  high-priest,  appointed  by  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis,  in 
A.D.  48.  In  A.D.  52  he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  be  tried  on  a  charge 
of  oppression,  but  was  acquitted.  Shortly  before  the  removal  of 
Felix  from  the  procuratorship  of  Judaea  (a.b.  62)  he  was  deposed. 
He  was  assassinated  in  the  last  Jewish  war.  He  was  president  of 
the  council  before  which  Paul  was  brought  at  Jerusalem,  and, 
having  commanded  some  one  to  smite  Paul  on  the  mouth,  was 
charged  by  him  with  being  a  '  whited  wall  (roT^og  KtKovian'cvoc)^^ 
sitting  to  judge  according  to  the  law,  and  commanding  to  be  smitten 
contrary  to  the  law.  This  charge,  however,  Paul  withdrew,  de- 
claring that  he  had  not  been  aware  that  Ananias  was  the  high- 
priest,  and  acknowledging  that  it  was  not  right  to  revile  the  ruler 
of  the  people.  How  Paul  was  not  aware  has  been  variously  ex- 
plained, by  supposing  that — (1)  Ananias  was  not  really  the  high- 
priest,  which  is  contrary  to  fact ;  (2)  Paul  meant,  '  I  did  not  think 
Ananias  was  the  high-priest,'  which  seems  incredible,  if  Ananias 
occupied  the  chairman's  seat ;  (3)  Paul's  sight  was  imperfect. 
After  thiS;  the  apostle,  having  been  removed  to  Csesarea,  Ananias 


AMPLIAS— ANJs^A.  283 

attended  the  court  of  Felix  at  that  place,  accompanied  by  Tertulliis, 
an  orator,  and  many  friends,  and  took  part  in  the  unsuccessful 
prosecution  of  Paul  which  ensued  (Acts  xxiii.  2-5 ;  xxiv.  1). 

Andrew  ['Art^peac,  Andreas'],  Simon  Peter's  brother,  son  of  Jona, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  He  was  originally  a  follower  of 
John  the  Baptist,  but  having  heard  him  say  with  regard  to  Jesus, 
^  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God,'  he  followed  Jesus,  and  abode  with 
him  that  day.  He  then  sought  out  his  brother  Simon,  and 
brought  him  to  Jesus  by  the  announcement,  '  We  have  found 
the  Messias'  (John  i.  35-41).  Afterwards,  when  fishing  in  com- 
pany with  his  brother  Simon  on  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  Andrew 
received  a  formal  call  to  become  a  '  fisher  of  men,'  and  leaving  his 
nets  followed  Jesus  (Matt.  iv.  18-20;  Mark  i.  16-18).  When 
our  Lord,  intending  to  feed  the  5,000,  but  desiring  to  prove  Philip, 
asked  '  Whence  shall  we  buy  bread  ? '  Andrew  said,  '  There  is  a 
lad  here  which  hath  five  barley  loaves,  and  two  small  fishes,  but 
what  are  they  among  so  many  ?  '  (John  vi.  8,  9).  Again,  in  com- 
pany with  Peter,  James,  and  John,  Andrew  asked  our  Lord  pri- 
vately when  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  should  take  place,  and 
what  signs  should  precede  (Mark  xiii.  3,  4).  Lastly,  when  certain 
Greeks  desired  to  see  Jesus,  and  expressed  their  desire  to  the  apostle 
Philip,  Andrew  was  consulted  by  Philip,  and  united  with  him  in 
telling  our  Lord.  In  reply,  Jesus  uttered  a  remarkable  prediction  of 
his  death  and  its  results,  but  apparently  declined  an  interview 
with  the  Greeks  (John  xii.  20-36).  No  other  facts  are  related  in 
the  New  Testament  of  Andrew,  and  nothing  further  is  really  known 
about  him. 

Andronlcus  ['AvdpSviKoc,  Andronicus],  a  Christian  saluted  in 
Rom.  xvi.7,  along  with  Junias  (or  Junia  (?),in  which  case  the  name 
may  be  feminine  and  designate  the  wife  of  Andronicus).  Andronicus 
and  Junias  are  declared  to  be  kinsmen  (o-vyyf ?  at,',  perhaps  fellow- 
countrymen,  cf.  vv.  11,  21)  of  Paul,  and  '  of  note  among  the  apostles 
(sTTtrr/j/uot  Iv  ro7c;  aTr.),'  which  may  mean  ^  well  known  among,  i.e. 
by,  the  apostles,'  but  if  not,  then  the  term  '  apostles '  must  have  a 
wider  meaning  than  ordinarily.  They  are  also  said  to  have  been 
in  Christ  before  the  apostle  himself. 

Anna  [n|n  perhaps  =  jorayer,  "Awa,  Annal,  a  prophetess, 
daughter  of  Phanuel,  of  the  tribe  of  Aser,  who  assisted  at  the 
presentation  of  the  infant  Jesus  in  the  temple.  She  was  of  gTeat 
age,  and  remarkable  piety,  and  '  gave  thanks  unto  the  Lord,  and 
spoke  of  him  to  all  them  that  looked  for  redemption  in  Jerusalem ' 
(Luke  ii.  86-38). 


284       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Annas  ['Avvag,  Atinas],  a  Jewish  high -priest,  appointed  in 
A.D.  7,  but  deposed  seven  years  later.  After  several  changes,  his 
son-in-law  Joseph  Caiaphas  became  high-priest,  and  during 
Joseph's  tenure  of  office  our  Lord  was  crucified.  It  was  to  the 
house  of  Annas  that  Jesus  Christ  was  first  conducted,  imme- 
diately after  his  apprehension,  but  he  appears  to  have  at  once  sent 
our  Lord  to  his  son-in-law  (cf.  John  xviii.  12-14  with  Matt.  xxvi. 
57).  In  Acts  iv.  6,  Annas  appears  as  the  high-priest,  along  with 
Caiaphas,  John  and  Alexander,  who  are  mentioned  as  '  of  the  kin- 
dred of  the  high-priest.'  Before  him  on  this  occasion  Peter  and 
John  were  brought,  to  give  an  account  of  the  name  in  which  they 
had  cured  the  lame  man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the  temple.  It 
seems  probable  that,  although  officially  deposed  Annas  retained 
much  of  his  influence  and  power,  and  never  lost  his  original  title  of 
high-priest.  So  great  was  this  influence  that  five  of  his  sons 
became  high  priests. 

Antioch  I'AvTwxHa,  adj.  'Arno^fvc  (Acts  vi.  5),  Antiochm, 
AntiocJienus,  adj.].  1.  The  capital  of  the  Greek  kingdom  of  Sj'-ria, 
and  the  chief  city  of  the  Roman  province  of  the  same  name.  It 
was  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  B.C.  300,  and  was  situated  about 
sixteen  miles  from  the  sea,  where  the  river  Orontes  breaks  through 
the  gorge,  separating  the  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Taurus.  It  long 
continued  to  be  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  magnificent  cities 
in  the  world,  and  was  adorned  and  favoured  by  many  successive 
monarchs,  but  was  destroyed  in  A.D.  540  by  the  Persian  king 
Chosroes,  and  although  rebuilt  by  Justinian,  has  now  dwindled  away 
to  a  miserable  village,  named  Antakia.  The  first  mention  of  Antioch 
occurs  in  Acts  vi.  5,  where  Nicolas  (one  of  the  seven  deacons), 
is  called  ^  a  proselyte  of  Antioch.'  In  Acts  xi.  19-26,  a  detailed 
account  of  the  rise  of  the  Christian  church  at  Antioch  is  found. 
In  the  dispersion  of  the  disciples  by  the  persecution  after  Stephen's 
death,  the  preachers  of  the  gospel  reached  as  far  as  Antioch,  and 
when  '  a  great  number '  of  the  people  there  believed,  Barnabas  was 
sent  down  from  the  church  at  Jefiisalem,  to  encourage  and  guide 
the  infant  c^'Cch.  Barnabas  soon  obtained  the  help  of  Saul  from 
Tarsus,  and  the  disciples  became  so  numerous  a  body  as  to  win 
the  distinctive  title,  first  given  at  Antioch,  of  Christians.  Some 
regard  this  title  as  having  been  originally  one  of  the  terms  of 
derision,  for  the  inventing  of  which  the  people  of  Antioch  were 
celebrated.  But,  if  it  were  so  intended,  the  growth  of  the  church 
at  Antioch  was  not  hindered  by  its  use.  Henceforward,  Antioch 
appears   as  a  great  centre   of  Christian   work.      Here    Agabus 


ANNAS— ANTIPAS.  285 

announced  a  coming  dearth,  and  a  collection  was  made  in  conse- 
quence for  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem,  and  sent  to  them  by 
Barnabas  and  Paul  (Acts  xi.  28-30).  Here  Barnabas  and  other 
eminent  teachers  habitually  ministered,  from  this  place  Barnabas 
and  Saul  commenced  a  missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.  3),  and  to 
this  place  they  returned  with  a  report  of  their  proceedings,  and 
abode  long  time  (Acts  xiv.  26-28).  The  church  at  Antioch  was 
then  agitated  with  discussions  as  to  the  necessity  of  circumcision  for 
Gentile  Christians,  and  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  sent  to  Jerusalem 
about  this  question.  From  Jerusalem  they  returned  to  Antioch, 
accompanied  by  Barsabas  and  Silas,  with  the  decision  of  the 
^  apostles,  elders,  and  brethren,'  (Acts  xv.  22,  23).  Again  Paul  and 
Barnabas  remained  at  Antioch  for  a  while,  and  once  more  left  on 
missionary  j  ourneys,  Paul  with  Silas,  and  Barnabas  with  Mark.  At 
the  close  of  this  journey,  Paul  once  more  visited  Antioch  and  'spent 
some  time  there '  (Acts  xviii.  23),  but  no  further  statement  with  re- 
spect to  the  church  there  occurs  in  the  New  Testament. 

2.  A  city  of  Pisidia,  in  Asia  Minor,  also  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator, 
and  a  Roman  colony.  Having  come  to  this  place  in  their  first 
missionary  journey,  Paul  and  Barnabas  entered  into  the  synagogue 
on  the  Sabbath  day,  and  Paul  there  reasoned  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment prophecies  respecting  Christ  with  such  power,  that  many  of 
the  Jews  and  religious  proselytes  followed  them,  and  the  Gentiles 
besought  that  the  same  words  might  be  addressed  to  them  the  suc- 
ceeding Sabbath.  When  the  next  Sabbath  arrived,  so  great  a 
multitude  was  drawn  together  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  the 
Jews,  and  when  Paul,  turning  from  them,  offered  the  Gospel  to 
the  Gentiles,  they  raised  a  persecution  against  the  apostles,  and 
drove  them  from  the  city  (Acts  xiii.  14-50).  Even  this  with- 
drawal of  Paul  and  Barnabas  did  not  appease  their  hatred  ;  a  de- 
putation of  Jews  from  Antioch  followed  them  to  Lystra,  a  town 
about  100  miles  distant,  and  there,  having  persuaded  the  people, 
stoned  Paul.  This,  however,  did  not  prevent  the  apostles  from 
returning  to  Antioch  for  the  purpose  of  confirming  the  souls  of  the 
disciples  there  (Acts  xiv.  26-28).  In  2  Tim.  iii.  11,  Paul 
pathetically  refers  to  the  knowledge  which  Timothy  had  of  the 
persecutions  which  he  met  at  Antioch,  Iconiura  and  Lystra,  and 
to  the  Divine  mercy  by  which  he  had  been  delivered. 

Antipas  [^'Ai'TiTraTpoc,  'AvTiiTag,  Antipas].  1.  A  son  of  Herod  the 
Great.  See  Herod.  2.  A  Christian  martyr  at  Pergamos.  Tra- 
dition says  that  he  was  despatched  by  being  shut  up  in  a  red-hot 
brazen  bull  (Rev.  ii.  13). 


286        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Antipatris  ['AvrtTrarp/c,  Antijxitris],  a  town  on  the  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Csesarea,  forty-two  miles  from  Jerusalem,  and  twenty- 
six  from  Cffisarea.  Its  ancient  name  was  Xa/3rt|0?«/3o,  or  Ka(papaa(ia, 
and  this  is  retained  in  the  modern  Kefr-Saba.  To  this  town  Paul 
was  conveyed  by  night  by  a  company  of  Roman  soldiers,  on  his 
journey  for  trial  at  CiEsarea  (Acts  xxiii.  31). 

Apelles  ['ATTfXAr/t-,  Apelles].  A  Christian  saluted  in  Rom.  xvi. 
10,  as  '  approved  in  Christ '  (tov  ^6kii.iov  kv  X.). 

Apollonia  \^A-!ro\\unnay  A2joIlorda\  a  city  of  Macedonia,  about 
half-way  between  Amphipolis  and  Thessalonica.  Paul  passed 
through  it  on  his  journey  between  these  places  (Acts  xvii.  1). 

Apollos  [^ArroXk^Q,  Apollo^,  an  Alexandrine  Jew,  an  eloquent 
(XoytoQ,  perhaps  =  learned)  man,  and  mighty  in  the  scriptures 
(Acts  xviii.  24),  but  at  first  a  follower  of  the  doctrines  of  John  the 
Baptist.  CoDiing  to  Ephesus  about  a.d.  54,  he  was  instructed  hy 
Aquila  and  Priscilla  in  '  the  way  of  God  more  perfectly.'  After 
preaching  at  Ephesus,  he  passed  into  Achaia,  and  thence  to  Corinth, 
where  he  '  watered  '  the  spiritual  plants  which  Paul  had  planted 
(1  Cor.  iii.  6).  From  1  Cor.  xvi.  12,  probably  written  at  Ephesus 
about  A.D.  57,  it  appears  that  Apollos  was  with  Paul  when  he 
wrote  his  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  and  that  he  intended  to 
visit  Corinth.  In  Titus  iii.  13,  i.e.  about  ten  years  later,  Paul 
writes,  probably  from  Corinth,  and  requests  Titus  to  '  bring  Apollos 
on  his  journey  diligently.'  It  is,  therefore,  possible  that  Apollos 
was  returning  from  the  visit  referred  to,  but  this  is  merely  con- 
jectural. Equally  conjectural  are  attempts  made  to  identify  the 
teaching  of  Apollos  with  the  Alexandrine  philosophical  tenets, 
and  to  account  for  certain  Alexandrine  notions  observable  in  Paul's 
writings  by  his  connexion  with  Apollos.  Bat  it  appears  that  in 
the  early  Christian  church  at  Corinth,  the  names  of  Apollos  and 
Paul  became  party  watchwords  (1  Cor.  i.  12 ;  iii.  4,  5).  Whether 
this  arose  from  any  personal,  influence  of  the  two  preachers 
or  from  any  shades  of  diff'erence  in  their  doctrine,  is  unknown. 
Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  Apollos  when  he  disappears  from  the 
JSiew  Testament,  but  he  is  said  to  have  become  bishop  of  Csesarea. 

ApoXIyon  [  A  7ro\/\i;wr  =  a  destroyer,  Apollyon],  'the  angel  of  the 
bottomless  pit,  whose  name  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  is  Abaddon, 
but  in  the  Greek  tongue  hath  his  name  Apollyon,'  Rev.  ix.  11. 
See  Abaddon. 

iLppbia  ['A7rcf)(Vr,  Appia,  {soror  is  added)],  addressed  as  'be- 
loved '  along  with  Philemon  and  Archippus  (Philem.  1,  2). 

Appii  Porum  ['ATTTrt'uu  ^6pov~\,  a  station  on  the  Via  Appia, 


ANTIPATEIS— ArtCHIPPUS.  287 

al)Out  forty-tliree  miles  south  of  Rome,  and  at  tlie  northern  end 
of  a  canal  which  ran  parallel  with  the  road  for  about  nineteen 
miles,  as  far  as  Feronia.  Here  Paul,  on  his  journey  to  Rome,  was 
met  by  Roman  Christians,  come  thus  far  to  welcome  him  (Acts 
xxviii.  15).  Horace  describes  the  place  as  '  differtum  nautis, 
cauponibus  atque  malignis,'  Sat,  i.  5.  4.  Ruins  of  it  still  exist 
near  TreiJonti. 

Aquila  ['A/cvXat',  Aqinla],  a  Jew  born  in  Pontus,  exiled  from 
Rome  by  the  edict  of  Claudius  (a.u.  49  or  52  ?),  and  found  by 
Paul  at  Corinth,  with  his  wife  Priscilla  (Acts  xviii.  2).  Like  the 
great  apostle,  they  were  tent-makers,  and  accordingly  he  abode 
and  worked  with  them.  Either  through  this  connexion,  or  other- 
wise, Aquila  and  Priscilla  became  Christians  and  accompanied 
Paul  from  Corinth  to  Ephesus,  where  they  met  ApoUos,  and 
*  expounded  unto  him  the  way  of  God  more  perfectly '  (Acts  xviii. 
26).  When  Paul  wrote  1  Cor.  xvi.  19,  probably  from  Ephesus, 
they  were  still  with  him,  and  had  '  a  church  in  their  house.'  Being 
saluted  in  2  Tim.  iii.  19,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  con- 
tinued to  reside  at  Ephesus,  but  in  Rom.  xvi.  3,  they  appear  as 
residents  at  Rome,  still  having  a  church  in  their  house,  and  being 
commended  as  fellow-workers  in  Christ  Jesus,  who  for  the 
apostle's  life  laid  down  their  own  necks. 

Arabia  [pr\V,  =  tlie  dry  country,  'Apaj3ia,  Ai'obid],  the  place  to 
which  Saul  retired  after  his  first  preaching  at  Damascus  (Acts  ix.  22, 
and  Gal.  i.  17).  The  country  between  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  is 
regarded  by  some  as  the  Arabia  thus  referred  to,  while  others  consider 
Petraean  Arabia  to  be  intended.  From  Petra,  in  the  Roman  period, 
a  great  road  led  to  Damascus,  and  the  Arabian  Jews  described  in 
Acts  ii.  11,  as  being  present  in  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost, 
probably  came  from  there.  On  the  other  hand,  the  proximity  of 
Syrian  Arabia  to  Damascus  is  a  great  argument  in  its  favour. 

Aram  [D"),  possibly  the  same  name  as  D"^^?,  'Apufi,  Aram],  an 
ancestor  of  our  Lord,  son  of  Esron,  and  father  of  Aminadab.  In 
the  Old  Testament  he  is  called  Ram  (Ruth  iv.  19 ;  1  Chron.  ii. 
9),  but  nothing  is  recorded  of  him  except  his  name.  In  the  New 
Testament  he  only  appears  in  the  genealogies  (Matt.  i.  3,  4j 
Luke  iii.  33). 

Archelaus.     See  Kerod. 

Arcbippus  ['Apx'TTTTog,  Archij^pus'],  a  Christian  at  Colossas, 
entrusted  with  a  ministry  (cKiKovia)  to  which  Paul  exhorts  him 
to  take  heed  that  he  fulfil  it  (Col.  iv.  17).  He  is  further  saluted 
in  Philem.  2  as  Paul's  feUow-soldier. 


288        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Areopag-us  [u  "Aptiag  TTciyoc,  Areopuf/us,  '  Mars'  hill/  A.  V.],  a 
rocky  eminence  in  Athens,  west  of  the  Acropolis,  sloping  towards 
the  north,  and  having  a  steep  declivity  of  about  fifty  feet  to  the 
south.  On  its  summit,  approached  by  sixteen  stone  steps,  still 
preserved,  was  held  the  court  of  Areopagus,  consisting  of  all  ex- 
Archons,  and  regarded  as  the  highest  Athenian  court.  To  this 
place  Paul  was  brought,  after  daily  disputations  in  the  synagogue 
and  the  market  (dyopd),  and  required  to  give  an  account  cf  his 
new  doctrine.  His  reply  is  contained  in  Acts  xvii.  22-31.  It 
mainly  consisted  of  a  declaration  against  idolatry,  and  a  proclama- 
tion of  future  judgment  by  Christ,  testified  to  in  his  resurrection. 
Dionysius,  an  Areopagite,  or  member  of  the  court,  was  converted 
by  this  discourse ;  and  tradition  declares  that  he  afterwards  became 
the  first  bishop  of  Athens.  But  of  the  rest,  '  some  mocked,  and 
others  said.  We  will  hear  thee  again  of  this.' 

Aretas  ['Aptrac,  Aretas'],  king  of  Petra,  but  in  possession  of 
Damascus  when  Saul  returned  thither  from  his  sojourn  in  Arabia. 
His  governor  (i9udpxn<:)  kept  watch  over  the  city  night  and  day, 
in  order  to  apprehend  Saul,  but  the  disciples  let  the  apostle  down 
from  the  wall  in  a  basket  (aapydv)]),  and  he  escaped  (2  Cor.  xi.  33). 
Aretas  was  the  father-in-law  of  Herod  Antipas,  by  whom  his 
daughter  was  divorced  in  order  that  he  might  marry  Herodias, 
and  this  divorce  was  the  chief  occasion  of  a  war  between  the  two 
monarchs,  in  which  Aretas  was  entirely  successful.  Soon  after- 
wards Antipas  was  disgraced  and  banished,  and  it  has  been 
thought  that  Damascus  was  then  given  to  Aretas  by  the  emperor 
Caligula. 

Arimatliea  [_'Apina9nla,  Ai'imatJicBa],  a  city  '  of  the  Jews ' 
(Luke  xxiii.  51),  identified  by  many  with  Ramah,  or  Ramathaini 
(Pai^mOaiiJ,  LXX.),  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Sam. 
i.  1,  19),  and  probably  situated  on  the  summit  of  the  eminence 
Nehj  Satmvil,  about  four  miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem.  It  appears 
in  the  New  Testament  as  ^  the  city  of '  Joseph,  a  rich  man  who 
came  to  Pilate  and  begged  the  body  of  Jesus,  for  the  purpose  of 
burying  it  in  his  own  new  tomb  (Matt,  xxvii.  57 ;  Mark  xv.  43 ; 
Luke  xxiii.  51 ;  John  xix.  38) 

Aristarchus  \^ AplaTapxoQ,  Aristarchtis'],  a  Macedonian  of  Thes- 
salonica,  and  one  of  Paul's  companions  in  travel.  Being  with 
Paul  at  Ephesus,  Aristarchus  and  Gains  were  seized  by  the  mob 
and  hurried  into  the  theatre,  but  Paul's  own  arrival  appears  to 
have  diverted  public  attention  from  them,  and  the  politic  conduct 
of  the  town-clerk  afterwards  appeased  the  tumult  (Acts  xix. 


AREOPAG  US— ASIA.  289 

29-41).  In  Acts  xx.  4  he  appears  as  one  of  Paul's  companions  on 
his  return  to  Asia,  and  in  Acts  xxvii.  2,  as  one  of  his  companions 
on  board  the  sliip  which  was  to  carry  the  apostle  towards  Rome. 
In  Col,  iv.  10  Paul  calls  him  his  fellow-prisoner,  and  in  Philem.  24 
his  fellow-labourer  -,  and  coupling  the  fact  that  both  these  epistles 
were  in  all  likelihod  written  from  Rome  with  the  above  in- 
dications of  companionship  with  Paul  in  widely  remote  places 
and  on  several  occasions,  it  may  be  fairly  concluded  that  Aristarchus 
was  a  personal  friend  and  constant  companion  of  the  apostle.  But 
nothing  further  is  certainly  known  with  regard  to  him. 

Aristobulus  ['ApKrrojSovXot,  Aristobolus],  a  person  whose  house- 
hold is  saluted  in  Rom.  xvi.  10. 

Armag'edclon  ['ApijaytSSojij  At'magedon],  the  battle-field  of 
'  the  great  day  of  God  Almighty '  (Rev.  xvi.  14),  '  called  in  the 
Hebrew  tongue  Armageddon'  (Rev.  xvi.  16),  i.e.  the  hill  or  city 
of  Megiddo.  Dean  Stanley  compares  the  name  with  Ar  Gerizim, 
and  suggests  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  as  having  been  present,  under 
this  title,  to  the  vision  of  the  apocalyptic  seer. 

ilrpbaxad  [*l^DS"lt?  'Aptpa^ad,  'Arphaxad]  father  of  Cainan, 
and  son  of  Sem,  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  36).  No 
information  is  given  in  the  Old  Testament  regarding  him,  beyond 
his  mention  in  genealogies  (Gen.  x.  22 ;  xi.  10). 

Artemas  ['Aprsjuag,  Artemas],  an  intended  messenger  from  Paul 
to  Titus  (Tit.  iii.  12). 

Asa  [i^pX,  perhaps  =py^y.S2mw,  'Ao-a^,  Asa],  a  king  of  Judah, 
grandson  of  Rehoboam,  who  reigned  B.C.  955-914.  His  history  is 
recounted  in  1  Kings  xv.  9-24,  and  2  Chron.  xiv.-xvi.  From  this 
we  learn  that  on  the  whole  he  must  be  regarded  as  a  wise  and  pious 
prince,  although  in  his  old  age,  being  diseased  in  his  feet,  he 
*  sought  not  to  the  Lord,  but  to  the  physicians.'  In  the  New 
Testament,  Asa  only  appears  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Matt. 
i.  7,  8). 

Aser  \y^^  =  fortunate^  'Aff>7p,  Aser],  one  of  the  Israelitish 
tribes,  occupying  the  fertile  plain  and  country  adjoining  the  bay  of 
Acre.  Of  this  tribe  was  the  aged  Anna,  daughter  of  Phanuel, 
who  came  into  the  temple  at  the  circumcision  of  our  Lord,  and 
gave  thanks  likewise  (Luke  ii.  36).  Of  this  tribe  also  were  sealed 
12,000  among  the  144,000  sealed  ones  of  Rev.  vii.  6. 

Asia  [//  'Ao-i'a,  Asia],  used  in  the  New  Testament  to  denote  the 
Roman  province  which  occupied  the  western  portion  of  the  modern 
Asia  Minor.     The  basis  of  this  province  was  laid  by  the  last  wiU 

V 


290       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

of  Attains  III.,  king  of  Pergamus,  who  died  133  B.C.,  and  left  Lis 
dominions  to  the  Eoman  Kepiiblic.  The  province  included 
Ephesus  and  many  other  important  cities,  and  was  governed  first 
by  a  Praetor,  as  a  province  appertaining  to  the  emperor,  and  after- 
wards by  a  pro-consul  (dvOvTraro^,  Acts  xix.  38),  as  a  province 
appertaining  to  the  senate.  Pious  Jews  from  Asia  assembled  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9),  and  similar  persons  disputed  with 
Stephen  regarding  the  faith  (Acts  vi.  9).  In  Acts  xvi.  6,  we  find 
Paul,  after  his  missionary  journey  through  Phrygia  and  Galatia, 
desirous  of  preaching  the  word  (XaXfiv  top  XSyov)  in  Asia,  but 
turning  away,  and  passing  into  Macedonia,  the  Spirit  not  suffering 
them.  On  his  return  from  Europe  to  Jerusalem,  the  apostle 
touched  at  Ephesus,  and  left  there  Priscilla  and  Aquila,  whom  he 
had  brought  from  Corinth.  These  persons,  together  with  Apollos, 
whom  they  had  instructed,  may  have  laid  the  foundations  of  an 
Asian  church,  for  Paul  returning  to  Ephesus  from  Jerusalem, 
found  there  '  certain  disciples '  (Acts  xix,  1),  baptised  unto  the 
baptism  of  John,  but  not  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  These 
disciples  being  baptised,  and  Paul's  hands  having  been  laid  on 
them,  the  Holy  Ghost  came  on  them.  The  apostle  now  took  up 
his  residence  at  Ephesus,  and  with  the  exception  of  a  short  visit 
to  Corinth,  remained  there  three  years.  The  effect  of  this  was 
the  rapid  spread  of  the  gospel  through  Asia,  and  ultimately  a  riot 
of  the  worshippers  of  Diana,  described  in  Acts  xix.  The  extent  to 
which  the  gospel  was  accepted  in  this  province  may  also  be  judged 
from  the  fact  that  three  epistles  are  addressed  to  Asian  churches, 
viz.  Galatians,  Ephesians,  and  Colossians ;  that  the  '  churches 
of  Asia '  are  referred  to  in  1  Cor.  xvi.  19 ;  and  that  the  seven 
churches  whose  angels  are  addressed  in  Pev.  i.-iii.  were  all  in 
Asia.  In  Pom.  xvi.  5,  '  Asia '  should  be  read  instead  of  Achaia. 
See  further  under  Achaia. 

Assos  ["Ao-croc,  Assosl,  a  city  of  Mysia,  the  northern  portion  of 
the  province  of  Asia,  and  situated  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  gulf 
of  Adramyttium.  To  this  town  Paul  came  '  afoot  (-n-tZfvMu)  '  from 
Troas,  about  twenty  miles  distant  across  the  promontory  of  Lectum, 
to  join  the  ship  which  was  bringing  Luke  and  other  companions 
from  the  same  place,  and  which  went  round  the  cape.  Having 
then  received  the  apostle  on  board  at  Assos,  the  ship  continued 
its  voyage  to  Mitylene,  and  there  anchored  for  the  night  (Acts  xx. 
13,14). 

Asyncrltus  [_' AcrvyKpiroc,  Asyncrih(s],  a  person  saluted  in  Rom. 
xvi.  14.     Nothing  further  is  known  of  him. 


ASSOS— ATTALIA.  291 

Athens,  Athenians  ['A^Jjp'o',  Athence  ;  adj.  ^ A9i]valci,  Athenien- 
ses].  The  capital  of  Attica,  a  triangular  semi-peninsula  lying  just  out- 
side the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  north-east  of  the  peninsula  of  Greece. 
In  New  Testament  times  it  formed  part  of  the  Roman  province 
of  Achaia,  and  was  celebrated,  both  for  the  beauty  of  its  public 
buildings  and  as  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  learning.  To  Athens 
the  wealthy  Romans  were  accustomed  to  send  their  sons,  as  young 
men  are  now  sent  to  a  University.  In  the  centre  of  the  city  was 
a  rocky  eminence,  about  150  feet  high,  called  the  Acropolis,  and 
surmounted  by  many  temples,  chief  amongst  which  were  the 
Parthenon,  or  temple  of  the  '  virgin '  Athene  (jrapQkvov  Gr.  = 
virgin),  and  the  Erectheum,  a  triple  temple.  Slightly  north-west 
of  the  Acropolis  was  Areopagus,  or  the  hill  of  Mars ;  and  in  the 
valley  lying  west  of  Acropolis,  and  south  of  Areopagus,  was  the 
Agora,  or  '  market.'  Athens  was  visited  by  Paul  during  his  second 
missionary  journey,  and  he  appears  to  have  travelled  by  sea  from 
Berea,  whence  popular  irritation  against  the  teachers  of  the 
gospel  had  compelled  him  to  retire.  At  Berea,  Silas  and 
Timotheus  had  been  with  him  ;  and  while  he  waited  for  them  to 
join  him  at  Athens,  the  spirit  of  the  apostle  was  stirred  within 
him  by  the  aspect  of  a  city  '  wholly  given  to  idolatry  (/carti^wXor)  '. 
Hereupon  he  commenced  discussions  in  the  synagogue,  and  in  the 
Agora,  until  his  proceedings  attracted  great  public  attention,  and 
he  was  brought  before  the  court  of  Areopagus  (see  Areopagus)  to 
give  an  account  of  his  doctrine.  His  spaech  before  the  court  is 
found  in  Acts  xvii.  22-31.  Beginning  with  a  reference  to  an  altar 
to  the  Unknown  God  ('Ayvw(Tr<f>  Of'/j),  the  apostle  declared  that 
it  was  his  object  to  preach  this  unknown  God.  He  then  showed 
the  folly  and  sin  of  idolatry,  and  declared  the  coming  of  a  resur- 
rection, and  of  a  judgment  by  '  that  man  whom  God  had  ordained, 
and  whom  he  had  raised  irom  the  dead.'  The  result  of  this 
address  was  that  some  mocked,  others  spoke  of  a  further  hearing, 
and  some  few  clave  unto  Paul,  of  whom  were  Dionysius  an 
Areopagite  and  a  woman  named  Damaris.  Paul  afterwards  left 
Athens  for  Corinth,  but  from  1  Thess.  iii.  1,  2,  it  appears  that 
Timotheus  had  previously  joined  him  there,  and  been  sent  forward 
to  Macedonia.  Of  the  Athenian  church  little  further  is  known, 
but  it  appears  to  have  long  continued  in  a  weak  state,  and  at  one 
time  to  have  been  almost  entirely  dispersed. 

Attalia  ['Arr«\6ta,  Attalia'].  A  town  to  which  Paul  came  from 
Perga,  and  from  whence  he  sailed  to  Antioch,  on  his  first  mis- 
sionary journey  (Acts  xiv.  26).     It  was  situated  on  the  coast  of 

u  2 


292       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Pamplijlia,  near  the  moutli  of  the  river  Catarrhactes.  Now 
Satalia. 

Aug^ustus  [Avyovrrroc,  Augustus],  a  title  conferred  "by  the 
Senate,  B.C.  27,  on  Caius  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus,  the  second 
Roman  emperor,  and  continued  to  his  successors.  The  title  is  used 
twice  in  the  New  Testament,  referring  to  (1)  the  above  second 
emperor,  generally  known  as  Augustus.  He  was  the  grand-nephew 
of  Julius  Caesar,  and  died  at  Nola,  in  Campania,  a.d.  14,  being 
76  years  old.  This  Augustus  was  the  emperor  under  whom  the 
decree  went  forth  that  all  the  world  should  be  taxed  (o6y/xa  xopa 
'KalaapoQ  'A.  dTroypacpecrPai  Traaav  r?}v  oiKOVfisvrjv,  Luke  ii.  1),  in  whose 
reign,  and  in  a  province  of  whose  empire,  Jesus  Christ  was  born;  (2) 
Nero  Claudius  Ccesar  Drusus  Germanicus,  fifth  Roman  emperor, 
and  commonly  known  as  Nero.  He  began  to  reign  a.d.  54,  and 
killed  himself  a.d.  68.  Nero  was  the  Augustus  referred  to  in  Acts 
XXV.  21,  to  be  reserved  to  the  hearing  of  whom  Paul  appealed ; 
but  here  the  Greek  has  (TefBacrrdc,  and  not  avyovaToc.  For  Auffustus^ 
band  see  Section  4. 

Azor  ['A^wp,  ^;:or],  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  sou  ofEliakim  and 
father  of  Sadoc  (Matt.  i.  13,  14).  Nothing  further  is  known  of 
him. 

Azotus  ["A^wroc,  Azotus],  the  city  at  which  Philip  the  evange- 
list was  found,  after  being  caught  away  by  the  Spirit,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  his  interview  with  the  eunuch  of  Caudace  (Acts  viii.  40). 
One  of  the  five  cities  of  the  Philistine  confederacy,  and  situated 
about  three  miles  from  the  sea,  between  Gaza  and  Joppa. 
Having  been  burned  by  the  Maccabees,  it  was  rebuilt  B.C.  55  by 
Gabinius,  but  is  now  only  an  insignificant  village,  named  Esdud. 

Babylon  [^33  =  confusion,  Ba(3v\wv,  Babylon'].  1.  An  ancient 
and  important  city  whose  site  is  generally  identified  with  a  series 
of  artificial  mounds  of  immense  size,  about  five  miles  from  HillaJi 
on  the  Euphrates.  It  was  founded  by  Nimrod  (Gen.  x.  10 ;  xi.  9), 
and  appears  at  an  early  date  to  have  been  subject  to  the  Assyrian 
kings  of  Nineveh.  In  B.C.  606,  Nabopolassar,  father  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, overthrew  the  Assyrian  empire,  and  established  Babylon 
as  the  centre  of  his  own  power.  Nebuchadnezzar  raised  the 
Babylonish  power  to  a  still  greater  height,  but  the  city  was  taken 
and  destroyed  under  his  grandson  Belshazzar  by  Cyrus,  King  of 
the  Persians  and  Medes.  It  then  became  one  of  the  capitals  of 
the  Persian  empire,  but  gradually  sank,  and  has  long  been  so  utterly 
ruined  that  even  its  site  has  been  matter  of  controversy.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  formed  a  square,  with  sides  each  120  stadia  or 


AUGUSTUS— BALAAM.  293 

15  miles  long,  and  to  Lave  been  defended  by  walls  200  cubits  bigh 
and  50  cubits  thick  Among  its  many  magnificent  buildings  were 
the  temple  of  Belus,  eight  stories  high,  ascended  by  an  exterior 
helical  staircase,  and  the  hanging  gardens  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 
Many  references  to  Babylon  occur  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  in 
the  New  Testament  only  the  '  carrying  away  into  Babylon 
(jue-otKKTta  Baf^uXwj'ot)  '  is  distinctly  mentioned.  This  event  ia 
taken  as  a  middle  point  for  chronological  reckoning  between  David 
and  Christ,  fourteen  generations  being  counted  on  each  side  (Matt. 
i.  17.)  (The  arrangement  of  the  three  ^fourteens'  here  is  easy. 
1.  From  Abraham  to  David  (inclusive) ;  2,  From  David  to  Josias 
(cf.  ver.  11).  3.  From  Jechonias  to  Jesus  Christ,  Jechonias  is  not 
reckoned  twice  over,  as  David,  because  a  jjoint  of  time,  and  not  a 
person,  is  taken  as  the  further  limit  of  the  second  period.  See 
Alford.)  It  is  also  adduced  in  the  speech  of  Stephen  before  the 
Sanhedrim  (Acts  vii.  43),  adapting  rather  than  quoting  Amos 
V.  25,  26.  Stephen  seems  to  have  used  'Babylon'  instead  of 
'  Damascus/  the  city  mentioned  by  Amos,  because  he  wished 
to  draw  attention  to  the  place  to  which  Judah,  and  not  Israel, 
should  be  exiled.  (See  Lee's  Inspiration  of  Scripture,  Appendix 
H.)  The  place  from  which  1  Peter  was  written  is  also  inferred 
to  be  Babylon  on  the  Euphrates,  from  the  words  '  the  church  at 
Babylon  saluteth  you '  (1  Peter  v.  13).  Many  have  thought 
that  Rome,  and  not  Babylon,  is  intended ;  but  there  are  no  solid 
reasons  for  the  supposition ;  and  it  is  noticeable  that  the  places,  to 
the  strangers  in  which  Peter  writes  (viz.  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappa- 
docia,  &c.)  are  given  nearly  in  the  order  of  geographical  distance 
from  Babylon,  i.e.  in  the  natural  order  in  which  those  districts 
would  present  themselves  to  one  writing  from  Babylon  to  western 
churches. 

2.  The  name  Babylon  occurs  in  Rev.  xvi.  19  ('  The  great  city 
was  divided  into  three  parts,  and  the  cities  of  the  nations  fell :  and 
great  Babylon  came  into  remembrance  before  God ')  ;  and  Rev. 
xvii.,  xviii.,  are  entirely  occupied  with  the  history  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  this  city,  represented  under  the  image  of  a  harlot,  arrayed 
in  purple  and  scarlet  colour.  Many  commentators  have  identified 
this  mystic  city  with  Papal  Rome. 

Balaam  [DV<5  perhaps  =  a  foreigner,  BaXaapi,  Balaam],  a  Mi- 
dianitish  prophet,  son  of  Beor,  and  dwelling  at  Pethor,  in  Mesopo- 
tamia (Deut.  xxiii.  4).  When  the  Israelites  approached  his 
country,  with  a  view  to  pass  through  it  into  Canaan,  Balak  king 
of  Moab  sent  for  Balaam  to  curse  them.     The  prophet  complied, 


294       ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

altbougli  God  at  first  forbade  bis  compliance,  and  notwithstanding 
that  an  angel  stood  in  the  way,  and  that  his  ass,  temfied  by  the 
angel,  refused  to  proceed,  and  opened  her  mouth  to  rebuke  her 
master.  On  his  arrival  in  Moab,  Balaam  endeavoured  to  carry  out 
the  wishes  of  Balak,  but  was  forbidden  by  God  to  curse  Israel,  and 
commanded  to  bless  them  (Num.  xxii.-xxiv.).  Thus  baffled, 
Balaam  advised  Balak  to  tempt  the  Israelites  to  sin  by  means  of 
Moabite  and  Midianitish  women,  and  licentious  idolatrous  rites. 
This  plan  was  only  too  successful,  but  the  Israelites  were  punished 
for  their  conduct  in  yielding  to  the  temptation  by  a  plague,  iu 
which  24,000  died  (Num.  xxv.).  In  vengeance  for  these  crimes,  war 
was  now  made  upon  the  Midianites,  a  battle  was  fought,  the  kings 
of  Midian  were  slain,  and  Balaam  himself  was  put  to  the  sword 
(Num.  xxxi.  1-8).  Three  New  Testament  authors  refer  to  this 
history.  2  Peter  ii.  15  describes  unworthy  disciples  as  '  following 
the  way  of  Balaam,  the  son  of  Bosor,  who  loved  the  wages  of  un- 
righteousness, but  was  rebuked  for  his  iniquity  j  the  dumb  ass, 
speaking  with  man's  voice,  forbad  the  madness  of  the  prophet.' 
Speaking  of  a  similar  class,  Jude  11  says  that  they  '  ran  greedily 
in  the  way  of  Balaam  for  reward.'  In  Rev.  ii.  14,  15,  the  angel 
of  the  church  in  Pergamos  is  thus  addressed  ;  ^  I  have  a  few  things 
against  thee,  because  thou  hast  there  them  that  hold  the  doctrine 
of  Balaam,  who  taught  Balac  to  cast  a  stumbling-block  before  the 
children  of  Israel,  to  eat  things  sacrificed  to  idols,  and  to  commit 
fornication.  So  hast  thou  also  them  that  hold  the  doctrine  of  the 
Nicolaitanes,  which  I  also  (/cayw)  hate.'  If  the  meaning  of  Balaam 
be  '  the  lord  of  the  people '  (from  7^5  and  Dy),  there  is  a  curious 
identity  between  the  names  of  Balaam  and  Nicolaus,  which  also  = 
lord  of  the  people.     See  Nicolaitanes  in  Sect.  4. 

Balac  \jh'^  =  empty,  BaXaK,  Balac],  referred  to  in  Eev.  ii.  14. 
See  Balaam. 

Barabbas  [Bapa/3/3ag,  Barahhas\  '  a  robber  '  whose  liberation 
was  demanded  by  the  people  before  Pilate,  instead  of  that  of  Jesus 
(Matt,  xxvii.  15-17,  20,  21 ;  Mark  xv.  6-11 ;  Luke  xxiii.  18,  19; 
John  xviii.  40).  It  was  the  custom  to  release  a  prisoner  at  the 
feast,  but  when  Pilate  demanded  whether  he  should  release  Jesus 
or  Barabbas,  the  people,  instigated  by  the  chief  priests,  cried  out 
*  Not  this  man,  but  Barabbas.'  The  Armenian  version,  and  some 
MSS.  of  small  authority,  insert  'Ijjcrori'  before  the  name  of  Barabbas 
in  Matt,  xxvii.  17 ;  but  no  important  MS.  supports  this  reading. 

Barachias  [Bapaxiac,  Barachias\  the  father  of  Zacharias,  who 
was  slain  '  between  the  temple  and  the  altar  '  (Matt,  xxiii.  35). 


BALAC— BAENABAS.  295 

The  insertion  of  this  name  has  created  a  difficulty,  as  Zechariah 
the  prophet,  who  was  thus  slain,  was  the  son  of  Jehoiada  (2  Chrou. 
xxiv.  20,  21).  In  Luke  xi.  51  Barachias  is  not  mentioned  as  the 
father  of  Zacharias,  and  hence  it  has  been  conjectured  that  the 
words  ^  son  of  Barachias '  have  crept  into  the  text  from  some 
confusion  in  a  cop}dst's  mind  between  Zechariah  the  son  of  Jehoiada, 
and  Zechariah  son  of  Berechiah,  the  prophet.  This  conjecture  is 
confirmed  by  the  omission  by  X  of  the  words  (in  Matt,  xxiii.  35) 
♦  son  of  Barachias.'     See  Zacharias. 

Barak  [p^2,  Bapa/c,  Barac],  referred  to  in  Heb.  xi.  32  as  an 
instance  of  the  power  of  faith.  He  was  the  son  of  Abinoam,  and 
a  native  of  Kedesh-Naphtali.  "With  the  aid  of  Deborah,  a  pro- 
phetess, he  defeated  Sisera,  the  general  of  Jabin  king  of  Canaan, 
whose  capital  was  at  Hazor  on  Lake  Merom.  Fleeing  away  from 
the  battle,  Sisera  was  slain  by  Jael,  the  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite, 
and  further  warfare  seems  to  have  followed,  until  the  power  of 
Jabin  was  utterly  destroyed.  Judges  v.  contains  a  remarkable 
song  of  triumph,  sung  by  Deborah  and  Barak  after  the  victory. 

Bar-Jesus  [^apirjaovi;,  Barjesu]^  the  Hebrew  name  of  Elymas, 
a  sorcerer  who  withstood  Saul  and  Barnabas  before  Sergiua 
Paulus,  the  deputy  or  proconsul  of  Crete,  and  sought  to  turn  him 
from  the  faith,  which  he  appeared  likely  to  embrace.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  opposition,  he  was  smitten  blind  for  a  season  by 
Saul,  and  Sergius  Paulus  himself,  astonished  at  the  miracle, 
believed  (Acts  xiii.  6-12). 

Bar-Tona  [Bdp  'liova,  Bar  Jona\  a  name  by  which  our  Lord 
addressed  the  apostle  Peter,  when  talking  with  his  disciples  as  to 
the  various  opinions  entertained  with  respect  to  himself,  and 
before  solemnly  confirming  to  him  the  name  of  Peter  (Matt.  xvi. 
17).  The  use  of  the  name  (  =  son  of  Jonas)  at  such  a  time  was 
no  doubt  intended  to  call  attention  to  the  fleshly  origin  of  the 
apostle,  about  to  be  superseded  by  a  spiritual  birth. 

Barnabas  \_Bapva(iag^  vVoq  TrapaKXrjaeojc,  Bamahas,  Films  conso- 
lationis],  the  surname  given  by  the  apostles  to  Joses,  or  Joseph,  a 
Levite  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  who,  having  land,  sold  it,  and  gave 
it  to  the  common  stock  of  the  primitive  Christians  (xlcts  iv.  36). 
The  reason  of  this  surname  being  attached  to  Joses  does  not  appear, 
nor  is  its  exact  meaning  apparent.  (The  usual  explanation  is  that 
Barnabas  =  ^^5•13^"I2  =  son  of  'prophecy,'  rather  than  '  consolation,' 
as  A.V.  n&5-Up  occurs  in  Neh.  vi.  12;  2  Chron.  xv.  8.  But 
many  commentators,  as  Olshausen,  consider  the  derivation  un- 
certain).    In  Acts  ix.  27,  he  appears  as  taking  Saul,  of  whom  all 


296        ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

the  disciples  were  afraid,  bringing  him  to  the  apostles,  and 
declaring  (apparently  from  a  personal  knowledge)  the  facts  of  his 
conversion  and  subsequent  preaching  at  Damascus.  In  Acts  xi. 
19-26,  Barnabas  appears  as  the  messenger  from  the  church  in 
Jerusalem,  to  inquire  into  the  preachirrg  of  the  gospel  to  the 
Grecians  at  Antioch  by  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  Being  *  a 
good  man  (ar?/p  oya-V)c),  and  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  faith/ 
and  being  convinced  that  the  work  was  of  God,  he  was  glad,  and 
having  gone  to  Tarsus,  and  fetched  Saul,  remained  a  whole  year. 
At  the  close  of  the  year,  he  was  sent  with  Saul  from  Antioch  with 
relief  for  the  Christians  at  Jerusalem,  then  suffering  under  the 
dearth  prophesied  by  Agabus  (a.d.  45).  During  the  persecution 
in  which  James  the  son  of  Zebedee  was  slain,  and  Peter  impri- 
soned, Barnabas  seems  to  have  remained  at  Jerusalem,  whence, 
after  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  he  returned  with  Saul  and 
his  nephew  John  Mark  to  Antioch  (Acts  xii.  25).  Barnabas  was 
now  chosen  by  the  Holy  Ghost  as  the  companion  of  Saul  in  his 
first  missionary  journey,  with  him  visited  Cyprus,  Perga,  Antioch 
in  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe  in  L^^caonia,  and  returned 
through  Attalia  to  Antioch  (Acts  xiii.,  xiv.),  where  they  remained 
a  long  time.  As  far  as  Perga,  John  Mark  accompanied  them. 
The  title  of  '  apostle  '  is  given  to  Barnabas  during  this  journey,  in 
conjunction  with  Paul  (Acts  xiv.  14),  but  not  used  of  him  else- 
where in  the  New  Testament.  From  Antioch,  Barnabas  and 
Paul,  and  certain  others  (among  whom  was  probably  Titus, 
Gal.  ii.  3),  were  some  time  afterwards  (a.d.  52  ?)  sent  to  Jeru- 
salem, to  discuss  with  the  apostles  and  elders  there  the  ques- 
tion of  the  circumcision  of  the  Gentiles  (Acts  xv.  1-31 ;  Gal. 
ii.  1-10).  Much  contention  at  first  arose,  but  at  length  an 
assembly  of  the  apostles,  elders,  and  brethren  was  held,  a  de- 
cision come  to,  and  the  right  hand  of  fellowship  given  to  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  on  the  understanding  that  they  should  go  to  the 
Gentiles,  and  the  other  apostles  to  the  Jews.  With  the  decree 
of  the  council  at  Jerusalem,  Barnabas  and  Paul  now  returned  to 
Antioch,  and  there  continued  for  a  while.  After  some  time,  a  second 
missionary  journey  was  proposed  to  Barnabas  by  Paul  (Acts  xv, 
36),  with  the  intention  of  revisiting  the  scenes  of  their  former 
preaching.  To  this  Barnabas  agreed ;  but  when  he  desired  to  take 
his  nephew  John  Mark  with  him,  Paul  objected  on  account  of  John's 
former  return  from  Perga  in  Pamphylia,  '  and  the  contention  was 
so  sharp  between  them,  that  they  departed  asunder,  the  one  from 
the  other,  and  so  Barnabas  took  Mark  and  sailed  to  Cyprus,  and 


EAKNABAS— BARTIM^US.  297 

Paul  chose  Silas,  and  departed,  being  recommended  (7rapa^o9eiQ) 
by  the  brethren  to  the  grace  of  God '  (Acts  xv.  39,  40).  No  fur- 
ther statement  with  regard  to  the  work  of  Barnabas  is  found  in  the 
New  Testament,  but  from  1  Cor.  ix.  6,  it  has  been  inferred  that 
his  custom  was  to  maintain  himself,  and  not  be  at  the  charges  of 
those  to  whom  he  ministered.  Tradition  further  numbers  him 
among  the  seventj'  disciples,  and  declares  him  to  have  preached 
in  Eome,  and  become  bishop  of  Milan.  Several  apocryphal  books 
are  also  ascribed  to  him,  and  notably  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  in 
twenty-one  chapters. 

Barsabas  [Bapaa/Sac,  Barsabas],  the  surname  of — 1.  Joseph, 
also  surnamed  Justus,  appointed  as  one  of  the  two  from  whom  a 
successor  to  the  apostleship  of  Judas  Iscariot  was  to  be  selected 
(Acts  i.  23)  ;  2.  Judas,  sent  with  Paul,  Barnabas,  and  Silas  to 
convey  the  decree  of  the  council  at  Jerusalem  on  Gentile  circum- 
cision to  the  church  at  Antioch  (Acts  xv.  22).  On  his  arrival,  he 
*  exhorted  the  brethren  with  many  words,  and  confirmed  {t-Kia-ij- 
pi%t)  them,'  being  regarded  as  a  prophet,  and  then  returned  to  the 
apostles  (Acts  xv.  32,  33).  Some  regard  him  as  a  brother  of  (1), 
but  on  no  certain  grounds. 

Bartholome'w  \^u7'&"^'^  —  S07i  of  Tohnaij  BapOoXofxaloc,  Bartho- 
lo^nceus],  one  of  the  apostles,  mentioned  in  the  lists  of  Matt.  x.  3, 
Mark  iii.  18,  and  Luke  vi.  14,  in  conjunction  with  Philip,  and 
also  mentioned  in  the  list  of  Acts  i.  13.  John  does  not  mention 
Bartholomew,  but  he  mentions  Nathanael  of  Cana  in  Galilee  in 
the  company  of  the  apostles  to  whom  Jesus  Christ  appeared  after 
his  resurrection  at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  (xxi.  2),  and  he  also  states 
that  Nathanael  was  brought  by  Philip  to  Jesus.  Hence  it  is  sup- 
posed that  Bartholomew  is  a  patronymic  of  Nathanael,  of  whom 
Jesus  Christ  said,  on  beholding  him,  *  Behold  an  Israelite  indeed, 
in  whom  is  no  guile  (poXog  oz'k  (-Vt)),'  John  i.  47.  He  appears  to 
have  been  engaged  in  private  devotion  under  a  fig-tree,  and  to 
have  been  so  struck  by  the  knowledge  which  Jesus  showed  of 
this  fact,  that  he  at  once  admitted  him  to  be  the  '  Son  of  God.' 
Previously  to  this,  he  had  expressed  his  doubts  to  Philip  in  the 
proverbial  phrase,  'Can  any  good  thing  come  out  of  Nazareth  ?  ' 
Tradition  states  that  he  afterwards  preached  the  Gospel  in  India. 

Bartimseus  ["'5<pt3"1il  =  son  of  Timai,  Baprifxaiog,  BartimcBiis],  a 
blind  beggar,  or  (as  some  think)  the  principal  of  two  blind 
beggars,  of  Jericho.  He  was  healed  by  our  Lord  on  his  last 
journey  to  Jerusalem,  crying  out,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of 


298        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEAV   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

the  disciples  to  suppress  him,  '  Jesus,  son  of  David,  have  mercy  on 
me '  (Mark  x.  46-52).  Being  cured,  he  followed  JesuS;  but  no 
further  record  of  him  occurs.     See  p.  93,  note. 

Beelzebub.     See  Section  4,  under  Devil, 

Belial.     See  Section  4,  under  Devil. 

Berea  [B£(Oota,  Btpotaloc;,  Beroea^  Beroeensis],  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
visited  by  Paul  on  his  second  missionary  journey.  Being  com- 
pelled to  retire  from  Thessalonica,  he  and  Silas  came  by  night  to 
Berea,  and  there  made  many  converts,  both  amongst  the  Jews  and 
Greeks.  The  character  of  the  Bereans  contrasted  favourably  with 
that  of  the  Thessalonians,  as  they  were  '  more  noble  {tvyti-koTtpoi) ' 
and  '  received  the  word  with  all  readiness  of  mind,  and  searched 
the  Scriptures  daily,  whether  these  things  were  so  '  (Acts  xvii. 
10-12).  The  Jews  of  Thessalonica,  however,  hearing  of  this 
success,  came  and  stirred  up  popular  feeling  against  the  Gospel, 
and  Paul  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Athens,  leaving  Silas  and 
Timotheus  to  follow.  In  Acts  xx.  4,  Sopater  (SojTiarpoc)  of 
Berea  is  mentioned  as  accompanying  Paul  from  Greece  into  Asia, 
and  it  is  quite  possible  that  Berea  may  have  been  revisited  by  the 
apostle  during  the  abode  in  Greece  from  which  he  was  then  re- 
turning. Its  modern  name  is  Verria,  in  Koumelia,  and  it  contains 
between  15,000  and  20,000  people. 

Sernice  [BfpvjKj/,  Bernice\     See  Herod. 

Betbabara  \Br]Qai5apa,  Vulg.  reads  Bethania],  the  place  beyond 
Jordan  where  John  was  baptising  when  the  Jews  sent  priests  and 
Ijevites  from  Jerusalem  to  ask  him,  Who  art  thou  P  and  where  Jesus 
Christ  appears  to  have  been  baptised  (John  i.  28).  Most  ancient 
MSS.,  including  t{,  read  'Bethany,'  and,  if  this  be  the  reading, 
no  data  exist  for  certainly  determining  its  position.  If,  however, 
Bethabara  be  the  correct  reading,  it  may  be  a  corruption  of  Beth- 
nimrah,  and  correspond  to  Ni7nrin,  on  the  road  from  Jericho  to 
Es-Salt  5  or  it  may  =  Beth-barah,  the  fords  of  Jordan,  which  the 
Ephraimites  occupied  in  the  conflict  between  Gideon  and  the 
Midianites  (Judges  vii.  24),  near  which  Jacob  wrestled  with  the 
angel  (Gen.  xxxii.  22),  and  at  which  Jephthah  and  the  Gileadites 
slew  the  Ephraimites  (Judges  xii.  5,  6).  As  there  are  only  two 
principal  fords  of  Jordan  (viz.,  the  upper,  where  the  above  cir- 
cumstances occurred,  and  to  which  the  name  Bethbarah  is  un- 
questionably given,  and  the  lower  near  Jericho,  which  is  too  far 
from  Nazareth  to  have  been  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  baptism), 
there  are  strong  topographical  reasons  in  favour  of  Bethabara,  and 
not  Bethany,  being  the  true  reading  in  John  i.  28.     These  reasons, 


BEELZEBUB— BETHESD  A.  299 

in  fact,  induced  Origen,  notwithstanding-  the  MSS.,  to  insert  the 
received  reading. 

Betbany  [Br/0avto,  Bethania.  Two  derivations  of  the  name 
are  given,  1.  '';.''n"n''5=  house  of  dates,  and  2.  '';ii;"n''5  =  the  house 
of  the  poor].  1.  A  place  beyond  Jordan,  if  the  reading  'Betha- 
bara  '  in  John  i.  28,  be  wrong.     See  JBethahara. 

2.  A  village  in  the  Mount  of  Olives,  about  two  miles  east 
of  Jerusalem,  and  now  called  El  Azarieh.  The  ridge  of  Olivet 
screens  it  from  Jerusalem,  and  the  road  from  that  city  to  Jericho 
passes  through  it.  The  date-trees,  from  which  its  name  may 
fee  derived,  have  disappeared.  Here  lived  Lazarus,  with  his 
sisters  Martha  and  Marj^,  and  here  also  lived  Simon  the  leper, 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  husband  of  Martha.  The 
raising  of  Lazarus  from  the  dead  took  place  here  (John  xi.),  and 
a  deep  vault  in  the  rock  is  still  pointed  out  as  the  traditional  site 
of  the  €vent.  Here  also  came  Jesus  six  days  before  his  last 
passover,  and  here  a  supper  was  made,  at  which  Lazarus  sat,  and 
Martha  served,  while  Mary  anointed  His  feet  with  ointment 
(John  xii.  1-8).  From  Bethany  in  the  morning  He  made  His 
triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  and  here  He  spent  the  nights  of 
Passion  week,  the  days  being  spent  in  Jerusalem.  Our  Lord's 
ascension  also  took  place  near  Bethany,  for  ^  he  led  them  out  as 
far  as  Bethany,  ....  and  He  was  parted  from  them,  and  carried 
up  into  heaven '  (Luke  xxiv.  50,  51).  No  mention  is  made  of  the 
village  in  the  Old  Testament,  or  in  any  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, subsequent  to  the  gospels. 

Bethesda  [N'npri"n''2  =  house  of  mercy,  or  X^^^"n^5=  house 
of  the  flowing  of  water,  B/j^tfj^a,  JSethsaida],  a  pool  (Ko\vn(5}]Qpa), 
by  the  sheep-market  (lirl  Ty  TrpoiSariK?) :  perhaps  =  the  sheep-^«^e ; 
of.  Neh.  iii.  1,  32 ;  xii.  39 :  others  think  the  pool  was  called  Trpo- 
(3ariKi],  because  in  it  the  sacrifices  were  washed)  at  Jerusalem,  hav- 
ing five  porches  filled  with  sick  persons.  At  certain  seasons,  an 
angel  stepped  down  and  troubled  the  water,  and  the  first  one  to  step 
in  was  cured.  This  is  the  statement  of  John  v.  4,  but  internal 
evidence  is  against  the  verse,  and  only  one  good  MS.  contains 
it.  Here  had  lain,  for  a  long  while,  a  man  with  an  infirmity  of 
thirty-eight  years'  standing,  but  Jesus  having  said  to  him.  Rise,  he 
took  up  his  bed  and  walked.  This  cure  was  effected  on  the 
sabbath-day,  and  the  carrying  of  a  bed  on  this  day  by  his  order 
led  to  the  persecution  of  Jesus  as  a  sabbath-breaker  (John  v.). 
A  tradition  to  which  no  certainty  attaches,  identifies  Bethesda 


800        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

■with  Birket  Israel,  a  large  reservoir,  seventy-five  feet  deep,  north- 
east of  the  Haram. 

Bethlebem  [DPI ?"n''5  =  house  of  bread,  J3?;0Afs^(,  Bethlehem]  a 
town  of  Judah,  five  miles  south-west  of  Jerusalem.  It  is 
situated  on  the  narrow  ridge  of  a  long  hill,  and  is  now  called 
Beit-laliin.  It  is  sometimes  called  Bethlehem  Judah,  in  order  to 
distinguish  it  from  another  Bethlehem  in  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix. 
15),  and  is  first  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxxv.  19,  under  the  name 
of  Ephrath,  as  the  place  where  Rachel  died,  and  Jacob  set  up  a 
monumental  pillar.  This  name  it  retained  until  a  late  date,  being 
referred  to  in  Micah  v.  2,  under  the  same  name  ('  Thou,  Bethle- 
hem Ephratah,  though  thou  be  little  among  the  thousands  of 
Judah,  yet  out  of  thee  shall  he  come  forth  unto  me  that  is  to  be 
ruler  in  Israel,  whose  goings  forth  have  been  from  of  old,  from 
everlasting').  The  incidents  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Ruth 
took  place  here,  and  here  David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  and  future 
king  of  Israel,  was  born.  Comparing  Jer.  xli.  17,  with  the 
history  of  Chimham,  son  of  Barzillai,  as  given  in  2  Sam.  xix. 
37_40j  and  taking  into  account  the  circumstance  that  Bethlehem 
has  been  from  time  immemorial  the  first  halting-place  for 
travellers  from  Jerusalem  to  Egypt,  it  has  been  conjectured  that 
the  Inn,  or  khan,  of  Bethlehem,  was  the  ancestral  house  of  the 
family  of  David,  given  by  him  to  Chimham,  but  afterwards 
used  as  a  public  caravanserai.  Bethlehem  being  thus  the  city  of 
the  family  of  David,  Joseph  the  supposed  father  of  our  Lord,  who 
was  of  the  family  of  David,  made  his  way  from  Nazareth  to  this 
city,  in  order  to  be  taxed,  or  reckoned  in  the  census  (of  Quirinus) 
ordered  by  Augustus  Csesar  in  a.d.  4 ;  and  with  him  went  Mary, 
his  espoused  wife.  The  inn  (referred  to  above)  being  full,  they 
took  refuge  in  a  stable,  and  there  our  Saviour  was  born  (Matt,  ii. 
1 ;  Luke  ii.  1-7).  Shortly  after  the  birth,  shepherds,  who  were 
keeping  their  flocks  by  night  in  the  neighbouring  fields,  were 
aroused  by  the  appearance,  in  the  heavens  above,  of  a  choir  of 
angels,  singing  praises  to  God,  and  announcing  the  birth,  at  Beth- 
lehem, of  a  Saviour,  which  is  Christ  the  Lord.  On  this,  the 
shepherds  left  their  flocks,  and  hastened  to  Bethlehem,  where 
they  found  Mary  and  Joseph  and  the  babe  (Luke  ii.  8-20).  To 
the  same  place,  but  how  soon  after  does  not  appear,  came  three 
wise  men  from  the  east  to  worship  the  infant  Jesus,  being  led  to 
the  house  by  a  star.  They  appear  to  have  discovered  that  the 
Messiah  was  to  be  born  in  Bethlehem,  from  the  prophecy  of 
Micah  quoted  above,  to  which  they  referred  Herod  on  his  inquiring 


BETHLEHEM— BETHPHAGE.         301 

of  them,  When  and  where  Christ  should  be  born  (Matt.  ii.  1-12). 
That  Bethlehem  should  be  the  birth-place  of  the  Messiah  was 
a  popular  opinion  is  also  evident  from  the  dictum  of  certain 
objectors  to  xhe  Messiahship  of  Jesus,  who,  in  ignorance  that 
Jesus  was  a  Bethlehemite,  and  supposing  him,  wrongly,  to  be  a 
Nazarene,  said  '  Shall  Christ  come  out  of  Galilee  ?  Hath  not  the 
Scripture  said,  that  Christ  cometh  of  the  seed  of  David,  and  out  of 
the  town  of  Bethlehem,  where  David  was?  '  (John  vii.  42.) 

The  only  other  mention  of  Bethlehem  in  the  New  Testament 
occurs  in  the  description  of  the  massacre  of  the  infants  there. 
Herod,  to  whom  the  wise  men  had  at  first  gone  on  their  arrival  in 
Judaea,  had  commanded  them  to  return  to  him,  when  they  should 
have  found  the  child  Messiah  whom  they  sought.  They,  however, 
being  warned  of  God  in  a  dream,  returned  from  Bethlehem 
another  way.  Upon  this  Herod,  anxious  to  destroy  one  whom  he 
regarded  as  a  rival  king  of  the  Jews,  sent  orders  to  destroy  all  the 
infants  in  Bethlehem  from  two  years  old  and  under  (aTro  Sutovq 
Kal  icarujTspuj),  and  this  order  was  executed.  It  has  been  reckoned, 
that,  in  so  small  a  place,  not  above  ten  or  twelve  children  perished. 
Among  them  our  Lord  was  not,  Joseph  having  been  warned  by  au 
angel,  and  having  retired  with  Mary  and  the  babe  into  Egypt, 
where  they  remained  until  Herod's  death.  The  modern  Bethle- 
hem abounds  with  traditional  sites  of  the  events  both  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New  Testament ;  the  well  of  David  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  15,  16 :  1  Chron.  xi.  16-18),  the  scene  of  the  angelic  appear- 
ing at  the  nativity,  the  tomb  of  Rachel,  &c.,  are  all  pointed  out, 
with  more  or  less  probability.  Conspicuous  among  the  edifices 
are  the  convents  and  Church  of  the  Nativity,  roofed  with  English 
oak  (presented  by  Edward  IV.),  in  the  crypt  of  which  our  Saviour 
is  said  to  have  been  born. 

Betbpbage  [t^jlSTlIl  =  house  of  unripe  figs,  BrjOipayr)  (Matt.), 
Br]9(payr]  (Mark  and  Luke),  Bethphage]^  either,  according  to  some, 
a  village  in  Olivet  close  to  Bethany,  and  apparently  east  of  it ;  or, 
according  to  others,  a  suburb  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  east  side,  and 
the  residence  of  the  priests.  No  traces  of  the  village  or  suburb 
now  exist,  but  tradition  places  it  half-way  between  Bethany  and 
the  top  of  the  mount.  The  only  references  to  Bethphage  in  tlie 
New  Testament  are  in  the  parallel  passages  of  Matt.  xxi.  1-6 ; 
Mark  xi.  1-6  ;  Luke  xix.  29-34,  whence  it  appears  that  it  was  the 
village  into  which  Jesus  directed  two  of  his  disciples  to  go  in  order 
to  find  the  ass,  and  ass's  colt,  which  he  was  to  use  in  his  triumphal 
entry  into  Jerusalem. 


302       ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Bettasaida  [Bii9(ydi5a,  Bethsaida  =  house  offish  (?)]  1.  A  town 
of  Galilee,  on  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  situated  in  that  fertile  level  en- 
closed between  the  hills  and  the  north-west  shore,  which  was 
formerly  called  Gennesaret.  The  site  is  by  no  means  certain,  but 
is  most  probably  identified  with  Ain-et-Tahiyhah.  It  was  the 
native  place  of  the  apostles  Andrew  and  Peter,  and  the  residence, 
if  not  the  birthplace,  of  Philip  (Johni.  44;  xii.  21).  No  record  of  par- 
ticular miracles  at  Bethsaida  exists,  but  in  Matt,  xi,  21,  and  Luke  x. 
13,  it  is  coupled  with  Chorazin  in  the  denunciation,  '  Woe  unto 
thee  Chorazin  !  woe  unto  thee  Bethsaida !  for  if  the  mighty  works 
had  been  done  in  Tpe  and  Sidon,  which  have  been  done  in  you, 
they  had  a  great  while  ago  repented.'  From  Mark  vi.  45,  53-56,  we 
also  learn  that  numerous  remarkable  cures  were  performed  by 
Jesus  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  if  not  at  the  place  itself. 

2.  A  town  to  the  east  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  about  three 
miles  north-east  from  the  northern  junction  of  the  Jordan  with 
the  lake.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Philip  the  Tetrarch,  and  afterwards 
called  Julias.  Its  modern  equivalent  is  possibly  et-Tell.  In  a 
desert  spot  (Jpi^noQ  tottoq),  belonging  to  the  city  called  Bethsaida, 
and  covered  with  green  grass,  Jesus  fed  5,000  men,  besides  women 
and  children,  with  five  loaves  and  two  fishes,  and  had  twelve 
baskets  full  of  fragments  over  (Matt,  xiv.  13-21 ;  Mark  vi.  30-44j 
Luke  ix.  10-17 ;  John  vi.  1-13).  At  Bethsaida  also,  they  brought 
a  blind  man  to  Jesus,  and  He,  first  leading  him  by  the  hand  out  of 
the  town,  spat  on  his  eyes,  touched  him  with  his  hands,  and  finally 
completely  cured  him  (Mark  viii.  22-26). 

Bithynia  [^BiQvvia,  Bithynici],  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  lying 
along  the  southern  shore  of  the  Euxine,  and  touching  the  province 
of  Asia  on  the  north-east.  The  city  of  Nicsea  (where  the  general 
council  was  held  in  a.d,  325,  from  which  the  Nicene  Creed  takes 
its  name)  is  in  Bithynia.  In  his  second  missionary  journey,  hav- 
ing come  to  M3'sia,  Paul '  assayed  to  go  into  Bithynia,  but  the  Spirit 
suft'ered  them  not,'  and  so  '  they,  passing  by  Mysia,  came  down  to 
Troas.'  The  gospel,  however,  appears  to  have  penetrated  by  some 
agency  into  Bithynia,  for  '  the  strangers  scattered  throughout  .  .  . 
Bithynia  .  .  .'  are  addressed  by  Peter  in  1  Peter  i.  1. 

Blastus  [B\ri(Troc,  Blastus],  the  chamberlain  (o  i-n-i  rov  koit&voq) 
of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  To  him  the  people  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  with 
whom  the  king  was  highly  displeased,  came,  and  having  made  him 
their  friend  (^TrtinavTt(:),  petitioned  for  peaces  which  thej'- succeeded 
in  gaining  (Acts  xii.  20).     See  Chamberlain  in  Sect.  4. 

Boanergres  [^^")\32,  BoavipytQj  o  lanv  Y'loi  jSpovTrjgj  Boanerges]^ 


BETHSAIDA— C^SAREA.  303 

a  surname  signifying  sons  of  thunder,  given  "by  our  Lord  to  James 
and  John,  the  sons  of  Zebedee  (Mark  iii.  17).  Bengel  says  that 
'  without  doubt '  Christ  alludes  in  this  name  to  the  two  scribes 
who  sat,  the  one  on  the  right  and  the  other  on  the  left  of  the 
high-priest  in  his  court,  the  one  to  gather  the  votes  of  condemna- 
tion, and  the  other  the  votes  of  acquittal. 

Sooz  [Ty3  =Jleetness,  Booc-,  Booz]j  a  Bethlehemite  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Boaz.  He  married  Ruth  the 
Moabitess,  in  default  of  a  nearer  kinsman,  and  by  her  became  the 
great-grandfather  of  David,  and  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord.  The 
story  of  his  marriage  is  recounted  in  the  book  of  Ruth.  In  N.  Test. 
he  only  appears  in  the  genealogies  of  oui-  Lord  (Matt.  i.  5 ;  Luke  iii .  32). 

Bosor  [liyil  =  ^^orcA,  Tioaop,  Bosor'],  the  father  (?)  of  Balaam, 
called  in  Old  Testament  Beor  (Num.  xxii.  5).  His  name  only 
occurs  in  2  Pet.  ii.  15,  and  nothing  is  known  of  him.    See  Balaam. 

Caesar  [KatVap,  C(ssar\  the  title  by  which  the  Roman  emperor 
for  the  time  being  is  referred  to  in  all  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment but  two  (Acts  XXV.  21,  25,  where  ^tjianToc,  =  Augustus,  is 
used).  The  whole  of  the  New  Testament  events  took  place  within 
the  Roman  empire,  of  which  the  Csesars  were  the  sovereigns,  and 
during  the  reigns  of  Augustus  Caesar,  Tiberius  Caesar,  Caligula 
Csesar,  Claudius  Caesar  and  Nero  Ceesar.  Our  Lord's  life  fell  within 
the  reigns  of  the  first  two.  Augustus  was  the  Caesar  under  whom 
the  decree  went  forth  that  all  the  world  should  be  taxed  (Luke  ii. 
1),  and  Tiberius  the  Caesar  of  whom  our  Lord  said  'Render  unto 
Caesar  the  things  which  are  Caesar's  {aTToSoTt  ra  Kaiaapog  Kaiffapi)  ' 
(Matt.  xxii.  21 ;  Luke  xx.  25).  Claudius  Caesar  is  mentioned  by 
name  as  the  emperor  under  whom  the  famine,  predicted  by  Agabus, 
took  place  (Acts  xi.  28),  and  who  had  published  an  edict  for  the 
banishment  of  all  Jews  from  Rome  (Acts  xviii.  2).  Nero  was  the 
Caesar  to  whom  Paul;  in  right  of  his  Roman  citizenship,  appealed 
(Ku'ffopa  tTTiKciXovfAca,  CcesaremappeUo),  and  to  whose  court  he  was 
sent  (Acts  xxv.  11,  12,  21,  25  ;  xxvi.  32}  xxviii.  19).  Members 
of  the  household  (oIkIci)  of  Nero  Caesar  are  also  referred  to,  as 
sending  salutations  to  the  Philippian  Christians  (Phil.  iv.  22). 
Who  these  members  were  is  not  certainly  known. 

Caesarea  [Kaiffapeia,  Ccssarea'].  1.  Caesarea  Philippi  (//  *iXt7r- 
TTov),  a  city  near  the  easternmost  source  of  the  Jordan,  and  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Hermon.  The  Jordan  issues  from  a  red  limestone 
cliff  of  about  eighty  feet  high,  and  in  a  neighbouring  grotto  the 
worship  of  Pan  appears  to  have  been  carried  on  in  heathen  times. 
From  this  circumstance  the  town  took  its  original  name  of  Panium ; 


304       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY, 

and  here  Herod  the  Great  built  a  temple  in  honour  of  Augustus 
Caesar.  His  son  Philip,  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  improved  and 
beautified  the  neig-hbouriug  town,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Csesarea 
Philippi.  The  ruins  are  now  known  by  the  name  of  Baneas.  It 
is  uncertain  whether  our  Saviour  actually  visited  Cffisarea,  but, 
near  the  end  of  his  ministry,  He  came  into  '  the  coasts  '  (/ui,L.//, 
Matt.  xvi.  13)  or  '  towns  ^  {icJjixat,  Mark  viii.  27)  of  Csesarea 
Philippi,  and  there  discussed  with  his  disciples  the  important 
question,  '  Whom  say  men  that  1  am  ?  '  The  Transfiguration  im- 
mediately followed,  and  Dean  Stanley  suggests  that  the  snow- clad 
heights  of  Hermon,  immediately  overhanging  this  locality,  were 
the  scene  of  this  event.  Csesarea  Philippi  was  the  most  northern 
point  of  our  Saviour's  earthly  travels. 

2.  The  capital  city  of  Roman  Palestine.  Its  site  is  now  entirely 
uninhabited,  being  only  distinguished  by  vast  masses  of  ruins, 
which  occupy  a  rocky  ledge  on  the  sea-shore,  about  twenty  miles 
south  of  the  promontory  of  Carmel,  and  seventy  miles  from  Jeru- 
salem. It  was  built  by  Herod  the  Great,  in  honour  of  Augustus, 
from  whom  its  full  name  Kaicrapda  "EtiSaaTt)  was  derived,  and 
became  the  official  residence  of  the  Herodian  kings  and  the  Eoman 
procurators  of  Judsea.  Many  incidents  in  the  New  Testament  are 
connected  with  Csesarea.  Philip  the  evangelist  resided  there 
(Acts  xxi.  8,  with  which  compare  viii.  40),  and  other  Christians 
were  found  there  (Acts  xxi.  16).  Herod  Agrippa  I.  died  here, 
being  eaten  with  worms,  the  result  of  tlie  divine  anger  at  his 
presumption.  At  a  public  official  reception  of  emissaries  from 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  '  Herod,  arrayed  in  royal  apparel,  sat  upon  his 
throne  (d/y/ia),  and  made  an  oration  unto  them.  And  the  people  gave 
a  shout,  saying.  It  is  the  voice  of  a  God  and  not  of  a  man.  And 
immediately  the  angel  of  the  Lord  smote  him  (Acts  xii.  21-23).' 
Here  also  lived  Cornelius,  the  centurion,  and  first  Gentile  convert, 
whose  conversion  is  recorded  in  Acts  x.,  xi.  Paul  was  frequently 
at  Csesarea.  When  his  earnest  preaching  at  Jerusalem,  after  his 
return  from  Damascus,  had  excited  the  anger  of  the  Grecians,  and 
endangered  his  life,  '  the  brethren  brought  him  down  to  Csesarea 
and  sent  him  forth  to  Tarsus  '  (Acts  ix.  30).  Here  he  lauded  on 
his  way  from  Ephesus  to  Jerusalem,  at  the  close  both  of  his  second 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xviii.  22)  and  of  his  third  missionary 
journey  (Acts  xxi.  8).  On  the  latter  occasion  he  lodged  with 
Philip  the  evangelist  (see  above),  and  '  tarried  many  days.'  It 
was  during  this  period  that  the  prophet  Agabus  came  to  Csesarea 
from  Judaea,  and  vaiuly  endeavoured  to  dissuade  Paul  from  pro- 


C^SAKEA— CAIAPHAS.  305 

ceeding  to  Jerusalem,  by  representing  to  him  the  dangers  which 
should  there  befall  him.  After  the  tumults  at  Jerusalem  recorded 
in  Acts  xxi.-xxiii.,  Paul  again  appeared  at  Caesarea,  but  this  time 
as  a  prisoner,  being  sent  by  Claudius  Lysias,  the  chief  captain  at 
Jerusalem,  under  the  escort  of  a  troop  of  soldiers.  He  was  now  kept 
at  first  in  Herod's  judgment-hall  (Trpairwpiov),  but  afterwards  under 
the  charge  of  a  centurion  (Acts  xxiv.  23),  and  remained  a  prisoner  at 
Csesarea  for  two  years.  The  incidents  of  his  life  there,  especially 
his  trials  before  Felix,  Festus,  and  Herod  Agrippa  IL,  and  Bernice, 
are  detailed  in  Acts  xxiv.-xxvii. ;  and  some  have  supposed  that 
the  Gospel  of  Luke  was  written  during  this  interval  under  his 
superintendence.  Finally,  it  was  from  the  harbour  of  Csesarea 
that  the  apostle  sailed  from  Rome,  under  the  care  of  Julius  the 
centurion,  and  in  a  ship  of  Adramyttium  (Acts  xxvii.  1,  2).  The 
apostle  Peter  had  also  some  connection  with  Csesarea.  Here  he 
preached  the  gospel  to  Cornelius,  and  here  he  retired  after  his 
miraculous  escape  from  Herod  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xii.  19),  nor  is 
it  unreasonable  to  suppose  that,  in  doing  so,  he  may  have  stayed 
with  the  converted  centurion,  of  whose  hospitable  character  men- 
tion is  distinctly  made  (Acts  x.  24). 

Caiapbas  \_Ka'i(i(pag,  gen,  Kdia<pn,  Caiphas\  high  priest  of 
the  Jews  from  a.d.  25  to  a.d.  36.  He  was  son-in-law  of  Annas 
(see  Annas),  and  his  full  name  was  Joseph  Caiaphas.  Luke 
mentions  him  as  being  high  priest  together  with  Annas  at  the 
time  of  the  appearance  of  John  the  Baptist  (Luke  iii.  2).  The 
councils  held  by  the  chief  priests,  Scribes,  and  Pharisees,  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  Jesus,  appear  to  have  taken  place  in  his 
house  (Matt.  xxvi.  3),  and  at  one  of  these  councils,  speaking  vdth 
prophetic  authority  as  the  high  priest,  he  foretold  the  death  of 
Jesus  Christ,  declaring  that  it  was  ^  expedient  that  one  man  should 
die  for  the  people  (vTTfp  rod  Xaov),  and  that  the  whole  nation 
perish  not '  (John  xi,  52  ;  xviii.  13).  To  him  his  father-in-law 
Annas  sent  Jesus  bound,  and  by  him  our  Saviour  was,  after  ex- 
amination, handed  over  to  Pontius  Pilate  (John  xvii-i.  28).  At 
his  house  Peter  denied  his  master  (Matt.  xxvi.  57-75  ;  John  xviii. 
15-28).  His  last  appearance  in  the  New  Testament  is  that  re- 
corded in  Acts  iv.  6,  when  with  Annas  (who  is  there  called  '  high 
priest,'  the  title  not  being  given  to  Caiaphas),  and  others,  he 
formed  the  tribunal  before  which  Peter  and  John  were  brought 
after  their  cure  of  the  lame  man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the 
Temple.  In  a.d.  36,  he  was  deposed  by  Viteliius,  and  succeeded 
by  Jonathan,  son  of  Ananus. 


306        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Cain  [P.f?  =  a  possession,  KcHv,  Caivi],  the  eldest  son  of  Adam 
and  Eve.  He  was  a  tiller  of  the  ground,  while  his  brother  Abel 
was  a  keeper  (^marg.  feeder)  of  sheep.  The  two  brothers 
having"  each  brought  an  oiFeiing  to  the  Lord,  Abel's  offering  of  a 
lamb  was  accepted,  but  Cain's  offering  of  the  fruit  of  the  ground 
wa^  not  accepted.  Cain  then  arose  against  Abel  and  slew  him. 
For  this  cause  he  was  cursed  by  God,  and  driven  out  as  a  fugitive 
and  vagabond,  but  had  a  mark  set  upon  him  (Jit.  God  gave  him  a 
sign)  lest  any  should  kill  him.  He  then  withdrew  into  the  land 
of  Nod  (  =  '  exile  '),  an  undefined  locality  east  of  Eden,  and  there 
became  the  father  of  Enoch,  and  built  the  city  of  Enoch.  In  the 
New  Testament  the  fact  that  Abel  offered  by  faith  a  more  ex- 
cellent sacrifice  than  Cain  is  referred  to  (Heb.  xi.  4),  and  this 
probably  refers  to  his  offering  having  been  simply  a  thankoffering 
and  not  propitiatory.  1  John  iii.  12  attributes  his  murder  of  Abel 
to  jealousy,  exhorting  Christians  to  be  ^not  as  Cain,  who  was  of 
that  wicked  one  {Ik.  tov  Trornpov)  and  slew  his  brother.  And 
wherefore  slew  he  him  ?  because  his  own  works  were  evil 
(TTovrjpa),  and  his  brother's  righteous,'  In  Jude  II  the  ^  way 
of  Cain'  is  attributed  to  unworthy  Christians;  and  from  1  John 
iii.  12  it  is  obvious  that  the  root  of  their  sin  was  hatred  and 
jealousy  of  the  godly. 

Cainan  [f^**!?,  perhaps  =  a  ^Jossess?*ow,  Kdivav,  Cainan].  1.  An 
ancestor  of  Jesus  Christ,  son  of  Arphaxad,  and  father  of  Sala 
(Luke  iii.  36).  The  name,  however,  although  found  in  LXX.,  does 
not  occur  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  nor  in  Beza's 
'  Codex '  (see  p.  3).  2.  Another  and  earlier  ancestor  of  Jesus 
Christ,  father  of  Maleleel,  and  son  of  Enos  (Luke  iii.  38).  Maleleel 
(or  Mahalaleel)  was  born  to  Cainan  when  he  was  seventy  years  of 
age,  and  Cainan  lived  840  years  afterwards  (Gen,  v.  13). 

Calvary  [Kpdviov,  Calvaria]y  the  place  where  our  Saviour  was 
crucified  (o  tottoq  6  KaXov/xevog  KpavLov).  In  A.  V.  only  Luke 
(xxiii.  33)  appears  to  use  the  name,  but  it  is  also  used  in  Matt. 
xxvii.  33  [A.  V.  '  a  place  called  Golgotha,  that  is  to  say,  a  place 
of  a  skull  (Kpav'iov  Tortoc^  Calvaricd  loctisy~\ ;  in  Mark  xv.  22  [A.V. 
*  the  place  Golgotha,  which  is,  being  interpreted,  the  place  of  a 
skull  (Kpor/ow  TOnoq  ,  Calvaries  locus) '1,  and  in  John  xix.  17  [A.V. 
'  the  place  of  a  skull,  which  is  called  in  the  Hebrew  Golgotha 
(Kpaviou  ToTToc,  Calvarire  loci(s)^^.  It  was  'nigh  to  the  city'  of 
Jerusalem  (John  xix.  20),  'without  the  gate'  (Heb.  xiii.  12), 
and  in  it  '  was  a  garden '  (John  xix.  41) ;  but  its  true  position 


CAIN— CANAANITE.  307 

has  been  mucli  disputed.  Dean  Stanley  on  tlie  whole  inclines  to 
accept  the  site  of  the  present  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
as  the  possible  site.  This  church  is  said  to  have  been  fou^ided  by 
Constantine ;  and  tradition  declares  the  '  skull'  to  have  been  the 
skull  of  Adam.  The  building  stands  in  the  north-west  angle  of 
the  present  city. 

Cana  of  Galilee  [Kai/d  rijg  FaXiXaiac,  Cana  Galil<2ce\  a  village 
in  Galilee,  mentioned  only  in  the  Gospel  of  John.  It  is  now  either 
Kana-el-Jelil,  about  nine  miles  north  of  Nazareth,  or  Kefr  Kana, 
live  miles  north-west  of  that  place.  Here  Jesus  Christ  performed 
his  first  miracle — turning  water  into  wine  at  a  marriage  (John  ii. 
1-11),  and  here  He  appears  to  have  spoken  the  words  by  which  a 
nobleman's  son,  who  was  sick  at  Capernaum,  was  healed  (John  iv. 
46-54).  Nathanael,  of  whom  our  Lord  said,  '  Behold  an  Israelite 
indeed ! '  and  who  was  probably  identical  with  Bartholomew  (see 
JBartholo7neiu),  was  a  native,  or  resident,  of  Cana  (John  xxi.  2). 

Canaan  [jyJS  =  w^erc7^a?^^,  Xavavala,  Cha7ia?icsa  =  &  woman  of 
Canaan],  a  designation  in  the  Old  Testament  of  the  whole  of 
Palestine,  and  used  as  such  (under  the  name  of  C7ifm«fm  in  A.  V.) 
in  Acts  vii.  11  ('  There  came  over  all  the  land  of  Egypt  and 
Chanaan ' — Speech  of  Stephen  before  Sanhedrim),  and  in  Acts  xiii. 
19  ('  And  when  he  had  destroyed  seven  nations  (Hittites,  Girgas- 
hites,  Amorites,  Cauaanites,  Perizzites,  Hivites,  and  Jebusites ; 
Dent.  vii.  1 ;  Josh.  iii.  10 ;  xxiv.  11),  in  the  land  of  Chanaan, 
he  divided  their  land  to  them  by  lot ' — Address  of  Paul  m  the 
Synagogue  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia).  But  in  New  I'estament  times 
the  name  was  restricted  to  the  plain  between  the  mountains  and 
the  sea  in  the  north  of  Palestine.  A  woman  from  these  parts, 
called  in  Mark  vii.  26,  '  a  Greek,  a  Syrophcenician  by  nation 
('EWryvtg,  '2vpo(boivi(yoa  to)  ysvii),^  besought  Jesus  that  he  would 
heal  her  daughter,  vexed  with  an  evil  spirit.  Jesus  at  first 
declined,  declaring  that  the  children  must  first  be  fed.  But  when 
she  answered  '  Yea,  Lord ;  yet  the  dogs  under  the  table  eat  of  the 
children's  crumbs,'  he  consented,  and  healed  her.    See  p.  80,  note  2. 

Canaanite  [rec.  KavaviTrjc^  but  all  good  MSS.,  Kavavaloc,  Cana- 
nceus'],  the  Aramaic,  or  Syro-Cbaldaic,  equivalent  for  the  Greek 
'Ct]\MTr]i:  =  zealot.  The  sect  of  the  Zealots  had  for  its  object  the 
expulsion  of  the  Romans,  the  rigid  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law, 
the  non-payment  of  foreign  taxes,  and  the  erection  of  a  native 
kingdom.  Its  later  excesses  were  to  a  great  extent  the  cause  of 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.      To  this  sect  Simon,  one  of  the 

x2 


308        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

apostles,  had  belonged,  and  probably,  in  order  to  distinguish  him 
from  Simon  Peter,  took  his  name  from  the  circumstance.  In 
Matt.  X,  4  and  Mark  iii.  18  he  is  called  the  Canaauite,  but  in 
Luke  vi.  15  and  Acts  i.  13  Simon  Zelotes. 

Candace  \_KapcaK7],  Cmidacis,  gen.'],  the  official  title  of  the 
queens  of  Ethiopia ;  by  which  is  meant  in  the  New  Testament 
the  kingdom  of  Meroe  in  Upper  Egypt,  the  chief  city  of  which  lay 
upon  an  island  in  the  Nile,  and  of  which  Pliny  says  (Hist.  Nat.  vi. 
35),  '  aedificia  oppidi  pauca,  regnare  feminam,  quod  nomen  multis 
jam  annis  ad  reginas  transiit.'  The  country  is  now  known  as 
Abyssinia.  A  eunuch  under  Candace,  to  whom  tradition  gives 
the  name  of  Indich,  and  who  had  been  to  Jerusalem  to  worship, 
met  the  evangelist  Philip  on  his  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza, 
and  being  instructed  by  him  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  prophecy  of 
Isaiah,  which  he  was  reading  (Is.  liii.  7,  8),  and  as  to  other 
Christian  doctrine,  received  baptism  and  went  on  his  way  re- 
joicing (Acts  viii.  26-39).  The  conversion  of  the  Abyssinians  did 
not  take  place  until  the  fourth  century,  and  it  is  therefore  un- 
certain whether  the  conversion  of  the  eunuch  had  any  extensive 
result  upon  his  nation. 

Capernaum  [Ka7r6|Ovnow//,  Capharnaum,  Kaphar  =  ttoXic,  city]. 
A  city  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  In  conformity 
with  our  Saviour's  prediction,  '  And  thou,  Capernaum,  which  art 
exalted  to  heaven  (but  Tischendorf,  "  Shalt  thou  be  exalted  to 
heaven  ?  ")  shalt  be  brought  down  to  hell '  (Matt.  xi.  23),  complete 
destruction  has  overwhelmed  Capernaum,  and  its  very  site  is  now  a 
matter  of  doubt.  Two  places,  however,  chiefly  dispute  the  right  to 
be  the  Capernaum  of  the  New  Testament.  One  is  known  ?LsKhati-el 
Minyeh,  and  is  a  mound  of  ruins  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
plain  of  Gennesareth.  The  other  site,  at  present  more  in  favour, 
is  Tell  Hum,  a  collection  of  ruins  on  the  north-west  shore  of  the 
lake,  about  one  and  a-half  miles  west  of  the  northern  inlet  of  the 
Jordan.  In  the  time  of  Christ  Capernaum  was  evidently  of  much 
importance  ;  it  had  its  synagogue,  was  a  place  of  considerable 
trade,  was  the  garrison  town  of  a  troop  of  Roman  soldiers,  and  had 
a  customs  station,  both  of  resident  and  itinerant  officers.  Hither 
our  Lord  appears  to  have  come  down  from  Jerusalem,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  second  year  of  his  ministry  (Matt.  iv.  13),  and  to 
have  made  the  town  his  home  and  centre  of  operations  for  about 
six  months  (inclusive  of  the  visit  tc  the  district  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon).  During  this  period  Capernaum  was  occasionally  called 
*  his  own  city  '  (r)  idia  ttoXii;,  Matt.  ix.  1)  ;  and  when  there,  He  was 


CANDACE— CARPUS.  309 

said  to  be  at  home  (fV  otVf.J,  Mark  ii.  1).  Here  Peter  and  Andrew, 
James  and  John,  resided,  being  engaged  in  the  business  of  fishing  on 
the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  and  here  they  were  all  called  to  follow  Jesus 
(Matt.  iv.  18-22 ;  Mark  i.  16-20).  Here  the  mother  of  Peter's  wife 
was  healed  by  Christ  of  a  fever  (Matt.  viii.  14,  15 ;  Mark  i.  29-31 ; 
Luke  iv.  38,  39).  Here  Matthew,  or  Levi,  the .  tax-gatherer,  was 
sitting  at  the  receipt  of  custom  (probably  from  the  traffic  across 
the  Lake)  when  Jesus  invited  him  to  become  his  disciple ;  and  here, 
having  accepted  the  call,  Matthew  feasted  the  Lord  in  his  own 
house  (Matt.  ix.  9-13 ;  Mark  ii.  13-22 ;  Luke  v.  27-39).  Here 
resided  a  nobleman,  or  courtier  (fSoffiXiKoc),  whose  son,  being  at  the 
point  of  death,  was  cured  by  the  word  of  Jesus,  spoken  at  Cana  in 
Galilee  (John  iv.  46-54). 

Here  also  a  man  sick  of  the  palsy  was  cured,  having  been  let 
down  through  the  roof  into  Christ's  presence  (Matt.  ix.  1-8; 
Mark  ii,  1-12  ;  Luke  v.  1 7-26),  and  here  the  servant  of  the  cen- 
turion, who  had  probably  built  the  synagogue  of  the  town,  was 
healed  with  a  word  (Matt.  viii.  5-13;  Luke  vii.  1-10).  Here  a 
blind  and  dumb  spirit  was  cast  out  (Matt.  xii.  22,  23),  and  here 
many  parables  were  spoken,  some  in  the  houses,  some  on  the 
neighbouring  sea-shore,  some  while  the  hearers  stood  on  the  shore, 
and  Jesus  addressed  them  from  a  boat.  In  the  synagogue  of  this 
town  our  Lord  appears  to  have  preached  regularly  (Mark  i.  21, 
22 ;  Luke  iv.  31),  thus  fulfilling  the  prophecy,  '  The  land  of 
Zabulon,  and  the  land  of  Nephthalim,  5y  the  way  of  the  sea, 
beyond  Jordan,  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles  ;  the  people  which  sat  in 
darkness  saw  great  light '  (Isaiah  ix.  1,  2,  quoted  in  Matt.  iv.  15, 
16).  In  the  same  synagogue  of  Capernaum  was  delivered  the 
remarkable  discourse  of  John  vi.,  on  Jesus  as  the  Bread  of  Life, 
and  there  also  two  miracles  were  performed,  viz.  (1)  an  unclean 
spirit  was  cast  out  of  a  man  (Mark  i.  23-28 ;  Luke  iv.  33-37), 
and  (2)  the  vdthered  hand  of  a  man  was  restored  on  the  Sabbath 
day  (Matt.  xii.  9-14;  Mark  iii.  1-6;  Luke  vi.  6-11).  In  short, 
no  other  place  in  Palestine  could  have  witnessed  more  of  our 
Lord's  works  and  words  during  his  ministry  than  this  city  '  by 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,'  whose  site  is  now  unascertained. 

Cappadocia  [KaTTTrn^o/c/a,  Cappadocia'],  the  most  easterly  pro- 
vince of  Asia  Minor.  Jews  from  Cappadocia  were  found  among 
the  multitude  who  listened  to  Peter  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
(Acts  ii.  9),  and  Christians  of  Cappadocia  are  addressed  by  the 
same  apostle  in  1  Pet.  i.  1. 

Carpus   [KdpTTog,  Carpiis],  a  person  with  whom  Paul  left  a 


310        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

cloak  (4>e\v,vr),  27€7i2tla)   at  Troas,  and  from  whom  lie  requested 
Timothy  to  obtain  it  and  transmit  it  to  Rome  (2  Tim.  iv.  13). 

Cedron,  [p1^|?  ^D^  =  the  black  watercoicrse,  6  xW^ph'"^  '^^'''^ 
Kfdpojv  (but  other  better  readings,  tov  ickSpcov  :  the  received  text 
(  =  of  the  Cedars)  obviously  arises  from  a  misapprehension  by  some 
copyist  of  the  origin  of  the  name,  Torrens'  Cedron],  the  ravine 
and  brook  by  which  Jerusalem  is  separated  on  the  east  from 
the  Garden  of  Gethsemane  and  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Over  this 
brook  our  Lord  is  recorded  to  have  passed  on  his  way  to  the 
Garden  with  his  disciples  (John  xviii.  1).     See  Jerusalem. 

Cenchrea  [Kzyxpml,  i.e.  Cenchrese,  Cenchrcc\  one  of  the  two 
harbours  of  Corinth,  viz.  that  situated  on  the  Saronic  Gulf.  It 
was  about  nine  miles  from  the  city,  and  is  now  called  Kikries. 
At  this  port,  Paul,  when  on  his  second  missionary  journey  (or 
perhaps  Aquila)  completed  a  vow,  and  thence,  having  shaven  his 
head  in  token  of  completion,  sailed  to  Ephesus,  on  his  road  to  Syria 
(Acts  xviii.  18).  A  Christian  church  existed  there,  and  amongst  the 
deaconesses  of  this  church  was  Phoebe,  saluted  by  Paul  as  •  our 
sister'  in  Rom.  xvi.  1. 

Cephas  [K?;0«c-,  Cephas],  a  name  given  by  Jesus  Christ  to  Simon 
the  son  of  Jona,  when  first  brought  to  him  by  his  brother  Andrew. 
It  is  the  Syriac  form  of  the  Chaldee  5^3''5,  from  the  Hebrew  f]3, 
a  rock,  and  has  ITsrpoc  (i.e.  Peter)  for  its  Greek  equivalent.  The 
name  Cephas  is  applied  to  Simon  in  1  Cor.  i.  12  j  iii.  22  j  ix.  5;  xv.  5 ; 
Gal.  ii.  9.  See  Life  of  Peter,  pp.  44-50. 
Cesar.  See  C<esar. 
Cesarea.     See  Ccesarea. 

Chaldaeans  [C'^C^S,  XaX^nTo.,  Chaldai],  the  nation  inhabiting 
lower  Mesopotamia.  They  were  a  Cushite  or  African  tribe,  and  to 
them  the  patriarch  Abram  belonged.  His  call  out  of  the  Chal- 
dseans  is  referred  to  by  Stephen  in  his  address  before  the  San- 
hedrim (Acts  vii.  4). 

Clianaan,  the  A.  V.  spelling  of  Canaan  in  Acts  vii.  11 ;  xiii.  19. 
See  Canaan. 

Cliarran  [|^n  =  «  dry  place,  Xuppai',  Charan],  the  place,  known 
in  the  Old  Testament  as  Haran,  at  which  Abram  dwelt  for  a 
time  after  he  came  out  of  Ur  of  the  Cbaldees,  and  where  his 
father  Terah  died.  Stephen  refers  to  it,  in  this  connection,  in  his 
address  before  the  Sanhedrim  (Acts  vii.  2,  4).  It  was  probably 
situated  in  Mesopotamia,  at  Harran,  between  the  Khabour  and 
the  Euphrates. 


CEDRON— CILICIA.  311 

Chios  [X^of•,  Chius\  an  island  in  the  ^Egean,  separated  by  a 
strait,  about  eight  miles  wide,  from  the  centre  of  the  western  shore 
of  Asia  Minor.  '  Over  against  Chios '  the  vessel  which  carried  Paul 
(on  his  third  missionary  journey)  from  Mitylene  to  Lesbos  an- 
chored for  the  night  (Acts  xx.  lo).     Its  modern  name  is  Scio. 

CMoe  [X\6/;,  Chloe],  a  woman  referred  to  in  1  Cor.  i.  11  (^It 
hath  been  declared  unto  me,  by  them  ivhich  cf,re  of  the  house  of 
Chloe,  that  there  are  contentions  among  you'). 

Chorazin  [Xopn^iV,  Corozaiii],  a  town  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
coupled  with  Capernaum  and  Bethsaida  in  the  denunciation  of 
Matt.  xi.  21  and  Luke  x.  13  ('  Woe  unto  thee,  Choraziu  !  .  .  .  . 
for  if  the  mighty  works  had  been  done  in  Tyre  and  Sidon  which 
have  been  done  in  you,  they  had  a  great  while  ago  repented, 
sitting  in  sackcloth  and  ashes.  But  it  shall  be  more  tolerable 
for  Tyre  and  Sidon  at  the  day  of  judgment  than  for  you  ').  The 
prediction  against  the  city  has  been  so  completely  fulfilled,  that 
even  its  site  is  now  a  matter  of  doubt.  Most  writers,  however, 
consider  it  to  have  been  at  Kerazeh,  near  Tell  Hum. 

Chuza  [Xoy^f'j  g^n.^  ChuscB,  gen.\  the  steward  Q-.-n-iTpo-oQ)  of 
Herod  Antipas,  and  husband  of  Joanna,  one  of  '  the  certain  women 
which  had  been  healed  of  evil  spirits  and  infirmities,'  and  who 
'  ministered  unto  Jesus  of  their  substance '  (Luke  viii.  2,  3). 
Joanna  also  appears  to  have  followed  Jesus  Christ  from  Galilee, 
and  was  a  companion  of  Mary  Magdalene  and  Mary  the  mother 
of  James  in  informing  the  apostles  of  the  events  at  the  sepulchre 
on  the  resurrection  morning  (Luke  xxiii.  55;  xxiv.  10). 

Cilicia  [/)  KiXticIa,  CiUcia],  a.  maritime  province  on  the  south- 
east of  Asia  Minor,  separated  by  the  Taurus  range  from  Cappa- 
docia,  and  Lycaonia  on  the  north.  Many  Jews  resided  here,  and 
there  was  a  synagogue  of  Ciiician  .Jews  at  Jerusalem,  some  of 
whom  disputed  with  Stephen  (Acts  vi.  9).  There  were  also 
Christian  churches  there,  and  to  them  (with  others)  the  apostles 
addressed  the  letter  which  Barnabas  and  Paul  carried  to  the 
church  at  Antioch,  on  the  circumcision  of  the  Gentiles  (Acts 
XV.  23).  These  Christians  are  further  referred  to  in  Gal.  i.  21, 
and  in  Acts  xv.  41,  as  being  visited  by  Paul,  on  the  first  occasion, 
soon  after  his  conversion,  and  on  the  second  occasion  in  order  to 
confirm  QTriarrjoi^Hi')  the  churches.  But  Cilicia  is  most  interest- 
ing as  the  country  whose  capital  (Tarsus)  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  great  apostle  Paul,  and  to  this  fact  he  himself  referred  in  his 
speech  from  the  castle  stairs  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxii.  3).  See 
Tarsus. 


312       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Cis  [2J'''i?  =  sn«nw<7,  Ki'c  or  Kelg,  C?s],  the  New  Testament  form 
of  Kish,  the  name  of  the  father  of  lOng  Saul.  Paul  mentions  him 
in  his  address  at  the  synagogue  of  Antiocti  in  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  21). 

Clauda  \_K\avh],  Clauda],  a  small  island,  now  Gozzo^  about 
twenty  miles  to  the  south-west  of  Cape  Matala  in  Crete.  Under 
the  lee  of  this  island  the  ship  in  which  Paul  and  his  companions 
sailed  to  Italy  was  run,  and  there  the  boat  was  taken  up  into  the 
ship,  and  ropes  (/3o>/0f/at,  A.  V.  ^helps')  were  passed  round  the 
outside  of  the  ship,  and  tightened  so  as  to  hold  her  together. 

Claudia  [KXayt^ta,  Claudia'],  a  Christian  woman,  who  sends 
greetings  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv.  21).  There  are  circumstantial 
reasons  for  supposing  that  she  was  the  wife  of  Pudens,  mentioned 
in  the  same  verse,  and  daughter  of  Cogidubnus,  a  British  king. 
In  fact  the  Roman  poet  Martial  (a.d.  43-104)  has  an  epigram 
(iv.  13)  in  which  he  speaks  of  a  Claudia  as  a  foreigner,  and  the 
wife  of  a  Pudens  ('  Claudia,  Rufe,  meo  nubit  peregrina  Pudenti '). 
See  Pudens. 

Claudius  Caesar.     See  Ccssar. 

Claudius  Iiysias.     See  Lysias. 

Clement  [KXry/xfi/g,  Clemens],  a  fellow-labourer  of  Paul's  at 
Philippi,  commended  to  the  help  of  the  Philippians  by  the  apostle, 
and  declared  by  him  to  have  his  name  '  in  the  book  of  life 
{iv  /3t/3.\<f>  'Corio) ',  (Phil.  iv.  3).  It  is  uncertain  whether  this 
Clement,  and  the  bishop  of  Rome  of  the  same  name,  are  identical. 

Cleopas  [KXeoTTOt-,  Cleojjhas],  one  of  two  disciples  who  were 
joined  and  instructed  by  our  Lord  on  the  road  to  Emmaus,  and  to 
whom  He  made  Himself  known  at  supper-time  (Luke  xxiv.  18). 
The  name  given  as  Cleophas  in  A.V.  of  John  xix.  25  (as  the  hus- 
band of  one  of  the  Maries  who  stood  by  the  cross  of  Jesus  Christ),  is 
really  Clopas  (KXioTrdg),  and  it  is  therefore  probable  that  the 
same  person  is  intended  in  both  places.  The  received  opinion 
concerning  this  Cleophas  or  Clopas  identifies  him  with  Alphseus, 
the  father  of  James,  Joses,  Jude  and  Simon,  the  '  brethren '  of 
our  Lord.     See  Alphceus. 

Cleophas.     See  Cleopas. 

Cnidus  [Ki't^oc,  Gnidus],  only  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  7,  as 
sighted  by  St,  Paul,  on  his  voyage  to  Rome  ('When  we  had 
sailed  slowly  many  days,  and  scarce '  (but  more  accurately,  '  with 
difficulty')  'were  come  over  against  Cnidus,  the  wind  not  sufier- 
ing  us,  we  sailed  under  Crete ').  Cnidus  was  situated  on  Cape 
Crio,  in  Caria,  at  the  extreme  south-west  end  of  Asia  Minor.  It 
was  formerly  a  magnificent  city,  having  two  harbours,  and  was 


CIS— COEINTH.  313 

famous  as  possessing  a  celebrated  statue  of  Venus  by  Praxiteles. 
It  is  now  altogether  in  ruins. 

Colosse  \_Ko\oaaal,  but  in  many  MSS.  KoXaanal,  Colosscs'],  a  city 
in  Phrygia,  on  the  river  Lycus.  Its  modern  name  is  Chonas.  To 
'  the  saints  which  are  at  Colosse/  one  of  the  epistles  of  Paul  is 
addressed  (Col.  i.  2),  but  it  appenrs  from  Col.  ii.  1  that  the  apostle 
had  not  personally  visited  the  place.  In  Col.  i.  7 ;  iv.  12, 
Archippus  and  Epaphras  are  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  church. 
It  is  an  ancient  opinion  that  Philemon  was  a  Colossian,  and  this  is 
confirmed  by  the  arguments  that,  1.  Onesimus  was  a  Colossian 
('  who  is  one  of  you,'  Col.  iv.  9),  2.  Archippus,  saluted  in  Philem. 
2,  is  saluted  in  Col.  iv.  17  as  a  minister  at  Coloss£e.     See  p.  39. 

Coos.     See  Cos. 

Corintli  \_K6piv9oc,  adj.  KopivBioc,  CorintJms,  adj.  Corinthms'],  a 
city  situated  on  the  Isthmus  which  unites  the  peninsula  to  the 
mainland  of  Greece.  It  was  built  on  the  north  of  a  mountain, 
1,900  feet  in  height,  which  was  called  Acrocorinthus,  and  served 
as  a  citadel.  Commanding  the  road  into  the  Peloponnese,  and 
having  the  two  harbours  of  Lechcezwi  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf, 
and  Cenchrecs  on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  it  early  attained  to  great  pros- 
perity and  power,  but  this  was  unhappily  accompanied  with 
extreme  licentiousness  of  manners.  In  B.C.  146,  the  city  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Romans  under  Lucius Mummius,  audits  site  remained 
desolate  for  a  century,  but  in  B.C.  46  Julius  CaBsar  rebuilt  and  re- 
peopled  it.  It  was  then  called  Colonia  Julia  CorintJms,  was  made 
the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia,  and  again  became 
prosperous,  wealthy,  and  extremely  licentious.  The  site  is  now 
only  marked  by  a  few  ruins  and  a  miserable  village,  called 
Gortho.  In  Acts  xviii.  1-18,  we  read  that  Aquila  and  Priscilla, 
Pontic  Jews,  came  to  Corinth  when  the  edict  of  Claudius  Caesar 
had  banished  Jews  from  Rome,  and  there  pursued  their  occupa- 
tion of  tent-makers.  Here  they  were  joined  by  the  apostle  Paul 
from  Athens.  Being  of  the  same  trade  as  themselves,  he  lodged 
and  worked  with  them,  and  during  a  stay  of  eighteen  months, 
preached  the  Gospel  at  Corinth  with  much  success.  Crispus,  the 
chief  ruler  of  the  synagogue  (Acts  xviii.  8;  1  Cor.  i.  14),  and 
Gains  or  Caius  (Rom.  xvi.  23 ;  1  Cor.  i.  14)  who  afforded  hospi- 
tality to  the  apostle,  were  baptised  by  him.  Erastus,  the  chamber- 
lain {olKovoiinq)  of  the  city  (Rom.  xvi.  23 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  20),  and 
Stephanas  (1  Cor.  i.  16 ;  xvi.  15,  17)  whose  household  Paul  calls 
'thefirstfruitsof  Achaia,' werealsoamongst  his  converts.  Atlastthe 
opposition  of  the  Jews  was  so  aroused  that  they  brought  the  apostle 


314       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

before  the  court  of  the  Roman  proconsul,  Gallio.  But  the  pro- 
consul drave  them  from  the  judgment  seat,  and  although  the 
Greeks  took  Sosthenes,  who  appears  to  have  succeeded  Crispus  in 
his  office,  he  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to  take  action  in  the 
matter  (oudsp  mv-iov  roj  VdWuovi  fjiisXei',  A.V.  'Gallio  cared  for 
none  of  these  things ').  After  this,  Paul,  Priscilla,  and  Aquila  all 
left  Corinth  for  Syria,  and  Apollos  came  from  Ephesus,  and  had 
great  success  as  a  teacher  amongst  the  Corinthians  (Acts  xviii. 
27,  28 ;  1  Cor.  i.  12  ;  iii.  5,  6).  Paul,  however,  visited  Corinth 
again  for  a  short  period  (Acts  xx.  3),  during  which  he  is  supposed 
to  have  written  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  many  think  that 
another  visit  also  occurred,  which  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts. 
Two  epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthian  church  survive,  and  a  third 
is  probably  lost  (see  1  Cor.  v.  9). 

Cornelius  \_Kopvt}Xiog,  Cornelius],  a  centurion  of  the  ^  Italian 
band  (*}  GTztip-i]  y  KnXovpiv))  'iraXi^t],  cohnrs,  quce  dicitur  Itnlica),^ 
and  (if  we  except  the  eunuch  of  Candace)  the  first  uncircumcised 
convert.  The  particulars  of  his  conversion  are  recorded  in  Acts  x., 
xi.,  and  his  name  occurs  nowhere  else  in  the  New  Testament. 
From  these  chapters  we  learn  that  Cornelius  lived  in  Csesarea,  the 
official  capital  of  Palestine,  and  although  a  Roman  by  birth,  was 
a  devout  man  and  had  long  been  praying  for  more  light,  and  ex- 
hibiting his  faith  by  almsgiving.  An  angel  was  ultimately  sent 
to  him,  by  whose  direction  the  apostle  Peter,  then  staying  at 
Joppa,  about  thirty-five  miles  distant  from  Caesarea,  was  sum- 
moned. Peter,  also  instructed  by  a  heavenly  vision  not  to  regard 
as  common  or  unclean  that  which  God  had  cleansed,  came  at  once 
in  obedience  to  the  summons,  Cornelius  appears  to  have  been 
not  entirely  unacquainted  with  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ  (Acts  x. 
37,  38),  but  Peter  now  expounded  to  him  and  his  friends  the  way 
of  God  more  perfectly.  The  Holy  Ghost  fell  vipon  the  assembled 
hearers,  to  the  great  astonishment  of  the  Jews  present,  and  they 
(Cornelius  and  many  of  his  household  and  friends)  were  baptised. 
The  conversion  thus  effected  was  also  officially  recognised  by  the 
apostles  and  elders  at  Jerusalem,  who  formally  discussed  so  impor- 
tant an  event,  and  after  hearing  Peter's  statement,  glorified  God  for 
having  granted  to  the  Gentiles  '  repentance  unto  life  '  (Acts  xi.  18). 

Cos  [Kwf,  Cons'],  an  island  in  the  /Egean,  separated  only  by  a 
narrow  channel  from  the  south-west  point  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
now  called  Sfanchio.  Off  this  island  the  apostle  Paul,  on  hia  third 
missionary  journey,  passed  the  night,  on  the  voyage  from  Miletus 
to  Rhodes  (Acts  xxi.  1). 


CORNELIUS— CYPEUS.  315 

Cosam  [Kwrra/i/,  Cosan'],  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  father  of  Addi, 
and  son  of  Elmodam  (Lukejii.  28).  Nothing  further  is  known 
of  him. 

Crescens  [KpijrrKijc,  Crescetisl,  a  companion  of  Paul,  only  re- 
ferred to  in  2  Tim.  iv.  10,  where  he  is  said  to  have  departed  to 
Galatia,  which  some  suppose  (without  much  probability)  to  be 
Gaul. 

Crete  [Kpt)rr],  Kpf/rfc,  Crefa,  Cretes  (Acts  ii.  11,  A.  V.  '  Cretes^), 
Cretenses  (Tit.  i.  12,  A.  V.  '  Cretians  ')],  a  large  island  on  the  south 
of  the  .'l^gean,  now  Cmidia.  Jews  from  Crete  were  present  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  11),  and  the  vessel  in  which  Paul  sailed, 
from  Syria  to  Rome  was  driven  by  stress  of  weather  into  the 
harbour  of  The  Fair  Havens  {KaXol  Aifikveq)^  near  Lasea,  about 
the  centre  of  the  southern  side  of  the  island.  Here  the  apostle 
recommended  that  they  should  remain  during  the  winter,  but,  the 
haven  being  considered  not  commodious  to  winter  in,  the  ship,  after 
some  considerable  delay,  put  to  sea  again,  with  the  view  of  reaching 
and  wintering  in  Phenice  (now  Lutro),  a  harbour  about  forty 
miles  further  west,  and  still  on  the  south  side  of  the  island.  This 
harbour  it  never  reached,  but  was  driven  out  to  sea  and  wrecked  at 
Melita  (Acts  xxvii.  7-13).  No  record  of  evangelistic  work  at  Crete 
during  this  visit  of  Paul  exists,  but  it  is  supposed  that  he  paid  a 
second  visit  to  the  island  between  his  first  and  second  imprison- 
ments at  Rome,  and  then  founded  a  Christian  church,  of  which  he 
left  Titus  in  charge,  with  directions  to  '  set  in  order  the  things 
which  were  wanting,  and  ordain  elders  in  every  city  (Karaanjaai 
Kara  iroKiv  -irpecFjSvrepovc)  '  (Tit.  i.  o).  Further  on  in  his  epistle  to 
Titus  the  apostle  calls  special  attention  to  the  great  necessity  for 
watchfulness,  arising  from  the  bad  moral  character  of  the  people, 
and  quotes  the  saying  of  Epimenides  of  Phsestus  or  Gnossus,  a 
Cretan  author  (e.g.  600),  who  says,  '  The  Cretians  are  always  liars, 

evil  beasts,   slow  bellies   (Kpijrfg  dei   ibtvcrai,  KCiKCL   9r}pic(,  yaarkpeg 

6pyai)  '  (Tit.  i.  12).     See  Titus. 

Crispus  [Kpicnroc,  Crispus'],  the  chief  ruler  of  the  synagogue 
at  Corinth  when  Paul  arrived  there  from  Athens.  He  became  a 
convert,  with  his  house  (Acts  xviii.  8),  and  was  one  of  the  few 
persons  at  Corinth  who  were  baptised  by  Paul  himself  (1  Cor.  i. 
14).  From  Acts  xviii.  17,  he  appears  to  have  been  superseded  in 
his  office,  on  account  of  his  conversion,  by  Sosthenes. 

Cyprus  [^KvTTpoc,  adj.  Kvirpwc,  Cyprus,  adj.  Cyjyrius],  a  large 
island  in  the  north-east  corner  of  the  Levant,  immediately  south 
of  Cilicia,  and  south-west  of  Seleucia.     It  became  a  Roman  pro- 


316        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

vince  B.C.  58,  and  at  first  belonged  to  the  imperial  provinces,  and 
was  governed  by  a  preetor,  but  afterwards  was  transferred  to  the 
senatorial  provinces,  and  was  then  governed  by  a  proconsul  (av9v- 
-rrarog).  Hence  Luke,  in  Acts  xiii.  7,  who  describes  Sergius  Paulus 
as  the  proconsul  (Gr.  dv6u7raroc^  A.  V.  'deputy')  of  Cyprus, 
describes  his  official  standing  with  the  utmost  exactness.  Cyprus 
was  the  native  country  of  Barnabas  (Acts  iv.  38).  The  gospel  was 
introduced  into  Cyprus  as  a  result  of  persecution.  In  Acts  xi.  19, 
20,  we  read  that '  they  which  were  scattered  abroad  upon  the  per- 
secution that  arose  about  Stephen,  travelled  as  far  as  Phenice,  and 
Cyprus,  and  Antioch,  preaching  the  word  to  none  but  unto  the  Jews 
only.  And  some  of  them  were  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  which 
when  they  were  come  to  Antioch,  spake  unto  the  Greeians,  preach- 
ing the  Lord  Jesus.'  In  Acts  xiii.  4-12  we  find  Barnabas  and  Saul 
making  Cyprus  the  scene  of  the  commencement  of  their  missionaiy 
work.  At  Salamis,  a  city  on  the  south-east  of  the  island,  they 
remained  for  some  time,  and  preached  in  the  synagogues.  Thence 
they  passed  through  the  isle  to  Paphos,  near  the  western  ex- 
tremity, where  was  the  proconsul,  Sergius  Paulus,  attended  by  a 
Jewish  sorcerer,  named  Barjesus  or  Elymas.  As  a  punishment 
for  obstinate  resistance  to  the  word  of  God,  Elymas  was  visited 
with  temporary  blindness,  and  Sergius  Paulus,  astonished  at  this 
miracle  and  at  '  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord,'  became  himself  a  con- 
vert. After  this,  Barnabas  and  Saul,  who  had  now  taken  the  name 
of  Paul  (possibly  after  his  distinguished  convert,  Sergius  Paulus), 
left  the  island.  It  was  again  visited  by  Barnabas  and  Mark  (Acts 
XV.  39),  from  whom  Paul  (who  had  apparently  intended  to  accom- 
pany Barnabas)  had  separated,  on  account  of  a  contention  about 
Mark ;  but  no  details  of  their  visit  are  given.  No  further  record 
of  Cyprus  occurs  in  the  New  Testament,  except  that  the  ship,  in 
which  Paul  sailed  to  Rome,  passed  under  the  lee  of  the  island 
(Acts  xxvii.  4),  and  that  one  Mnason,  '  an  old  disciple  (dpxolvg 
fjiaeiiTr]<:),'  who  joined  Paul  at  Caesarea,  and  went  up  with  him 
to  Jerusalem,  is  stated  to  be  of  Cyprus  (Acts  xxi.  16). 

Cyrene,  Cyrenian  [Kupjfj^?;,  Kvpr]vcaoc,  C'i/7'e7ie,  Cyrenceus],  a 
city  of  Libya,  nearly  south  of  the  western  extremity  of  Crete. 
The  territory  of  Cyrene  Q  the  parts  of  Libya,  about  Cyrene,  ra 
fifpn  rf/t-  At/Su/jc  rriQ  Kurd  Kvp{]viiv/  Acts  ii.  10)  became  a  Roman 
province  in  B.C.  75,  and  was  united  to  Crete  for  purposes  of 
government  in  B.C.  67,  under  the  name  of  Creta-Cyrene.  Large 
numbers  of  Jews  were  resident  here,  and  a  synagogue  of  Cyre- 
nians   existed  at  Jerusalem,  members   of  which  disputed   with 


CYEENE— DAMASCUS.  317 

Stephen  (Acts  tI.  9).  A  Cyrenian  named  Simon,  encountered, 
as  he  was  coming  out  of  the  country,  by  the  soldiers  who  were 
bringing  Jesus  out  of  the  praetorium,  was  compelled  by  them 
to  bear  our  Saviour's  cross  (Matt,  xxvii.  32  ;  Mark  xv.  21  ;  Luke 
xxiii,  26).  Cyrenian  Jews  were  present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
(Acts  ii.  10).  When  the  disciples  were  scattered  abroad  after 
the  persecution  which  arose  about  Stephen,  some  travelled  as  far 
as  Cyrene,  and  preached  the  gospel  to  the  Jews  there.  '  And 
some  of  them  were  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  which  when  they 
were  come  to  Antioch,  spake  unto  the  Grecians,  preaching  the 
Lord  Jesus  '  (Acts  xi.  19,  20).  Hence,  in  Acts  xiii.  1,  we  find,  in 
the  church  of  Antioch,  a  teacher  named  Lucius  of  Cyrene. 

Cyrenius  \_Kvpr]viog,  Cyrinus],  the  Latinised  Greek  equivalent 
of  Quirinus.  His  full  name  was  Publius  Sulpicius  Quirinus,  He 
was  an  Italian,  attained  the  Consulship  in  B.C.  12,  was  appointed 
guardian  of  the  young  prince  Caius  Csesar,  nephew  and  pre- 
sumptive heir  of  Augustus  Caesar,  during  an  expedition  to 
Syria  and  Armenia,  was  twice  governor  of  Syria,  and  died 
A.D.  21.  The  dates  of  his  governments,  as  given  by  Dr.  Zumpt, 
are  ;  1st.  governorship  B.C.  4  to  a.d.  1 ;  2nd.  governorship,  a.d.  6 
to  A.D.  11.  It  is  to  the  first  governorship  that  Luke  ii.  2 
refers  ('It  came  to  pass  in  those  days,  that  there  went  out 
a  decree  from  Caesar  Augustus,  that  all  the  world  {Tzaaav  rrjv 
oiKovfikvrjv)  should  be  taxed,  and  this  taxing  was  first  made  (arr/j 
r)  cnroyparprj  7rp(0T7]  jyEj^trn)  when  Cyrenius  was  governor  of  Syria ') ; 
and  not  to  the  second,  as  was  long  supposed,  previously  to  Dr. 
Zumpt's  elaborate  and  learned  investigation.     See  pp.  56,  57. 

Dalmanutba  [AaXixavovHa,  Dalmanutlui],  probably  a  village 
near  Magdala,  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  Here  the 
Pharisees  and  scribes  came  to  Jesue,  tempting  him  and  demanding 
a  sign  from  heaven.  It  is  only  mentioned  in  Mark  viii.  10  ('  the 
parts  of  Dalmanutha,  to.  jikpr]  A.').  In  the  parallel  passage,  Matt. 
XV.  39  gives  'the  coasts  of  Magdala  (ja  dpia  MaySaXd)  '. 

Balmatia  [AaXjttarm,  Dalmatia],  a  district  on  the  east  shore  of 
the  Adriatic,  and  forming  part  of  the  Ptoman  province  of  Illyricum, 
which  had  been  at  least  approached  by  the  evangelistic  work  of 
Paul,  on  his  third  missionary  journey.  To  Dalmatia,  Titus 
'  departed  '  from  the  apostle,  during  his  second  imprisonment  at 
Eome,  but  for  what  purpose  is  unknown  (2  Tim.  iv,  10). 

Damaris  [zXa/xap'e,  Damaris],  a  woman  at  Athens,  converted 
under  Paul's  preaching  there  (Acts  xvii.  34). 

Damascus  \_[>''<^t^'^.  =  industry  or  aleHness,  AafiaaKoc,  Damascus\ 


318        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

the  capital  of  Damascene  or  Coele-Syria,  existed  in  the  time  of 
Abraham,  whose  steward  was  '  Eliezer  of  Damascus '  (Gen.  xv.  2). 
It  was  conquered  by  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  6),  but  recovered  its 
independence  in  the  time  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  xi.  24),  under 
Rezon,  and  continued  independent  until  added  to  the  kingdom  of 
Assyria  by  Tiglathpileser  (2  Kings  xvi.  9).  It  then  passed  under 
the  dominion  successively  of  the  Babylonians,  the  Persians,  the 
Greek  kings  of  Syria,  the  Romans  (who  gave  it  to  Aretas,  king 
of  Petra,  for  a  time,  but  resumed  possession  afterwards),  and  the 
Arabians,  who  took  it  from  the  empei-or  Heraclius  in  a.d.  624. 
After  being  the  residence  of  the  caliphs  for  some  period,  it  was 
taken  by  the  Turks,  to  whom  it  now  belongs,  bearing  the  name  of 
Es  Scliam,  and  being  the  capital  of  a  pashalic  of  the  same  name. 
It  is  still  one  of  the  richest  cities  of  the  east,  and  contains  about 
150,000  inhabitants.  Its  situation  is  very  beautiful,  and  favour- 
able for  trade,  lying  in  a  broad  valley  watered  by  the  Chrysorrheas, 
or  Baroda  (anciently  the  Ahana,  2  Kings  v.  12),  at  the  east  foot 
of  Antilibanus,  and  on  the  caravan  road  from  Syria  to  Persia. 
It  appears  in  the  New  Testament  as  the  city  near  which  the 
apostle  Paul  was  converted.  A  band  of  Christians  had  gathered 
at  Damascus,  and  Saul,  fresh  from  the  murder  of  Stephen,  went 
thither,  armed  with  letters  from  the  high-priest,  to  search  for  and 
punish  them.  As  the  cavalcade  approached  Damascus,  a  blinding 
light  fell  from  heaven,  Saul  was  struck  down  to  the  earth,  and  the 
voice  of  Jesus  in  glory  addressed  him  (Acts  ix.  1-8 ;  xxii.  4-9 ; 
xxvi.  10-18).  Being  raised  from  the  earth,  Saul  was  then  brought 
in  a  blinded  condition  into  the  city,  to  the  house  of  Judas,  in  the 
street  called  Straight  (Acts  ix.  11),  and  there  visited  by  a  disciple 
named  Ananias,  who  opened  his  eyes,  and  instructed  him.  A 
street  called  Straight  is  still  shown,  but  the  probability  is  that  the 
street  so  called  in  the  New  Testament  is  not  that  which  now 
bears  the  name,  but  another,  of  which  magnificent  traces  have 
been  discovered,  and  which  stretched  from  the  east  gate  to  the  west 
gate  of  the  city.  After  the  visit  of  Ananias,  Saul  continued  in 
Damascus  for  some  time,  preaching  in  the  synagogues  (Acts 
ix.  20),  but  the  fury  of  the  Jews  was  aroused  against  him,  and  he 
had  to  retire  into  Arabia  (Gal.  i.  17).  From  Arabia  he  returned 
to  Damascus,  and  again  preached  with  such  power  and  success 
that  the  Jews  resolved  to  assassinate  him.  In  this  design,  they 
were  assisted  by  the  Ethnarch  of  Aretas,  king  of  Petraea,  int.o 
whose  hands  the  city  had  now  fallen,  and  whose  forces  watched 
the  walls  day  and  night  to  kiU  him.     Hereupon,  the  disciples  let 


DANIEL— DAVID.  319" 

Paul  down  from  tlie  walls  by  night  in  a  basket  (aapyavr]),  and  he 
so  escaped  to  Jerusalem  (2  Cor.  xi.  33).  Most  of  the  localities 
here  referred  to  are  still  shown,  but  there  is  little  probability  of 
their  authentic  character. 

Saniel  [/'N.^.^'H,  or  y^^"^  =  God  is  mi/ Judge,  or  the  judge  of  God, 
AavijjX,  Dmiiel],  one  of  the  four  greater  prophets.  He  was  an 
Israelite,  of  royal  lineage,  and  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon  in 
B.C.  604.  Here  he  rose,  by  integrity  of  character,  purity  of  life, 
strength  of  intellect,  and  a  divinely- granted  power  of  interpreting 
dreams,  to  be  the  chief  of  the  wise  men,  and  (under  Darius)  one 
of  the  '  three  presidents'  of  the  empire.  His  piety  was  proverbial. 
He  was  in  the  habit  of  using  private  prayer  three  times  a  day,  and 
rather  than  resign  this  practice,  suffered  himself  to  be  cast  into  a 
den  of  lions,  from  whom,  however,  he  was  miraculously  preserved. 
He  uttered  many  remarkable  prophecies ;  and  is  supposed  to  have 
died  at  Susa,  in  Persia,  where  a  tomb,  said  to  be  his,  is  still  visited 
by  multitudes  of  pilgrims.  In  the  New  Testament  Daniel  is  re- 
ferred to  as  '  the  prophet  (Trpo^T/rrjt ) '  by  whom  the  '  abomination 
of  desolation  (^rb  iSS^Xvy/^ia  tyiq  tp7]iuto(yeo)g)  standing  in  the  holy 
place '  is  spoken  of  as  a  sign  of  the  latter  days  (Matt.  xxiv.  15 ; 
Mark  xiii.  14).  This  may  be  a  reference  either  to  Dan.  ix.  27 ; 
xi.  31  ,•  and  xii.  ]  1,  or  may  be  collected  from  the  united  sense  of 
all  these  passages.  The  '  abomination'  spoken  of  is  most  probably 
the  Roman  ensign  as  the  symbol  of  an  idolatrous  power.  In  the 
Apocrypha  the  same  expression  is  applied  to  the  introduction  into 
Jerusalem  of  idolatrous  worship  by  Antiochus  Epipbanes  ('they 
set  up  the  abomination  of  desolation  upon  the  altar,  and  builded  idol 
altars  throughout  the  cities  of  Juda  on  every  side,'  1  Mace.  i.  54). 

David  [^)\  or  more  rarely  T'H  ==  beloved,  Aa)3iS,  David],  the 
eighth  and  youngest  son  of  Jesse,  a  man  of  Bethlehem.  In  his 
youth  he  kept  his  father's  sheep,  but  having  been  selected  by  God, 
and  anointed  by  the  prophet  Samuel,  he  became  king  of  Judah 
on  the  death  of  Saul,  and  on  the  death  of  Ishbosheth,  Saul's  son, 
seven  years  and  a  half  later,  king  of  Israel  and  Judah  united.  He 
wrote  many  of  the  Psalms ;  and  the  history  of  the  events  of  his 
life  mainly  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  Old  Testament,  viz. 
1  Sam,  xvi.  to  1  Kings  ii.,  and  1  Chron.  xi.  to  1  Chron.  xxix.  In 
the  New  Testament  he  only  appears  as  the  ancestor  or  predicter 
of  the  Messiah.  Thus  in  Acts  ii.  24-31,  Peter,  speaking  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  points  out  that  David  in  Ps.  xvi.  8-11  is  not  speaking 
of  his  own  freedom  from  liability  to  death,  but  of  the  incorruptible 


320        ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

character  of  the  body  of  the  Messiah.  It  was  universally  admitted 
by  the  Jews  that  the  Messiah  was  to  come  of  the  family  of  David, 
according  to  the  promises  (2  Sam.  vii.  12-15;  1  Chron.  xvii.  11- 
14;  2  Chron.  vi.  42;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  4-37;  cxxxii.  10-17;  Isa.  ix. 
7 ;  xi.  1 ;  Iv.  3,  4  ;  Jer.  xxiii.  5^  6 ;  Amos  ix.  11)  that  '  of  the  fruit 
of  his  loins,  according  to  the  flesh,  he  would  raise  up  Christ  to  sit 
on  his  throne'  (Acts  ii.  30).  This  belief  is  referred  to  in  Matt, 
xxii.  41-46 ;  Mark  xii.  35-37 ;  Luke  xx.  41-44,  where  our  Lord 
puts  forward  the  difficulty  (inexplicable  except  by  acknowledging 
the  twofold  nature  of  Christ)  which  arises  from  the  Messiah  being 
at  once  David's  son  and  Lord.  The  application  of  the  designation 
'  son  of  David '  to  Jesus  Christ  was  therefore  equivalent  to  acknow- 
ledging his  Messiahship.  It  was  so  intended  by  Matthew  in  the  title 
of  his  gospel  ('  The  book  of  the  generation  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  son 
of  David,  the  son  of  Abraham,'  Matt.  i.  1) ;  by  the  two  blind  men. 
in  Galilee  (Matt.  ix.  27)  ;  by  the  people  in  the  synagogue  at 
Capernaum,  who,  beholding  a  blind  and  dumb  spirit  cast  out, 
cried  out,  '  Is  not  this  the  son  of  David  ?'  (Matt.  xii.  23)  ;  by  the 
Syrophcenician  woman  (Matt.  xv.  22) ;  by  blind  Bartimaeus 
(Matt.  XX.  30,  31 ;  Mark  x.  47,  48  ;  Luke  xviii.  38,  39)  ;  and  by 
the  multitudes  who,  at  the  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  cried 
out,  '  Hosanna  to  the  Son  of  David '  (Matt.  xxi.  9).  Both 
genealogies  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  i.  1-17,  and  Luke  iii.  23-38) 
have  the  Davidic  descent  in  view,  Matthew  probably  showing 
that  Jesus  was  the  legal  successor  to  the  throne  of  David,  and  Luke 
showing  that  Jesus  was  the  lineal  descendant  of  David.  Refer- 
ring to  this  descent  of  Jesus  from  David,  Joseph,  the  supposed 
father  of  Jesus,  was  called  '  son  of  David '  by  the  angel  who 
announced  to  him  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  Christ  (Matt.  i. 
20 ;  Luke  i.  27) ;  and  attention  is  further  called  to  Joseph's 
descent  in  Luke  ii.  4,  where  the  reason  of  his  going  to  Bethlehem 
to  be  taxed  is  stated  to  be  that  he  was  '  of  the  house  and  lineage 
of  David.'  In  his  character  of  prophet,  David  is  also  quoted  in 
the  hymn  or  prayer  of  the  disciples,  after  the  discharge  of  Peter 
and  John  by  the  council,  who  had  apprehended  them  for  their 
miracle  of  healing  on  the  lame  man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the 
Temple.  In  this  passage  (Acts  iv.  25-28),  Ps.  ii.  is  applied  to 
Christ,  and  many  other  psalms  of  David  are  similarly  employed 
in  the  New  Testament,  without  mention  of  their  author's  name. 

Decapolis  [ilf/caTroAtjg  =  ten  cities,  Dccapolis~\^  a  district  com- 
prising ten  cities,  all,  except  Scythopolis,  situated  on  the  east  of 
the  Sea  of  Tiberias.     What  were  the  cities  which  composed  it  is 


DEC  APOLIS— DIANA.  321 

not  exactly  known;  Gadara  and  Damascus  are  the  only  two 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  Great  multitudes  from  Deca- 
polis  flocked  to  hear  Jesus  (Matt.  iv.  25),  and  it  was  in  this  dis- 
trict that  He  healed  the  demoniac  named  Legion,  out  of  whom 
the  devils  departed  into  the  swine,  and  who,  after  being  healed, 
preached  the  gospel  in  Decapolis  (Mark  v.  20).  The  feeding  of 
the  5,000,  and  of  the  4,000,  likewise  took  place  in  Decapolis,  and 
here  a  deaf  man,  with  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  was  healed, 
and  many  other  miracles  performed  (31ark  vii.  31-37). 

Bemas  lArifiag  =  Ar}i.a]rpiog  or  Ariixapxog  (?)f  Demas\  a  fellow- 
labourer  (awfpyoq)  of  Paul,  who  sends  greetings  from  Rome  to 
Philemon  (Philem.  24)  and  in  conjunction  with  Luke  to  the 
Colossian  Christians  (Col.  iv.  14).  Afterwards,  however,  he  fell 
away,  and  forsook  Paul,  '  having  loved  this  present  world  (jbv  vvv 
alwva),  departing  to  Thessalonica '  (2  Tim.  iv.  10). 

Demetrius  [A/;/i/)rp(oc,  Demetrius'].  (1)  A  silversmith  at 
Ephesus,  who  made  silver  shrines  for  the  goddess  Diana  (vaovg 
apyvpovQ  'Aprep.icog)f  i.e.  small  silver  models  of  her  temple  and 
image,  to  he  used  as  charms.  Fearful  that  his  trade  would  suffer 
by  the  spread  of  the  gospel  at  Ephesus,  he  called  together  his 
fellow-craftsmen,  and  raised  the  tumult  in  Ephesus,  described  in 
Acts  xix.  23-41.  (2)  A  Christian  referred  to  by  the  apostle  John 
in  3  John  12,  and  there  stated  to  be  '  of  good  report  of  all  men^ 
and  of  the  truth  itself.' 

Serbe  [AkpjSjj,  Derbe ;  adj.  Afp^aloc,  Derheus],  a  city  of  Lyca- 
onia,  visited  by  St.  Paul  both  on  his  first  and  second  missionary 
journeys.  On  the  first  occasion,  it  appears  to  have  been  the  final 
point  reached,  and  no  particulars  are  mentioned  except  that  Paul 
and  Barnabas  '  preached  the  gospel  to  that  city '  (Acts  xiv.  21), 
and  thence  returned  to  Lystra,  whence  they  had  come.  It  is 
evident,  hawever,  that  success  followed  the  work.  The  expres- 
sion '  taught  many '  really  = '  made  many  disciples,'  and  in  Acts 
xvi.  1-3,  which  relates  the  second  visit,  we  find  that  Timotheus 
was  there,  as  well  as  his  mother  Eunice,  and  here,  for  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  Jews,  he  consented  to  be  circumcised.  Further  on 
(Acts  XX.  4),  another  disciple,  Gaius  of  Derbe,  appears  as  the  com- 
panion of  St.  Paul's  travels. 

The  site  of  Derbe  is  unascertained.  It  probably  lay  to  the  south- 
east of  the  great  Lycaonian  plain,  and  was  evidently  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Lystra  and  Iconium,  with  which  places  its  name  is 
generally  connected. 

Diana  ['Aprsjutc,  Diana],  an    Asiatic  goddess,  worshipped   at 

Y 


322        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Ephesus  under  the  name  of  Artemis.  She  was  regarded  by  most 
idolatrous  systems  as  the  patroness  of  yirginity  and  chastity,  and 
was  represented  as  a  huntress  or  as  the  goddess  of  the  moon.  Her 
image  at  Ephesus  was  of  wood,  in  the  form  of  a  many-breasted 
female  above,  but  shapeless  below,  and  it  was  said  to  have  fallen 
down  from  Jupiter.  The  temple  in  which  it  was  placed  was 
reckoned  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  ancient  world.     See  Ephesus. 

Sidymus  [A/^t'jUoc  =  a  twin,  Didpnns'],  the  Greek  translation  of 
the  Hebrew  Dlfi^ri  (  =  a  twin)  from  which  Thomas  is  derived.  It 
is  applied  to  the  apostle  Thomas  in  John  xi.  16  ;  xx.  24 ;  xxi.  2. 
See  Tho7nas. 

Sionysius  [^Atovvmog  6  'Apf07rayirr]c,  Dionysius  Areopagita~\,  a 
member  of  the  court  of  Areopagus  at  Athens,  who  was  converted 
by  the  address  of  Paul  there,  and  '  clave  unto  hira  '  (Acts  xvii.  34). 
Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  his  subsequent  history,  but  there  is 
a  tradition  that  he  became  first  bishop  of  Athens,  and  suffered 
martyrdom  there.     See  Areo^mgus. 

Biotrephes  [Atorpf^;?/c,  Diotrephes'],  mentioned  in  3  John  9, 
where  the  apostle  says  '  I  wrote  unto  the  church,  but  Diotrephes, 
who  lovethto  have  the  pre-eminence  (o  pXoTrpojnvwv)  among  them 
receiveth  us  not."     Nothing  is  further  known  of  him. 

Sorcas  [Aop(cac  =  «  gazelle,  Dorcas'],  a  woman's  name,  being 
the  Greek  equivalent  for  the  Hebrew  ^5j!5V  =  <?  female  gazelle^ 
('  Zibia,'  1  Chron.  viii.  9),  of  which  Tabitha  is  the  Aramaic  form. 
Dorcas  or  Tabitha  was  a  Christian  woman,  residing  at  Joppa,  '  full 
of  good  works  and  almsdeeds,'  and  especially  notable  for  making 
garments  for  the  poor.  She  was  raised  from  the  dead  by  the 
apostle  Peter,  who  was  previously  residing  at  Lydda,  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  having  there  cured  ^Eneas  of  the  palsy,  was 
sent  for  by  the  friends  of  Dorcas,  possibly  in  the  hope  that  such  a 
miracle  might  be  wrought.  One  result  of  the  miracle  was  the 
conversion  of  many  persons  in  Joppa.  These  incidents  are  related 
in  Acts  ix.  30-43. 

Srusilla  [Apoucr/Wj?,  Drifsilla'],  the  wife  of  Felix,  the  procurator 
of  Judsea.  She  was  present  when  Paul  was  brought  before  her 
husband  at  Caisarea  (Acts  xxiv.  24).  She  was  '  a  Jewess,'  being 
the  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  She  had  been  previously 
married  to  Azizus,  king  of  Emesa,  but  Felix,  captivated  with  her 
beauty,  induced  her  to  desert  her  husband.     See  under  Herod. 

Eg-ypt,  Bg-yptian  [^i'i>P,  but  generally  used  in  the  plural  form 
Dnvp  (there  being  two  Egypts,  upper  and  lower ;  or  from  the  land 


DID  YMUS— EGYPT.  323 

being  cut  in  two  by  the  Nile ;  or  from  Mizraim,  son  of  Ham),  adj. 
^"iVPj  AiyviTTog,  adj.  AiyvTrriog;  yEgi/ptus,  adj.  JEgyptius].  1.  A 
country  on  the  north-east  of  Africa,  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  north,  the  Red  Sea  on  the  east,  the  deserts  of  Libya  on  the 
west,  and  Nubia  on  the  south.  The  river  Nile  runs  from  south  to 
north  through  the  whole  country,  and  by  its  annual  overflow, 
which  happens  from  April  to  October,  and  which  is  permitted 
to  submerge  the  land,  Egypt  is  rendered  extremely  fertile.  The 
north  portion  of  the  Nile  valley  expands  into  a  delta,  intersected 
by  the  many  streams,  into  which  the  river  is  then  broken.  Egypt 
was  invaded  in  B.C.  332  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  at  his 
death  fell  to  the  lot  of  Ptolemy,  the  son  of  Lagus,  who  assumed 
the  throne  in  B.C.  306,  and  whose  successors  ruled  Egypt  until 
B.C.  30.  In  B.C.  30,  on  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  the  last  of  the 
Ptolemies,  Egypt  became  a  Roman  province,  and  so  continued 
during  New  Testament  times.  Under  the  Ptolemies,  Egypt  at 
fii-st  attained  much  prosperity  and  became  the  seat  of  Greek 
learning.  Vast  numbers  of  Jews  resided  there,  especially  at 
Alexandria,  where  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  translated  into 
Greek.  A  Jewish  temple  was  also  erected  at  Leontopolis  or  On. 
Pious  Jews  from  Egypt  were  present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
(Acts  ii.  10).  Many  incidents  connected  with  the  Old  Testament 
Egyptian  history  are  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament.  The  sale 
of  Joseph  into  Egypt  and  his  life  there  are  referred  to  by  Stephen 
in  his  address  before  the  Sanhedrim  (Acts  vii.  9-16),  and  in  Heb. 
xi.  22.  The  birth  of  Moses  and  his  mission  to  his  countrymen  in 
Egypt  are  described  by  Stephen  in  Acts  vii.  17-35 ;  also  in  Heb. 
xi.  24-27,  where  his  actions  are  set  forth  as  an  exhibition  of  faith. 
The  Exodus  from  Egypt  is  referred  to  by  Stephen  in  Acts  vii.  36 ; 
by  Paul,  addressing  the  Jews  in  the  synagogue  at  Antioch  in 
Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  17)  ;  in  Heb.  iii.  16  (where  the  apostacy  of  some, 
and  the  continuance  of  other,  Israelites  is  spoken  of) ;  in  Heb.  viii.  9 
(where  a  prophecy  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (xxxi.  31-34)  is  quoted 
as  to  the  nature  of  God's  covenant  with  his  people)  ;  in  Heb.  xi.  29 ; 
and  by  Jude  (ver.  5),  who  puts  Christians  in  remembrance  that 
some  who  came  out  of  Egypt  were  afterwards  destroyed. 

Oui'  Lord,  as  an  infant,  spent  a  short  t^me  in  Egypt,  having  been 
taken  there  by  Joseph,  under  the  direction  of  an  angel,  in  order  to 
frustrate  the  murderous  intentions  of  Herod.  On  Herod's  death, 
and  by  the  direction  of  a  second  angelic  vision,  the  child  Jesus  was 
again  brought  to  Palestine,  when  Joseph,  hearing  that  Archelaus 
reigned  in  Judsea,  '  turned  aside  (civ^x^pn^^iv)  into  the  parts  of 

y2 


324       ESSEISTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Galilee.'  These  circumstances  are  only  mentioned  by  Matthew 
(ii,  13-15,  10-23),  who  quotes  a  prophecy  on  the  subject  from 
Hosea  (xi.  1),  '  Out  of  Egypt  have  I  called  my  son/  Tradition 
names  Matarsea,  near  the  temple  at  Leontopolis,  as  the  scene  of 
the  Residence  in  Egypt,  but  no  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  this. 

In  Acts  xxi.  38.  the  chief  captain  at  Jerusalem,  when  about  to 
take  Paul  into  the  castle,  for  protection  against  the  infuriated 
Jews,  says,  '  Art  not  thou  that  Egyptian  which  before  these 
days  madest  an  uproar,  and  leddest  out  into  the  wilderness  four 
thousand  men  which  were  murderers  (mKaploi)  ? '  This  Egyptian, 
whose  name  is  not  known,  is  related  by  Josephus  to  have  an- 
nounced himself  as  a  prophet,  and  to  have  encamped  with  his 
followers  at  the  Mount  of  Olives,  promising  them  that,  at  his 
word,  the  walls  should  fall  down  before  them.  Felix,  however, 
attacked  him.  Many  of  his  followers  were  killed,  but  he  himself 
escaped.  Josephus  himself  reckons  the  number  of  his  followers 
differently  in  different  places,  giving  six  hundred  at  one  time  and 
three  thousand  at  another.  No  doubt  the  number  varied  from 
time  to  time,  nor  is  it  necessary  to  suppose  that  the  chief  captain 
was  correctly  informed  on  the  subject. 

2.  One  of  the  spiritual  names  of  the  great  city,  '  where  also 
our  Lord  was  crucified,'  and  where  the  dead  bodies  of  the  Two 
Witnesses  are  to  lie  for  three  and  a  half  days  (Rev.  xi.  8,  9). 

Elamites  ['E\a/.uraj,  JElamitcs'],  the  inhabitants  of  Elam,  a 
province  of  Persia,  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Jews  from 
Elam  were  present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9). 

Sleazar  [ITV^t?  =  owe  ivhom  God  aids,  'FMat^ap,  JSleaza?-'],  one  of 
the  ancestors  of  Jesus  Christ,  son  of  Eliud,  and  father  of  Matthan 
(Matt.  i.  15).     This  is  the  same  name  as  Lazarus,  which  see. 

Eliakim  [Cp  vX  =  owe  ivJiom  God  has  set,  'EXiuKtlfx,  JEliacini], 
one  of  the  ancestors  of  Jesus  Christ,  son  of  Juda  or  Abiud 
(Hodaiah,  1  Chr.  iii.  24),  and  brother  of  Joseph  (Matt.  i.  13, 
with  which  compare  Luke  iii.  26).    See  Genealogy  of  Christ,  p.  176. 

Elias  [n*7i<  and  -in^PNl  =  rmj  God  is  Jehovah,  'HXiac,  Elias'],  the 
name  under  which  the  prophet  Elijah  is  always  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament.  He  was  '  a  Tishbite,  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Gilead  '  [So  A.  V.  (1  Kings  xvii.  1)  :  but  the  passage  may  mean, 
' the  Tishbite,  of  Tishbeh  of  Gilead':  the  locality  of  Tishbeh  is 
utterly  unascertained].  He  prophesied  in  Israel  during  the  reigns 
of  Ahab,  Ahaziah,  and  Jehoram.  He  worked  many  remarkable 
miracles,   and  was  finally  carried  to  heaven   by  a   chariot   and 


ELAMITES— ELIAS.  325 

horses  of  fire,  in  the  presence  of  his  successor  Elisha.    Hi?  miracles, 

his  ascetic  character,  and  his  power  with  God  by  prayer,  deeply 

impressed  the  nation  to  whom  he  was  sent.      Many  stories  of 

reappearances  were  told,  and  many  customs  indicated  the  constant 

expectation  of  his  return   entertained  by  the  Jews.     Principally, 

however,  he  was  expected  to  return  to  the  earth  in   order  to 

announce  the  Messiah,  in  accordance  with  the  prophecy  of  Malachi 

iv.  5,   'Behold,  I  will  send  you  Elijah  the  prophet,  before  the 

coming  of  the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord  :  and  he  shall 

turn  the  heart  of  the  fathers  to  the  children,  and  the  heart  of  the 

children  to  their  fathers,  lest  I  come  and  smite  the  earth  with  a 

curse.'    Hence,  when  the  angel  announced  to  Zach  arias  the  coming 

birth  of  John  the  Baptist,  he  foretold  respecting  him  that  he 

'  should  go  before  him  (the  Lord  their  God),  in  the  spirit  and 

power  of  Elias '  (Luke  i.  17),  and  when  John  appeared,  he  was 

asked  whether   he  were  Elias   or  not.      To  this  John   himself 

answered  with  his  ordinary  modesty  '  I  am  not '  (John  i.  21),  but 

our  Lord  distinctly  stated  that  his  forerunner,  John  the  Baptist, 

was  entitled  to  be  considered  Elias  (Matt.   xi.  14 ;  xvii.  11,  12 ; 

Mark  ix.  11,  12).     Our  Lord  himself  was  considered  by  some  to 

be  Elias  (Matt.  xvi.  14j  Mark  vi.  15 ;  Luke  ix.  8),  but  when  he 

uttered   on  the  cross  the  remarkable  words,   '  Eloi,  Eloi,  lama 

sabachthani,'  some  of  those  that  stood  by  regarded  this  as  a  cry  for 

Elias,  and  seem  to  have  expected  that  Elias  would  appear  to  assist 

(Matt.  xxvi.  46-49 ;  Mark  xv.  34-36).     This  may  have  arisen  from 

the  fact  that  Elias  actually  appeared  at  the  Transfiguration,  in 

company  with  Moses,  and  conversed  with  our   Saviour  on  his 

passion   and  death    (Matt.  xvii.  3;  Mark  ix.  4;    Luke  ix.  30). 

From  all  this  it  appears  that  in  the  New  Testament  times  Elias 

was  chiefly  regarded  as  a  forerunner  and  supporter  of  the  Messias. 

Two  only  of  his  miracles  are  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament ; 

viz.,  (1).  The  miraculous  increase  of  the  barrel  of  meal  and  cruse 

of  oil,  which  belonged  to  the  widow  of  Zarephath.  This  was  alluded 

to  by  our  Lord  in  his  first  sermon  at  Nazareth,  where  he  pointed 

out  that,  although  there  were  many  widows  in  Israel  in  the  time 

of  Elijah,  the  prophet  only  assisted  one,  who  was  not  an  Israelite, 

but  an  inhabitant  of  Sidon  ;  and  (2)  the  calling  down  by  Elias 

of  fire  from  heaven  on  the  captains  of  fifties  (2  Kings  i.),  which 

the  disciples   James   and   John   vainly   requested   our   Lord   to 

imitate,  for  the  destruction  of  a  certain  inhospitable  Samaritan 

village  (Luke  ix.  51-o6).     In  Rom.  xi.  2-4,  the  answer  of  God 

to  Elias,  when  the  prophet  supposed  himself  to  be  the  only  true 


326        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

worshipper  left  in  Israel,  but  was  assured  by  God  that  7,000  men 
had  not  yet  bowed  the  knee  to  Baal,  is  introduced  as  an  instance 
of  the  existence  at  all  times  of  a  '  remnant  according  to  the  election 
of  grace  (/car'  kicXoynv  x('P^'''oO''  Finally  the  power  of  prayer  is 
illustrated  in  Jas.  v.  17, 18  (where  it  is  remarkable  that  the  prophetic 
character  of  Elias  is  not  the  point  dwelt  upon),  by  the  remark  that 
'  Elias  was  a  man  subject  to  like  passions  as  we  are,  and  he  prayed 
earnestly  that  it  might  not  rain  ;  and  it  rained  not  on  the  earth 
by  the  space  of  three  years  and  six  months.  And  he  prayed 
again,  and  the  heaven  gave  rain,  and  the  earth  brought  forth 
fruit.'  The  cessation  and  recommencement  of  this  rain  is  stated 
in  1  Kings  xvii.  1 ;  xviii.  45,  but  that  they  were  brought  about  by 
prayei'  is  not  expressly  stated,  but  only  implied. 

Bliezer  ['EAis^fo,  Eiiezer],  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  father  of 
Jose,  and  son  of  Jorim  (Luke  iii.  29).  Nothing  further  is  known 
of  him. 

Elisabeth  ['EXiffd/ifr,  Elisaheth\  the  wife  of  Zacharias,  and 
mother  in  her  old  age  of  John  the  Baptist.  She  was  a  relative 
{(yvyytvi]c)  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Tidings  of  the  unexpected  con- 
dition of  Elisabeth  were  conveyed  to  Mary  by  the  angel  at  the 
Annunciation,  and  she  in  consequence  visited  the  house  of 
Zacharias,  who  dwelt  in  a  city  of  Judah,  and  saluted  her  relative. 
As  she  came  in,  Elisabeth  was  inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to 
exclaim,  '  Blessed  art  thou  among  women,  and  blessed  is  the 
fruit  of  thy  womb.  And  whence  is  this  to  me,  that  the  mother  of 
my  Lord  is  come  to  me  ?  For  lo  !  as  soon  as  the  voice  of  thy 
salutation  sounded  in  mine  ears,  the  babe  leaped  in  my  womb  for 
joy.  And  blessed  is  she  that  believed,  for  there  shall  be  a  per- 
formance of  those  things  which  were  told  her  from  the  Lord.'  In 
answer  to  this,  Mary  uttered  the  song  known  as  the  Magnificat^ 
and  appears  to  have  remained  with  Elisabeth  until  the  birth  of 
John  the  Baptist.  At  the  circumcision  of  John,  the  friends 
desired  to  call  him  Zacharias,  but  Elisabeth,  in  accordance  with 
the  angelic  message  (Luke  i.  13),  named  him  John,  and  Zacharias 
confirmed  her  determination  (Luke  i.  5,  7,  13,  24,  25,  36,  39-45, 
57-63). 

Eliseus  [y^yS^.  =  o«e  to  whom  God  is  salvation,  'EXicrcTaloQ  or 
'EXi(Taioc,  MiscBus],  the  name  under  which  the  prophet  Elisha  is 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  He  was  the  son  of  Shaphat, 
of  Abelmeholah  (an  unidentified  place  in  the  Jordan  Valley), 
where  he  was  found  ploughing  by  the  prophet  Elijah,  and  chosen 
by  him  to  be  his  successor,    He  prophesied  in  Israel^  after  the 


ELIEZER— EMMOE.  327 

rapture  of  Elijah,  during  the  reigns  of  Ahab,  Ahaziah,  Joram, 
Jehu,  Jehoahaz,  and  Joash  (about  sixty-five  years),  and  performed 
many  wonderful  miracles.  But  his  cure  of  the  Syrian  leper 
Naaman  (2  Kings  v.),  is  the  only  circumstance  of  his  life  referred 
to  in  the  New  Testament.  The  point  of  this  reference,  made  by 
our  Lord  in  his  first  sermon  in  the  Synagogue  of  Nazareth  (Luke 
iv.  27),  lay  in  the  fact  that,  although  there  were  many  lepers  in 
Israel  in  Elisha's  time,  the  prophet  was  only  commissioned  to  heal 
one,  who  was  not  an  Israelite,  but  a  Syrian. 

Eliud  ['EXtovt?,  Eliud'],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  son  of 
Achim,  and  father  of  Eleazar  (Matt.  i.  lo). 

Blymas  ['E\iV'«c,  Ehjmas],  the  Greek  name  of  the  sorcerer, 
Bar-jesus.     See  £ar-jesi(s. 

ZUmodan  ['EXjuaoa^u,  Elmadam\  an  ancestor  of  our.  Lord,  father 
of  Cosam,  and  son  of  Er  (Luke  iii.  28).  Nothing  further  is 
known  of  him. 

£mmaus  ['£////aoiV,  Emmaus],  a  Tillage  sixty  furlongs  from 
Jerusalem.  It  has  been  identified  with  (1)  El-Kubeiheh,  which  is 
about  seven  miles  north-west  of  the  city,  near  Neby  Samicil,  and 
(2)  Kidonieh,  originally  a  lioman  colony,  about  four  and  a-half 
miles  west  of  the  city,  but  neither  identification  rests  on  sulficient 
grounds,  while  a  third,  which  makes  Emmaus,  or  Nicopolis,  in 
Philistia  to  be  the  Emmaus  of  the  New  Testament  is  untenable  from 
its  distance  (twenty  miles)  from  Jerusalem.  Two  disciples,  one  named 
Cleopas,  were  on  the  road  to  Emmaus,  on  the  day  of  the  resurrection, 
and  were  sadly  discussing  the  disappointment  of  their  hopes  by  reason 
of  their  master's  crucifixion  and  death.  To  them,  under  the  guise 
of  a  traveller,  Jesus  himself  appeared,  and  pointed  out,  as  they 
walked,  that  the  prophets  had  prophesied  the  humiliation  and 
sufl'ering  of  the  Messiah.  When  they  arrived  at  Emmaus,  the 
disciples  constrained  the  supposed  stranger  to  enter  and  share  their 
evening  meal.  Then  as  he  sat  at  meat  with  them,  their  eyes  were 
opened  and  they  recognised  their  master.  He  immediately  vanished 
out  of  their  sight,  but  they  returned  at  once  to  Jerusalem,  and  re- 
lated to  the  other  disciples  what  had  occurred  (Luke  xxiv.  13-35). 

Eminor  [liDn  =  aw  ass,  'EfAiiop  or  'Ejjifxwp,  Hemor'],  the  New 
Testament  equivalent  of  Hamor,  tha  father  of  Sychem  (called  in 
the  Old  Testament  Shechem),  of  whom  Jacob  is  said  to  have 
bought  a  parcel  of  land  for  one  hundred  pieces  of  money  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  19).  In  Stephen's  speech  before  the  Sanhedrim,  a  pur- 
chase of  land  at  Shechem  is  ascribed  to  Abraham  (Acts  vii.  1(3), 
aiid  this  is  assumed  by  many  to  be  an  erroneous  statement  of  the 


328       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

transaction  between  Jacob  and  the  Shecbemites  (Gen.  xxxiv.  19). 
But  it  is  quite  possible,  and  indeed  probable,  tbat  Abraham,  as 
well  as  Jacob,  bought  land  at  Shechem,  as  he  resided  there  for 
some  time  (Gen.  xii.  6),  nor  is  it  at  all  impossible  that  the  pos- 
session of  ancestral  pix)perty  at  Shechem  was  the  true  reason 
of  Jacob's  journey  thither,  and  purchase  of  additional  ground. 
See  Sychem. 

Eneas,     See  JEneas. 

Enoch  [^^'^Vi- initiated,  or  imtiating,  'Ei/wt^,  Henoch\  the  name 
of  several  Old  Testament  persons,  but  used  in  the  New  Testament 
only  to  designate  the  son  of  Jared,  and  father  of  Methuselah,  of 
whom  we  read  in  Gen.  v.  18,  21-24,  '  Jared  lived  162  years,  and 
begat  Enoch  .  .  .  and  Enoch  lived  65  years  and  begat  Methuselah ; 
and  Enoch  walked  with  God  after  he  begat  Methuselah  300  years, 
and  begat  sons  and  daughters,  and  all  the  days  of  Enoch  were  365 
years ;  and  Enoch  walked  with  God,  and  he  was  not,  for  God  took 
him.'  The  expression  '  walked  with  (or  before)  God  '  is  also  used 
of  Noah  (Gen  vi.  9),  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii.  1),  and  Isaac  (Gen. 
xlviii.  15),  and  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  describing  a  virtuous 
and  godly  life  (see  also  Heb.  xi.  6).  That  ^  God  took  him '  was 
understood  by  the  Jews  to  signify  translation  to  heaven,  is  also  plain 
from  Ecclus.  xlix.  14  {'  Upon  the  earth  was  no  man  created  like 
Enoch,  for  he  was  taken  from  the  earth  ').  In  the  New  Testament 
Enoch  is  mentioned  in  Luke  iii.  37,  as  one  of  the  ancestors  of 
Jesus  Christ.  His  translation  to  heaven  is  ascribed  in  Heb.  xi. 
5,  6,  to  the  power  of  faith  ('By  faith  Enoch  was  translated  {jjiert- 
TsBri),  that  he  should  not  see  death;  and  was  not  found,  because 
God  had  translated  him :  for  before  his  translation  he  had  this 
testimony,  that  he  pleased  God').  In  Jude  14,  a  prophecy  of 
Euoch  is  quoted,  which  is  also  found  in  the  apocryphal  *  Book  of 
Enoch,'  where  also  the  statement  in  ver.  9,  about  Michael  and 
Satan  disputing  for  the  body  of  Moses,  is "  found.  This  '  Book  of 
Enoch '  has  been  assigned  to  various  dates  and  writers,  but  as  a 
whole  it  may  be  regarded  as  describing  an  important  phase  of 
Jewish  opinion  shortly  before  the  coming  of  Christ.  Passages 
from  it  are  quoted  by  early  Christian  writers  and  by  Jewish  writers 
since  Christ,  but  the  whole  book  was  not  known  until  three 
copies  of  an  JEthiopic  version  were  brought  from  Africa  by  the 
traveller  Bruce,  in  1773,  and  it  is  still  doubtful  whether  the 
originnl  was  in  Hebrew  or  Greek.  It  consists  of  revelations,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  made  to  Enoch  and  Noah,  and  is  divided  into 
five  parts,  containing,  1.  An  account  of  the  fall  of  the  angels,  and 


ENEAS— EPAPHRAS.  329 

their  punishment,  and  the  commencement  of  the  journey  of  Enoch 
through  the  earth  and  lower  heaven  ;  2.  Three  parables  of  the 
future  blessing  of  the  righteous  and  the  coming  glories  of  the 
Messiah ;  3.  Astronomical  speculations,  and  end  of  Enoch's 
journey;  4.  A  dream  of  the  histoiy  of  the  world;  5.  Enoch's 
exhortations  to  his  children,  and  signs  attending  the  birth  of 
Noah.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  quotation  of  the  prophecies  of 
Enoch  by  Jude,  while  it  stamps  the  particular  passages  with  divine 
authority,  does  not  necessarily  involve  their  quotation  from  the 
'  Book  of  Enoch.'  Even  supposing  the  ante-Christian  date  of  the 
book  clearly  proved,  the  book  of  Enoch  and  the  apostle  may  both 
have  quoted  prophecies  traditionally  (and  correctly)  ascribed  to 
Enoch. 

Enon.     See  JEnon. 

Snos  [K^ii^  =  a  man,  'Ert-V,  Henos],  the  son  of  Seth,  and  father 
of  Cainan  (Gen.  v.  6,  9,  10).  At  his  birth  men  '  began  to  call 
t/temselves  by  the  name  of  the  Lord '  (marg.  Gen.  iv.  26).  In 
Luke  iii.  38,  he  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  ancestors  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

Epaenetus  [^Eiran'SToc,  EpcBnetiis],  a  Roman  Christian,  'the 
first  fruits  of  Achaia  (or  rather  Asia,  which  is  the  more  correct 
reading)  unto  Christ,'  and  saluted  in  Rom.  xvi.  5  as  '  well- 
beloved.'     He  is  not  mentioned  elsewhere. 

Epapliras  ['  ETracppci,  Epapliras,  generally  regarded  as  an  abbrevi- 
ation of  Ejyaphroditiis],  a  Colossian  Christian,  called  by  Paul  a 
'dear  fellow-servant,  and  faithful  minister  of  Christ '  (CoL  i.  7), 
'  a  servant  of  Christ '  (Col.  iv.  12),  and  '  a  fellow-prisoner  (^rrw- 
nix7/aXwroc)  in  Christ  Jesus  '  (Philem.  23).  He  was  apparently  a 
native  of  Colossae,  being  called,  in  Col.  iv.  12,  '  One  of  you  (6  i% 
vjxujv),'  and  he  was  at  any  rate  an  eminent  minister  there,  of  whom 
the  Colossians  had  learned  the  truth  (Col.  i.  7),  and  who  was 
deeply  interested  in  them,  '  always  labouring  fervently  in  prayers, 
that  ye  may  stand  perfect  and  complete  in  all  the  v^ll  of  God.  For 
I  bear  him  record,  that  he  hath  a  great  zeal  for  you,  and  for  them 
that  are  in  Laodicea,  and  them  in  Hierapolis '  (Col.  iv.  12-13). 
With  Paul,  he  salutes  the  Colossian  church  generally  (Col.  iv.  12), 
and  Philemon  particularly,  probably  as  a  member  of  that  church 
(Philem.  23). 

Some  (including  Grotius)  identify  Epaphras  with  Epaphroditus, 
who  was  sent  by  the  church  at  Philippi  with  contributions  for  the 
assistance  of  St.  Paul  during  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  and 
then  sent  back  by  the  apostle  with  the  epistle  to  the  Philippians. 


330       ESSENTIALS   OF  KEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

But  there  are  no  grounds  for  this  identification,  except  the 
similarity  of  name. 

Spapbroditus  [_' ETrctcppocirog,  JSpaphroditus],  'brother  and  com- 
panion in  labour,  and  fellow-soldier '  of  Paul  at  Rome.  He  was 
sent  by  the  Philippians  with  liberal  contributions  for  the  apostle's 
support,  which  he  calls  '  an  odour  of  sweetness,  an  acceptable 
sacrifice,  well-pleasing  to  God  '  (Phil.  iv.  18).  At  Rome  he  fell 
sick  with  a  nearly  fatal  sickness,  and  had  to  be  sent  back  to 
Philippi,  being  filled  with  a  longing  to  see  his  brethren  of  that 
church  again  (Phil.  ii.  25-28).  Paul  appears  to  have  been  deeply 
attached  to  him,  and  urges  the  Philippians  to  '  hold  such  men  in 
honour ;  because  his  labour  in  the  cause  of  Christ  brought  him 
nigh  to  death.'  Some  identify  him  with  Epaphras  (which  see), 
but  on  no  sufficient  grounds.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  see  how  the  same 
person  could  be  closely  connected  with  both  Colossae  and  Philippi. 

Spenetus.     See  Epcenetus. 

Epliesus,  Bpliesmns  ["E^;ffToc,  adj.  'E^eo-ioc,  E])hesus,  Ephesius], 
the  principal  of  the  twelve  Ionian  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was 
situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cayster,  on  a  marshy  plain 
south  of  the  river,  and  bounded  by  hills  on  the  east  and  south. 
To  the  north  of  the  city  lay  a  considerable  lake,  communicating 
with  the  river  and  forming  the  inner  harbour.  East  of  this  lake, 
and  outside  the  city  walls,  was  the  great  temple  of  Artemis  or 
Diana  (see  Diana),  which  was  reckoned  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
ancient  world.  It  was  425  feet  long  by  220  broad,  of  the  Ionic 
style  of  architecture,  and  its  roof  was  supported  by  127  columns, 
each  60  feet  high.  The  city  was  regarded  as  the  '  worshipper ' 
{vtMKUfjoc,  Acts  xix.  35)  of  Piana,  and  its  prosperity  was  greatly 
promoted  by  the  existence  of  this  temple,  as  vast  multitudes  of 
worshippers  thronged  to  it  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  many 
artificers  were  employed  in  making  small  models  in  precious 
metals  of  the  temple  and  image  of  Artemis,  to  be  used  for  devo- 
tional purposes.  Magic  was  also  largely  practised,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  magical  books  was  an  extensive  trade  (for  the  magical 
eflfects  of  what  were  called  Ephesian  letters,  see  Conybeare  and 
Howson,  c.  xiv.).  Ephesus  was  also  a  place  of  considerable  com- 
mercial importance,  being  the  chief  harbour  of  a  rich  and  fertile 
district,  and  a  chief  city  of  the  Roman  province  of  Asia.  Public 
games  were  celebrated  there,  under  the  superintendence  of  Asiarchs 
(^aaiapxai,  'chief  men  of  Asia,'  A.V.),  assizes  were  held,  and  the 
city,  being  a  free  city,  was  governed  by  its  own  senate  or  Boule. 
Its  present  condition  is  one  of  entire  desolation,  only  a  small 


EPAPHRODITUS— EPHESUS.  331 

village,  called  Aj/a  Salnk  (^  =  the  holy  divine^  i.e.  St.  John,  for 
whose  connection  with  Ephesus  see  below),  occupying  the  site. 

It  is  not  known  certainly  when  or  by  what  means  the  Gospel 
was  introduced  into  Ephesus,  but  large  numbers  of  Jews  are 
known  to  have  resided  there,  and  Jews  from  the  province  of  Asia  were 
present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  ii.  9).  In  Acts 
xviii.  19  we  read  that  when  Paul  left  Corinth  by  way  of  Cenchreae, 
on  his  second  missionary  journey,  he  sailed  to  Ephesus,  and  found 
there  a  synagogue,  which  he  attended,  and  where  he  preached  the 
Gospel. 

As  he  was  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  Paul's  stay  on  this  occasion 
was  only  short,  but  he  left  with  the  Ephesians  Priscilla  and 
Aquila,  converted  Pontic  Jews,  whom  he  had  brought  from 
Corinth.  After  his  departure,  Apollos,  an  eloquent  and  learned 
Alexandrine  Jew,  arrived  at  Ephesus,  and  began  to  teach  in  the 
synagogue  the  '  things  of  the  Lord,  knowing  only  the  baptism  of 
John.'  Aquila  and  Priscilla  then  instructed  him,  and  a  small 
Christian  church  was  apparently  formed.  This  church,  however, 
was  in  a  condition  of  great  ignorance,  being  altogether  unaware 
of  the  existence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  xix.  1-2),  and  in  this 
position  Paul  found  it  at  his  return  from  Jerusalem.  Under 
the  apostle's  instructions,  the  members  of  the  church,  in  number 
twelve,  were  now  baptised,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  came  upon  them. 
For  a  short  time  the  Christians  appear  to  have  been  connected 
with  the  Jewish  synagogue,  but  di.sputes  arising,  Paul  separated 
them,  and  held  daily  disputations  '  in  the  school  of  one  Tyrannus.' 
This  Tyrannus  was  probably  a  teacher  of  philosophy  or  rhetoric. 
Whether  he  was  a  convert  or  not,  does  not  appear. 

Acts  xix.  10  informs  us  that  ^  this  continued  by  the  space  of 
two  years,'  and  it  is  generally  supposed  that  at  the  end  of  the  two 
years  Paul  paid  a  short  visit  to  Corinth  (see  2  Cor.  xii.  14 ;  xiii. 
1,  2),  and  soon  after  his  return  wrote  the  letter  now  called  the  first 
epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  In  this  he  refers  to  '  fighting  with  beasts 
at  Ephesus '  (xv.  32),  and  to  his  *  many  adversaries  '  (xvi.  9),  pro- 
bably using  the  former  expression  as  a  metaphorical  description  of  the 
great  opposition  which  he  had  to  encounter,  and  which  was  naturally 
provoked  by  the  important  success  which  the  gospel  had  now  at- 
tained. It  had  been  so  extensively  preached  that  all  in  Roman 
Asia  had  heard  the  word ;  and  in  addition  to  the  work  efi'ected  by 
preaching,  miracles  had  been  wrought,  evil  spirits  cast  out,  and 
many  conversions  made.  At  length  the  craftsmen,  whose  business 
it  was  to  design,  and  make,  silver  shrines  of  Artemis  or  Diana, 


332       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

being  led  "by  Demetrius  a  silversmith  (dpyvpo-n-oloc),  and  Alexander, 
a  coppersmith  (x"^X^^''Q^  ^  Tim.  iv.  14).  raised  a  tumult,  with  the 
purpose  of  destroying  Paul,  and  crushing  Christianity  altogether. 
The  circumstances  connected  with  this  tumult,  which  was  with 
great  difficulty  suppressed  by  the  tact  and  influence  of  the  town- 
clerk  (o  -YpaiJ/jiaTivc),  are  related  in  Acts  xix.  Shortly  after  its 
suppression,.  Paul  left  Ephesus,  and  travelled  into  Greece. 

Of  the  Ephesian  church  during  his  absence  we  know  nothing,  but 
from  Acts  xx.  17,  we  learn  that,  on  his  return  thence,  nine  or  ten 
months  afterwards,  the  apostle  sent  for  the  Ephesian  presbyters  or 
elders  to  meet  him  for  a  farewell  conference  at  Miletus,  a  seaport 
about  twenty  miles  off,  where  he  touched  on  his  journey  to 
Jerusalem.  At  Miletus,  be  tenderly  addressed  them,  recounted 
his  earnest,  faithful,  and  disinterested  three-years  ministry,  and 
having  warned  them  against  unfaithful  future  teachers,  kneeled 
down,  prayed  with  them,  and  bade  them  farewell,  in  the  apparent 
expectation  of  never  again  meeting  (Acts  xx.  17-38).  Nor  is 
there  any  distinct  statement  in  the  New  Testament  that  the 
apostle  ever  visited  Ephesus  again,  and  even  the  epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  (if  it  be  really  addressed  to  them),  throws  no  light 
upon  the  circumstances  of  the  church  there.  But  it  may  be  inferred 
from  several  passages  that  he  revisited  Ephesus  after  his  first  im- 
prisonment in  Rome,  and  possibly  also  after  a  visit  to  Spain  (Rom. 
XV.  24),  about  a.d.  66.  During  this  period  we  may  suppose  that 
Ephesus  was  Paul's  centre  of  operations,  and  he  appears  to  have 
left  it  on  a  short  visit  to  Macedonia,  whence  he  wrote  the  first 
epistle  to  Timothy  (1  Tim.  i.  3),  on  a  similar  visit  to  Crete  (in 
company  with  Titus,  whom  he  left  there.  Tit.  i.  5),  and  finally  for 
Rome,  by  way  of  Miletus  and  Corinth  (2  Tim.  iv.  20).  During  these 
absences  of  Paul,  and  after  his  final  departure,  Timothy  was  left 
in  charge  of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  and  we  learn  from  the  epistles 
addressed  to  him  that  Gnostic  heresies  had  already  begun  to  divide 
it  (1  Tim.  i.  20),  and  that  heresiarchs — such  as  Hymenseus, 
Alexander,  and  Philetus — had  already  arisen,  who  even  denied 
the  physical  character  of  the  Resurrection,  and  affirmed  that  the 
only  resurrection  possible  was  that  of  the  soul  from  ignorance  and 
sin  (1  Tim.  i.  20  ;  2  Tim.  ii.  18).  In  the  second  epistle  to  Timothy 
(written  shortly  before  Paul's  execution,  and  carried  to  Ephesus 
by  Tychicus,  2  Tim.  iv,  12),  Timothy  is  requested  to  leave  Ephesus, 
and  join  the  apostle  at  Rome  (2  Tim.  iv.  9),  but  we  do  not  know 
whether  he  was  able  to  obey  this  injunction. 

No  further  statement  concerning  Ephesus  appears  in  the  New 


EPHEAIM— ESAU.  333 

Testament,  witli  the  exception  of  the  address  to  the  angel,  or 
chief  minister,  of  the  church  there,  which  is  contained  in  Rev.  ii. 
1-7,  and  from  which  it  appears  that  the  Nicohiitan  heresy  had 
arisen  in  Ephesus,  and  that  the  church,  although  to  some  extent 
zealous  and  successful  against  error,  had  on  the  whole  become  less 
vigorous  ('  Nevertheless,  I  have  somewhat  against  thee,  because 
thou  hast  left  thy  first  love,'  Rev.  ii.  4).  But  trustworthy 
tradition  informs  us  that  the  apostle  John  resided  at  Ephesus  both 
previous  to  and  after  his  exile  to  Patmos  (during  which  he  -wrote 
the  Revelation),  there  wrote  his  epistles,  and  there  lived  to  a 
great  age. 

Epliraim  ['Etppat/j,  Ephreyn\  a  city  to  which  Jesus  returned 
with  his  disciples,  to  escape  the  enmity  of  the  chief  priests  and 
Pharisees,  after  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  and  the  consequent  deter- 
mination of  the  council  to  put  Him  to  death  (John  xi.  54).  It 
was  situated  in  ^  the  country  near  to  the  wilderness,'  or  pasture 
hill-country  north-east  of  Jerusalem,  between  that  city  and  the 
Jordan  valley.  It  has  been  identified  with  OphraJi  (Josh,  xviii. 
23  j  1  Sam.  xiii.  17),  and  with  Et-TaiijeheJi,  a  small  village  on  the 
crown  of  a  conical  hill,  about  sixteen  miles  nearly  north  of 
Jerusalem. 

Epicureans.     See  Thilosophy  in  Section  2. 

Er  ["Hp,  Iler\  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  son  of  Jose,  and 
father  of  Elmodam  (Luke  iii.  28). 

Erastus  ["Epaaroc,  Erastus],  (1)  one  of '  them  that  ministered 
(cuiKoroviTMi')  '  to  Paul,  when  at  Ephesus,  and  sent  by  him  to 
Macedonia  along  with  Timotheus  (Acts  xix.  22).  (2)  A  Christian 
who  is  stated,  in  2  Tim.  iv.  20,  to  have  remained  at  Corinth,  pro- 
bably on  the  journey  from  Ephesus  to  Rome  before  Paul's  last 
imprisonment.  He  may  be  identical  with  (1).  (3)  The  chamberlain 
(oiKovofior)  of  the  city  of  Corinth.  He  sends  salutations  to  the 
Roman  Christians  in  Rom.  xvi.  23,  and  is  therefore  regarded  as  a 
convert.  It  is  worth  notice  that  the  opinions  known  as  Erastmn 
derive  their  name  from  none  of  the  above,  but  from  Thomas 
Erastus,  a  doctor  of  medicine  at  Heidelberg  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  who  publicly  maintained  them. 

Esaias.     See  Isaiah. 

Esau  \y^V  =  hairy  or  rough,  'Mnav,  Esati],  the  twin  brother  of 
Jacob,  and  son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah.  He  took  his  name  from  his  body 
being  naturally  covered  with  hair  (Gen.  xxv.  25),  and  was  reckoned 
the  elder  brother.  Hence  he  inherited  the  birthright  of  the  elder 
son,  which  in  his  case  included  the  'blessing  of  Abraham.'     This 


334       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

"birthright,  however,  he  disposed  of  to  his  brother  Jacob,  under 
pressure  of  hunger,  for  a  mess  of  red  pottage,  and  from  this  cir- 
cumstance obtained  the  second  name  of  Edom  (^  Esau  said  to 
Jacob,  Feed  me,  I  pray  thee,  with  that  same  red  (Heb.  Adoni) 
pottage  ;  .  .  therefore  was  his  name  called  Edo7n  (  =  the  red  one).' 
Gen.  XXV.  30).  From  this  and  from  the  partiality  shown  by 
Rebekah  to  Jacob,  Esau  became  a  bitter  enemy  to  Jacob.  At 
length,  when  Isaac  v/as  old,  Jacob  obtained  from  him  by  stratagem 
the  formal  bestowal  of  the  birthright  blessing  (Gen.  xxvii.),  and 
Esau  then  determined  to  slay  his  brother,  as  soon  as  their  father 
should  be  dead.  This  determination  was  frustrated  by  Jacob's 
withdrawal  to  Padan-aram.  Esau's  name  now  disappears  from  the 
sacred  history  until  the  return  of  Jacob  to  Palestine,  enriched  with 
two  wives,  and  large  possessions.  Esau  then  appears  in  '  the  land 
of  Seir,  the  country  of  Edom  '  (Gen.  xxxii.  3),  and  Jacob  succeeds 
in  propitiating  him  by  the  offer  of  large  presents.  The  brothers 
then  again  separate,  Esau  returning  to  Mount  Seir,  and  Jacob 
crossing  the  Jordan  westward. 

After  this,  Esau  and  Jacob  again  met  at  the  funeral  of  Isaac 
(Gen.  XXXV.  29),  and  all  that  is  further  known  of  Esau's  history  is 
given  in  Gen.  xxxvi,  6-8 ;  '  Esau  took  his  wives,  and  his  sons  and 
his  daughters,  and  all  the  persons  of  his  house,  and  his  cattle,  and 
all  his  beasts  and  all  his  substance  which  he  had  got  in  the 
land  of  Canaan :  and  went  into  the  country  from  the  face  of  his 
brother  Jacob.  For  their  riches  were  more  than  that  they  might 
dwell  together,  and  the  land  wherein  they  were  strangers  could 
not  bear  them,  because  of  their  cattle.  Thus  dwelt  Esau  in 
Mount  Seir.     Esau  is  Edom.' 

The  Edomites,  descendants  of  Esau,  were  always  regarded  as 
hereditary  connections  of  the  Israelites,  and  the  book  of  the  pro- 
phet Obadiah  refers  entirely  to  them.  For  their  connection  with 
New  Testament  history,  see  Idumcea. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  choice  of  Jacob  instead  of  Esau  as 
the  inheritor  of  the  Abrahamic  blessing  is  adduced  as  an  instance 
of  the  sovereignty  of  divine  grace  (Rom.  ix.  11-13,  quoting  Mai.  i. 
2,  3,  '  Jacob  have  I  loved,  but  Esau  have  I  hated ').  His  conduct 
in  selling  his  birthright  to  Jacob,  and  the  fruitlessness  of  his  tears 
when  endeavouring  to  recover  it  (Gen.  xxv.  29-34  j  xxvii.  38)  are 
also  referred  to  (a  '  profane  person,  as  Esau,  who  for  one  morsel 
of  meat  sold  his  birthright.  For  ye  know  how  that  afterward, 
when  he  would  have  inherited  the  blessing,  he  was  rejected ;  for 
he  found  no  place  of  repentance,  though  he  sought  it  carefully 


ESLI— EUPHEATES.  335 

with  tears,'  Heb.  xii,  16,  17),  and  the  circumstance  of  Isaac  bless- 
ing Esau  and  Jacob  is  adduced  in  Heb.  xi.  20  as  an  instance  of 
faith  in  that  patriarch. 

Esli  ['E(tA;,  Hesli\  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  son  of 
Nagge,  and  father  of  Naum  (Luke  iii.  25).  Probably  the  name  is 
the  same  as  Azaliah  (2  Kings  xxii.  3 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  8). 

Esrom[p"lVD, '£(Tpw//,  Esrori],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord, 
son  of  Phares,  and  father  of  Aram  (Matt,  i.  3 ;  Luke  iii.  33).  In 
the  Old  Testament,  he  only  appears  (as  Hezron)  in  genealogies 
(Gen.  xlvi.  12 ;  Num.  xxvi.  21 ;  Ruth  iv.  18,  19 ;  1  Chron.  ii.  5 ; 
iv.  1),  and  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  Hezron  the  son  of  Reuben, 

Etbiopia,  Stbiopian  \^\lG'url',  ^thiops,  adj.  only  found],  only 
occurring  in  Acts  viii.  27,  where  a  eimuch  of  Candace,  queen  of 
Ethiopia,  meets  the  evangelist  Philip,  and  is  by  him  instructed  and 
baptised.  In  the  Old  Testament,  Ethiopia  appears  in  Gen.  x.  6,  7, 
8  j  1  Chron.  i.  8,  9,  10,  and  Is.  xi.  II,  as  Cash,  but  in  other  places 
has  the  same  title  as  in  the  New  Testament.  It  embraced  Upper 
Egypt  or  Meroe,  with  the  country  about  the  sourcesof  the  Nile,  and 
in  most  respects  corresponded  to  modern  Abyssinia.    See  Candace. 

Eubulus  [liu/Soi'Xoc,  Euhidus],  mentioned  in  2  Tim.  iv.  21,  with 
others,  as  sending  salutation  to  Timothy.  Nothing  further  is 
known  of  him. 

Eunice  [\lvvHKr],  Eunice],  the  mother  of  Timothy.  She  is 
described  in  Acts  xvi.  1  as  a  resident  at  Lystra  in  Lycaonia,  and  a 
Jewish  Christian.  In  2  Tim.  i.  5,  her  ^  unfeigned  faith  '  is  spoken 
of,  and  from  2  Tim.  iii.  15  ('Thou  from  a  child  hast  known  the 
Holy  Scriptures ')  it  may  be  concluded  that  she  bestowed  great 
care  upon  the  early  religious  education  of  her  son. 

Euodias  [EvM^ia,  Euodia'],  only  mentioned  in  Phil.  iv.  2  ('I 
beseech  Euodias,  and  I  beseech  Syntyche  that  they  be  of  the  same 
mind  in  the  Lord  ').  The  following  verse  says,  'I  beseech  thee 
also  .  .  .  help  those  women  which  (avTal.Q  a'lrivsc)  laboured  with 
me  in  the  Gospel,'  and  some  refer  avraig  to  Euodias  and  Syntyche, 
but  this  seems  a  doubtful  interpretation.  The  questions  of  the 
sex  of  Euodias  and  of  the  character  of  Euodias  and  Syntyche  must 
therefore  be  considered  as  altogether  undetermined. 

Euphrates  [D^S,  Evpparijc,  Euphrates'],  the  westernmost  of  the 
two  great  rivers,  which,  now  uniting  in  the  stream  called  Shat-el- 
Arahy  pour  themselves  into  the  north-western  end  of  the  Persian 
Gulf.  It  rises  in  the  Taurus  range  on  the  east  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
runs  in  a  south-east  course  for  about  1,000  miles  before  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Tigris.     The  country  enclosed  between  its  stream 


336        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

and  that  of  the  Tigris  was  called  Mesopotamia  ;  Babylon  was 
built  upon  its  banks,  and  many  of  the  principal  events  of  Old 
Testament  history  occurred  within  its  district.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment it  only  appears  mystically  in  E,ev.  ix.  14  ('  Loose  the  four 
angels  which  are  bound  in  (etti)  the  great  river  Euphrates '),  and 
Rev.  xvi.  12  ('  The  sixth  angel  poured  out  his  vial  upon  the  great 
river  Euphrates,  and  the  water  thereof  was  dried  up,  that  the  way 
of  the  kings  of  the  east  might  be  prepared ').  If  the  mystic 
Babylon  be  taken  to  represent  papal  Rome,  then  the  drying  up  of 
Euphrates  may  signify  the  wasting  away  of  the  resources  of  the 
Roman  papacy.  The  true  Babylon  was  actually  taken  by  the 
diversion  of  the  waters  of  the  river  into  a  fresh  channel,  and  the 
mystical  '  drying-up '  possibly  alludes  to  this  circumstance. 

Eutycbus  [EvTvxoi;  Eutychus],  a  young  man  who  sat  in  a 
window  at  Troas  to  hear  St.  Paul  preach,  and  '  as  Paul  was  long 
preaching,'  was  overwhelmed  with  sleep,  and,  falling  down  from 
the  third  story,  was  taken  up  dead.  St.  Paul,  however,  descended, 
laid  himself  on  the  body  (as  Elijah  upon  the  widow's  son),  and 
brought  him  back  to  life  (Acts  xx.  9,  10). 

Eve  [njn  =  living,  Eua,  Heva],  the  first  woman.  Her  origin  and 
history  are  related  in  Gen.  ii.  21 — iv.  25.  She  there  appears  as 
having  been  formed  out  of  one  of  Adam's  ribs,  to  be  a  helpmeet 
for  him,  as  being  first  called  simply  Isha  (that  is,  the  feminine  of 
Js7i  =  man),  as  having  been  herself  beguiled  by  the  serpent,  and  as 
then  beguiling  her  husband  to  eat  the  forbidden  fruit.  With  her 
husband  she  was  driven  from  Paradise,  and  became  the  mother 
successively  of  Cain,  Abel,  and  Seth.  No  record  of  her  death 
exists.  In  the  New  Testament,  her  priority  in  yielding  to  tempta- 
tion, and  inferiority  in  order  of  creation,  are  adduced  as  reasons 
for  the  woman  not  usurping  authority  over  the  man  (1  Tim.  ii. 
13,  14),  and  the  subtlety  of  the  serpent  in  deceiving  her  is  used  as 
an  illustration  of  the  ease  with  which  Christians  may  be  led  away 
from  the  simplicity  of  the  faith  (2  Cor.  xi.  3). 

Ezekias  [n^ptn  and  •inj[!?Tn  =  ^Ae  might  of  Jehovah,  'E^e^tac, 
Ezekias],  a  king  of  Judah,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Hezekiah. 
He  reigned  B.C.  728-699,  and  his  history  is  related  in  2  Kings  xviii.- 
XX.;  2  Chron.  xxix.-xxxii.  ;  Isaiah  xxxvi.-xxxix.  From  this  it 
appears  that,  except  in  the  matter  of  exhibiting  his  treasures  to 
the  envoy  of  Berodach-Baladan,  king  of  Baladan,  his  conduct  was 
pleasing  to  God,  and  as  a  testimony  to  this,  his  days  were  pro- 
longed fifteen  years^  and  the  country  was  miraculously  delivered 


EUTYCHUS- FELIX.  337 

from  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria.  He  also  cleansed  the  temple, 
and  kept  a  remarkable  passover  in  the  year  B.C.  726.  In  the  New 
Testament  Ezekias  only  appears  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord 
(Matt.  i.  9,  10). 

Fair  havens  [(caXoi  At/jirfc,  Boniportus],  a  haven  of  Crete,  at 
which  Paul  vainly  recommended  the  shipmaster  and  centurion 
Julius  to  lay  up  for  the  winter  the  ship  which  was  carrying  them 
to  Eome  (Acts  xxvii.  8-11).  It  was  '  nigh  unto  the  city  of  Lasea,' 
and  was  probably  four  or  five  miles  east  of  Cape  Matala.  See 
Lasea. 

Felix  [^rikil,  Felix],  the  procurator  or  '  governor  (Jiykfuov)  '  of 
Judaea,  in  succession  to  Ventidius  Cumanus.  According  to 
Tacitus,  he  was  originally  appointed  in  conjunction  with  Cumanus, 
Cumanus  taking  Galilee,  and  Felix  Samaria :  Josephus,  however, 
simply  says  (Ant.  20.  7.  1)  that  when  Cumanus  was  recalled, 
*  Claudius  sent  Felix,  the  brother  of  Pallas,  to  take  care  of  the 
affairs  of  Judaea ;'  but  in  this  he  is  supposed  to  be  in  error.  Cumanus 
had  had  many  severe  contests  with  the  Jews,  and  at  length 
popular  feeling  was  so  thoroughly  aroused,  that  an  appeal  against 
him  was  made  to  the  emperor :  in  consequence  of  this  appeal  he 
was  sent  to  Rome  to  answer  for  his  conduct,  and  finally  deposed. 
Felix  then  became  sole  procurator  of  Judaea.  He  was  a  freedman 
of  Claudius,  and  brother  of  Pallas,  also  a  freedman  and  favourite  of 
the  emperor.  His  full  name  was  Antonius  Felix,  from  which  it 
has  been  conjectured  that  he  owed  his  freedom  to  Antonia,  the 
mother  of  Claudius.  Tacitus  says  of  him  that  'per  omnem 
saevitiam  ac  libidinem  jus  regium  servili  ingenio  exercuit  (i.e.  he 
indulged  in  every  possible  cruelty  and  lust,  and  exercised  the  power 
of  a  sovereig-n  with  the  temper  of  a  slave).'  Felix  was  probably 
appointed  sole  procurator  in  a.d.  53,  and  had  been  five  years 
in  ofiice  when  St.  Paul  was  brought  before  him  at  Caesarea, 
charged  by  the  Jews  with  being  '  a  pestilent  fellow,  and  a  mover 
of  sedition  throughout  the  world,  and  a  ringleader  of  the  sect  of 
the  Nazarenes.'  The  progTess  and  results  of  this  trial  are  recorded 
in  Acts  xxiv.  It  there  appears  that  Felix,  although  in  many 
respects  a  man  of  unprincipled  character,  acted  at  first  with 
due  regard  for  justice.  He  declined  to  hear  the  cause  until 
both  prosecutor  and  defendant  were  before  him  ;  and  when  Ter- 
tuUus,  the  advocate  for  the  Jews,  and  Paul  for  himself,  had  argued 
the  cause,  he  still  left  the  case  undetermined  until  Claudius 
Lysias,  the  captain  of  the  temple,  should  come  and  give  further 
evidence  in  the  matter.     This  further  investigation,  however^  did 


338        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAIMENT  STUDY. 

not  take  place  during  his  procuratorsbip,  wliioli  lasted  two  years 
longer.  During  this  time  Paul  was  kept  in  free  custody,  and 
frequently  conversed  with  the  procurator  and  his  wife  Drusilla 
(daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.),  who  was  a  Jewess.  Of  these  con- 
versations we  read  that  '  as  Paul  reasoned  of  righteousness,  tem- 
perance, and  judgment  to  come,  Felix  trembled.'  But,  as  in  many 
similar  cases,  no  positive  result  ensued ;  but  Felix  still  deferred 
any  decisive  action.  '  Go  thy  way  for  this  time,'  said  he,  '  and 
when  I  have  a  convenient-season  (Kaipuv  without  any  adj.),  I  will 
send  for  thee.'  The  '  convenient  season,'  liowever,  never  arrived ; 
in  the  expectation  of  his  offering  a  heavy  bribe,  Paul  was  still 
kept  in  bonds  ;  nor  was  his  imprisonment  brought  to  an  end  until 
the  recall  of  Felix  himself.  This  occurred  in  a.d.  60.  The  troubles 
of  the  province  had  by  this  time  materially  increased,  and  tumults 
had  even  taken  place  within  the  streets  of  Csesarea  itself  Felix 
was  therefore  summoned  to  Rome,  and  Porcius  Festus  appointed 
in  his  place.  With  a  view  of  propitiating  the  Jews,  Paul  was  now 
most  unjustly  left  in  prison,  whence  he  was  ultimately  brought 
before  Festus,  and  then  on  his  own  appeal  before  the  emperor  at 
Rome.  Felix  was  followed  to  Rome  by  his  accusers,  and  would 
probably  have  been  seriously  punished  for  mal-administration 
had  not  his  brother  Pallas  successfully  interceded  for  him. 
Nothing  further  is  known  of  his  history. 

Festus  \_u6picio(:  ^rjUToc,  Porcms  FeMiis],  the  procurator  who 
succeeded  Felix  in  the  government  of  Judeea,  in  a.d.  60,  He 
remained  in  office  until  his  death,  which  occurred  in  a.b.  62,  and 
he  was  regarded  as  a  just  and  moderate  ruler,  although  he  put 
down  the  tumults  and  insurrections  of  his  time  with  a  strong 
hand.  During  his  procuratorship,  the  Jews  built  a  high  wall  to 
prevent  the  temple-worship  being  overlooked  from  a  palace  which 
Herod  Agrippa  II.  had  built  near  the  western  side  of  the  temple. 
Great  public  irritation  arose  from  his  decision  as  to  this  wall. 
This  was  adverse  to  the  Jews,  and  from  it  they  appealed  to  the 
emperor  Nero,  who  (being  probably  influenced  by  his  wife  Poppgea, 
a  Jewish  proselyte)  ultimately  reversed  the  decision  of  Festus,  and 
decided  in  favour  of  the  Jews  being  allowed  to  keep  their  wall. 

Festus  appears  in  the  New  Testament  as  the  governor  before 
whom  St.  Paul  was  brought  on  his  accession  to  office,  as  a  remanet 
from  the  procuratorship  of  Felix.  The  circumstances  connected 
with  this  trial  are  related  in  Acts  xxv.,  xxvi.  The  justice  of  his 
character  there  appears  in  the  answer  which  he  gave  the  Jews  to 
their  demand  for  immediate  judgment  against  Paul,  viz.  *  that  it 


FESTUS— GABRIEL.  339 

IS  not  the  manner  of  the  Romans  to  deliver  any  man  to  die,  before 
that  he  which  is  accused  have  the  accusers  face  to  face,  and  have 
license  to-  answer  for  himself  concerning  the  crime  laid  against 
him.'  We  further  find  that  he  invited  in  the  hearing  of  the  cause 
the  assistance  of  Herod  Agrippa  II. — who  came  down  from  Jeru- 
salem to  congratulate  him  on  his  appointment — on  the  ground 
of  his  own  ignorance,  and  Herod's  knowledge,  of  Jewish  law. 
But  the  arguments  of  the  apostle  had  no  further  effect  upon  his 
convictions  than  to  cause  him  to  utter  the  exclamation,  *  Paul, 
thou  art  beside  thyself,-  much  learning  hath  made  thee  mad  {ra 
TToKXd  ae  ypd^nara  tig  fxaviav  7repiTpk:tti).^  So  far  as  regarded  his 
judgment  in  the  cause,  his  decision  was  clear  and  just:  '  This  man 
doeth  nothing  worthy  of  death  or  of  bonds.' 

Fortunatus  [yovpTovvdrog,  Fortunatus],  one  of  three  Corinthian 
Christians,  the  others  being  Stephanas  and  Achaicus,  at  whose 
coming  to  him  at  Ephesus  Paul  rejoiced  (1  Cor.  xvi.  17).  It  has 
been  conjectured,  but  without  any  solid  grounds,  that  he  was  one 
of  the  '  household  of  Stephanas,'  mentioned  in  1  Cor.  i.  16. 

Gabbatha  [VajSiiaOd,  Gahhathci],  the  Hebrew  name  of  the  place 
called  in  the  Greek  Aidoa-pio-oQ  {  =  Pavemeiit).  The  term  only 
occurs  in  John  xix.  13,  where,  in  the  description  of  the  final  sen- 
tencing of  our  Lord  by  Pilate,  we  read,  '  When  Pilate  therefore 
heard  that,  he  brought  Jesus  forth,  and  sat  down  in  the  judgment- 
seat  (fcTTt  roil  jSiipaToc)  in  a  place  that  is  called  the  Pavement,  but 
in  the  Hebrew,  Gabbatha.'  No  place  bearing  this  name  can  be 
certainly  identified,  although  some  have  supposed  it  to  refer  to  a 
paved  chamber,  contiguous  to  the  temple,  in  which  the  Sanhedrim 
sat,  and  which  went  by  the  name  of  Gcczith.  A  more  probable 
supposition  is  that  the  term  is  connected  with  Gibeah  (J\V2^  = 
a  hill),  a  term  applied  to  any  higli  place.  In  this  case  it  may  be 
taken  to  mean  the  Bema,  or  elevated  seat  of  justice,  upon  which 
Pilate  sat  when  officially  pronouncing  sentence.  The  'Pavement' 
may  have  been  a  moveable  one,  of  mosaic  or  some  similar  material, 
on  which,  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  additional  dignity  to  the 
proceedings,  the  Bema  was  placed.  Such  a  moveable  pavement 
is  known  to  have  been  carried  about  by  Julius  Csesar. 

Gabriel  [?X''15^  =  «?«?*  of  God,  FnfSpirjX,  Gahrief],  an  angel 
mentioned  in  Luke  i.  19,  26.  In  the  former  of  these  two  passages 
he  describes  himself  as  one  who  stands  '  in  the  presence  of  God.' 
The  objects  of  his  appearances  were  (1)  to  announce  the  birth  of 
John  the  Baptist  to  his  father  Zacharias,  and  (2)  to  announce  the 


340       ESSENTIALS   OP  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

birth  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  In  the  Old  Testament 
appearances  of  Gabriel  to  Daniel  are  also  mentioned,  and  in  these 
cases  he  is  described  as  '  the  man  Gabriel '  (Dan.  viii.  16 ;  ix.  21). 
Coupling  this  with  the  fact  that  his  appearances  to  Zacharias  and 
the  Virgin  do  not  appear  to  have  in  themselves  caused  any  great 
surprise,  we  may  conceive  that  the  form  in  which  he  was  mani- 
fested on  those  occasions  did  not  materially  differ  from  a  human 
form.  With  regard  to  the  connection  of  Gabriel  with  the  angelic 
hierarchy,  see  Angel,  in  Section  4. 

Gadarenes  [Vahiprivoi,  Gadareni],  the  inhabitants  of  Gadara  and 
its  district.  Gadara  was  an  important  Koman  town,  the  capital 
of  Perea,  and  situated  on  the  hills  to  the  east  of  the  southern  end 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  was  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity, 
having  been  taken  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  in  B.C.  218.  In  the 
civil  wars  of  the  Jews  it  had  been  partially  destroyed,  but  Pompey 
the  Great  rebuilt  it  to  gratify  his  freedman  Demetrius.  Extensive 
rriins  on  the  site,  now  called  Um  Keis,  still  testify  to  its  former 
splendour.  The  remains  of  a  large  theatre,  and  of  a  paved  street 
having  a  colonnade  on  each  side,  still  exist ;  and  its  tombs,  which 
are  excavated  in  the  limestone  rock  and  are  of  great  extent  and 
importance,  still  excite  the  interest  and  admiration  of  travellers. 

It  was  in  '  the  country  of  the  Gadarenes '  that  our  Lord  per- 
formed one  of  his  most  remarkable  miracles.  Having  crossed  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  from  its  western  side,  he  w^s  encountered  by  a 
demoniac  (or  two  demoniacs),  named  Legion,  who  lived  in  the 
tombs.  On  the  hills  around  was  a  vast  herd  of  swine.  The  evil 
spirits  at  once  recognised  our  Lord,  and  demanded  of  him  that,  if 
they  should  be  dismissed  from  the  man,  they  might  ga  into  the 
herd  of  swine.  Permission  having  been  granted,  the  demons 
entered  into  the  swine,  and  under  the  demoniac  influence  they 
at  once  rushed  '  down  a  steep  place  into  the  sea,  and  perished 
in  the  waters.'  On  this,  the  inhabitants  of  Gadara,  apparently 
alarmed  at  the  power  of  our  Lord,  came  out  and  entreated  him  to 
depart  from  their  district.  To  this  demand  he  acceded,  and  at 
once  left  them  and  crossed  to  the  other  side  ;  nor  does  he  appear 
to  have  at  any  other  time  visited  their  district  (Matt.  viii.  28- 
34 ;  Mark  v.  1-21 ;  Luke  viii.  26-40). 

In  St.  Matthew,  the  Gadarenes  are  called  the  *  Gergesenes  (r«p- 
yt(T»jj'0(),'  and  there  are  also  other  difficulties  arising  from  various 
readings  of  the  name.  These  are  discussed  in  the  'Sketch  of 
Gospel  History,'  p.  75.  Here  it  may  be  stated  that  a  town  called 
Gergesa  is  stated  by  Origen  to  have  formerly  existed  on  the  eastern 


GADAEEK  EF>— G  AL  ATI  A.  34 1 

side  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  name  still  survives  in  Khersa. 
The  city  of  Gadara  being  an  important  one,  the  surrounding  dis- 
trict, inclusive  of  Gergesa,  might  well  have  been  included  under 
the  name  of  '  the  country  of  the  Gadarenes.' 

Gaius  [Tdioc^  Caius].  This  appears  as  the  name  of  (1)  a  man 
of  Macedonia,  one  of  Paul's  companions  in  travel,  who  was 
assaulted  by  the  Ephesian  mob,  on  the  occasion  of  the  great  riot 
in  that  city  (Acts  xix.  29)  ;  (2)  a  citizen  of  Derbe  in  Lycaonia, 
who  travelled  with  Paul  from  Corinth  to  Asia,  after  his  third  visit 
to  that  city  (Acts  xx.  4)  -,  (3)  the  host,  at  Corinth,  of  Paul,  and 
of  the  whole  church  (u  ^ivoQ  fiov  icai  rijc;  iKKXriaiag  oXrjc),  and  so 
described  in  Rom.  xvi.  23  ;  (4)  one  of  the  few  persons  baptised  at 
Corinth  by  Paul  himself,  the  others  being  Crispus,  and  the  house- 
hold of  Stephanas  (1  Cor.  i.  14) ;  (5)  the  Christian  to  whom  the 
Third  Epistle  of  John  is  addressed,  under  the  title  of  '  the  well- 
beloved  Gaius,  whom  I  love  in  the  truth '  (3  John  1).  There 
can  be  little  doubt  but  that  (2),  (3)^  and  (4)  are  identical, 
but  whether  (1)  and  (o)  refer  to  the  same  person  cannot  be 
ascertained.  The  name  Caius  was  a  common  Poman  name,  and 
the  additional  description  of  (1)  as  'a  man  of  Macedonia  '  seems 
certainly  to  point  to  a  distinct  individuality  from  Gaius  of  Derbe. 

Galatia  [/'/  rakariK))  x^pa  (Acts  xvi.  6;  xviii,  23),  TaXaTia, 
Galatia],  a  Roman  province  of  Asia  Minor,  occupying  a  nearly 
central  position  between  Asia  on  the  west,  Cappadocia  on  the  east, 
Pamphylia  and  Cilicia  on  the  south,  and  Bithynia  and  Pontus  on 
the  north.  But  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  strict  limits  of 
Roman  Galatia  are  designated  by  this  term  in  the  New  Testament. 
This  district  appears  in  Acts  xvi.  6,  as  visited  by  Paul  and  Silas 
on  St.  Paul's  second  missionary  journey,  but  no  particulars  of  the 
visit  are  recorded.  But  as  in  1  Cor.  xvi.  1  'the  churches  of 
Galatia'  are  spoken  of  as  taking  part  in  a  collection  for  the  poor 
Jewish  Christians  at  Jerusalem,  and  in  1  Pet.  i.  1  the  same 
churches  are  mentioned  among  those  addressed  in  the  epistle,  it 
is  evident  that  the  visit  was  not  without  spiritual  fruit  in  the 
establishment  of  Christian  congregations.  Further  than  this,  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians  offers  sufficient  evidence  that  the  Galatians 
received  the  Gospel  with  joy;  and  on  his  third  missionary  journey 
St.  Paul  '  went  over  all  the  country  of  Galatia  and  Phrygia  in 
order,  strengthening  all  the  disciples '  (Acts  xviii.  23),  a  statement 
which  presupposes  a  flourishing  Christian  community. 

Beyond  the  sending  of  Crescens  to  Galatia  from  Rome  by  Paul, 
wh.en   near   his   martyrdom  (2  Tim.  iv.  10),   nothing  further  is 


342        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

recorded  in  the  New  Testament  of  Galatia  and  its  churche3.  For 
an  introduction  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  see  Section  1, 
p.  39. 

Galilee,  Cralilsean  [/vl'!'  =  the  circuit,  >)  VaXiXaiay  VaKtXaloQ, 
GalilcBa,  Galilceus],  originally  the  name  of  '  a  circuit '  of  cities  in 
the  tribe  of  Naphthali,  around  Kedesh,  inhabited  by  Phoenicians, 
and  hence  called  '  Galilee  of  the  nations '  (Isa.  ix.  1 ;  with  which 
cf.  1  Mace.  V.  15).  In  our  Xiord's  time  Galilee  had  become  one 
of  the  three  provinces  into  which  Jud.'Ba  was  divided  under  the 
Komans.  Josephus  (B.  J.  3.  3)  gives  an  account  of  the  district 
at  this  time.  He  describes  it  as  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower 
Galilee,  bounded  to  the  west  by  Phoenicia  and  Mount  Carmel,  to 
the  south  by  Samaria  and  Scythopolis,  as  far  as  the  Jordan,  to  the 
east  by  Hippene,  Gadaris,  and  Gaulonitis,  to  the  north  by  Tyre 
and  the  country  of  the  Tyrians.  The  soil  was  of  extreme  fertility, 
and  the  population  warlike.  '  Moreover,  the  cities  lie  here  very 
thick ;  and  the  very  many  villages  there  are  here  and  everywhere 
so  full  of  people,  by  the  richness  of  their  soil,  that  the  very  least 
of  them  contain  above  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants.'  Modern 
Galilee  still  retains  the  characteristic  of  great  fertility,  being 
watered  by  numerous  mountain  streams,  and  diversified  with 
features  of  great  natural  beauty ;  but  its  population  has  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  departed,  and  few  traces  exist  of  the  many  con- 
siderable cities  which  formerly  surrounded  its  great  inland  lake, 
known  as  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The  principal  town  is  now  called 
Safed,  and  contains  about  four  thousand  Jews. 

Towns  of  Galilee  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  are ; 
Nazareth,  the  residence  of  our  Lord's  parents  ;  Nain,  where  a 
young  man  was  raised  from  the  dead  j  Cana,  the  scene  of  our 
Lord's  first  miracle  j  Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Capernaum,  Dalma- 
nutha,  and  Tiberias,  cities  on  or  near  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Accounts 
of  these  places  are  given  under  their  own  names. 

Of  the  circumstances  connected  with  Galilee,  the  earliest  is  the 
annunciation  of  our  Lord's  birth  to  Mary,  at  Nazareth  ;  and  the 
insurrection  of  Judas  of  Galilee,  which  took  place  about  this  time, 
is  also  referred  to  in  Gamaliel's  speech  to  the  Sanhedrim  (Acts  v. 
37).  Our  Lord's  early  life  was  spent  in  Galilee,  the  earlier  portion 
of  his  ministry  took  place  in  the  same  district,  and  there  he  appeared 
to  his  disciples  after  his  resurrection.  Moreover,  notwithstandiDg 
the  want  of  faith  in  him  manifested  by  his  mother  and  brethren,  the 
Galileans  generally  appear  to  have  received  him  gladly  (John  iv. 
45);  they  followed  him  both  in  their  own  country  and  to  Jerusalem 


GALILEE— SEA  OF  GALILEE.         343 

(Matt,  xxvii.  56  ;  Mark  iii.  7 ;  xv.  41 ;  Luke  xxiii.  49,  55),  and  in 
Acts  ix.  31  we  read  of  '  the  churches  of  Judasa,  Galilee,  and 
Samaria.' 

The  dialect  of  the  Galilseans  was  probably  tinged  by  their  contact 
with  other  nationalities,  and  hence  Peter  was  recognised  as  a 
Galilaean  by  his  accent,  when,  in  the  high  priest's  palace,  he 
attempted  to  deny  his  discipleship  to  Jesus  {'  Surely  thou  art  a 
Galilfean,  and  thy  speech  agreeth  thereto,'  Mark  xiv.  70 ;  '  This 
fellow  also  was  with  him,  for  he  is  a  Galilean,'  Luke  xxii.  59). 
Whether  by  reason  of  this  rustic  accent,  or  from  their  connection 
with  foreigners,  the  Galilaeans  were  apparently  regarded  with  a 
certain  degree  of  contempt.  *  Are  not  all  these  which  speak 
Galilieans  ?  '  was  the  enquiry  of  the  amazed  visitors  to  the  apostles 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  7),  and  that  no  '  prophet  could 
arise  out  of  Galilee  '  was  an  expression  which  (notwithstanding  the 
case  of  Jonah)  had  passed  into  a  proverb  (John  vii.  41,52).  Yet 
the  apostles  were  without  exception  '  men  of  Galilee,'  and  were 
so  addressed  by  the  angel  at  the  Ascension  ('  Ye  men  of  Galilee, 
why  stand  ye  gazing  up  into  heaven  ? '  Acts  i.  11). 

In  Luke  xiii.  1,  2,  we  read  of  certain  '  Galilaeans,  whose  blood 
Pilate  mingled  with  their  sacrifices,'  but  nothing  is  otherwise 
known  of  the  circumstance  there  described.  It  might  possibly 
have  occurred  in  connection  with  one  of  the  numerous  tumults 
which  were  continually  happening  amongst  the  vast  numbers  of 
Jews  who  then  frequented  the  temple. 

Dr.  Porter,  in  Smith's  Bible  Dictionary,  has  well  called  attention 
to  the  interesting  fact  that  the  nature  of  those  of  our  Lord's 
parables  and  illustrations  which  were  used  in  Galilee  was  greatly 
inlluenced  by  the  natural  features  and  products  of  the  country. 
^  The  vineyard,  the  fig-tree,  the  shepherd,  and  the  desert  in  the 
parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan,  were  all  appropriate  in  Judaea ; 
while  the  corn-fields  (Mark  iv.  28),  the  fisheries  (Matt.  xiii.  47), 
the  merchants  (Matt.  xiii.  45),  and  the  flowers  (Matt.  vi.  28),  are 
no  less  appropriate  in  Galilee.' 

Galilee,  Sea  of  (j)  OaXarraa  Tijg  raXiXaiac,  mare  GalilcsiB).  This 
expanse  of  water  is  also  called  in  the  New  Testament  '  the  sea  of 
Gennesaret,  or  Genesareth  (kifivri  VtwqaapkT,  stagnuni  Genesareth^ 
Luke  V.  1),'  and  '  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  (?)  BaXanaa  >)  TilSepid^oc, 
tnare  Tiberiadis,  John  vi.  1 ;  xxi.  1).'  In  the  Old  Testament  it 
goes  by  the  name  of  the  ^  Sea  of  Chinnereth  (JTlSIi  D*,  possibly  = 
the  harp-like  sea) '  (Num.  xxxiv.  11 ;  Josh.  xii.  3 ;  xiii.  27),  and 
its  modern  name  is  Bah?-  TubariyeJi,  from  the  town  Tubariyeh,  the 


344       ESSENTIALS  OF  KEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

modern  representative  of  the  ancient  Tiberias.  In  1  Mace.  xi.  67 
the  same  lake  also  bears  the  name  of  '  The  Water  of  Gennesar 
(I'Sojp  rtvv)](Taf)).^  Its  shape  is  nearly  that  of  a  pear,  having  the 
stalk  end  to  the  south ;  its  length  from  north  to  south  is  about 
thirteen  geographical  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  six 
miles.  The  river  Jordan  flows  in  near  the  north-east  corner,  and 
out  at  the  extreme  southern  end.  The  water  is  bright,  sparkling, 
and  full  of  fish,  and  the  shore  pebbly.  Its  level  is  653  feet  below 
the  Mediterranean,  and  the  effect  of  this  is  to  create  an  almost 
tropical  temperature  in  its  vicinity.  Around  on  all  sides  are  lofty 
hills;  on  the  east  these  approach  the  shore  closely,  but  on  the 
western  side  they  open  towards  the  north  and  enclose  a  broad 
and  undulating  valley,  called  in  the  New  Testament  '  the  land  of 
Geunesareth,'  stretching  up  from  the  shores  of  the  sea  in  a  westerly 
direction,  and  remarkable  for  its  fertility.     See  map  on  p.  79. 

The  present  condition  of  this  lake  is  one  of  almost  total  deser- 
tion. Few,  if  any,  fishing  boats  are  found  on  its  waters,  and  the 
wretched  village  of  Tubariyeh,  about  the  centre  of  the  western 
shore,  is  the  only  assemblage  of  habitations  upon  its  banks.  But 
in  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  aspect  of  the  lake  and  its  neighbour- 
hood must  have  been  entirely  different :  the  sea  was  covered  with 
ships  and  boats ;  a  dense  population  lived  on  its  shores,  especially 
in  the  land  of  Gennesaretj  Herod  Antipas  resided  in  Tiberias, 
then  a  fine  city ;  and  numerous  other  towns,  such  as  Chorazin, 
Bethsaida,  Capernaum,  Gergesa,  and  Tarichaea,  studded  the 
vicinity.  In  Capernaum  our  Lord  resided  for  some  time,  several 
of  the  apostles  pursued  their  trade  as  fishermen  in  the  waters 
(Matt.  iv.  18;  Mark  i.  16;  John  xxi.  1),  and  Matthew  was  a 
customs-officer,  probably  in  connection  with  the  transit-dues  across 
the  lake  (Mark  ii.  14).  In  one  of  the  sudden  storms,  common  on 
the  lake,  our  Lord's  disciples  were  fearful  of  shipwreck,  and  He 
arose  and  rebuked  the  winds  and  the  sea,  and  there  was  a  gi-eat 
calm  (Matt.  viii.  26 ;  Mark  iv.  39 ;  Luke  viii.  24) ;  and  here  Peter 
was  rescued  when  Avalking  on  the  sea  and  beginning  to  sink 
(Matt.  xiv.  30),  Very  interesting  and  minute  accounts  of  the 
present  condition  of  the  lake  may  be  found  in  Mr.  Macgregor's 
*  Eob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,'  and  in  voL  ii.  of  the  '  Exploration  of 
Jerusalem,'  published  by  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund. 

Gallio  l^raXXiujv,  Gallio],  the  proconsul  {ai'OvTrnroQ)  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Achaia,  when  St.  Paul  first  visited  Corinth.  He  refused 
to  listen  to  the  complaints  made  by  the  Jews  of  Corinth  against 
Paul,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  matter  of  *  words,  and  names, 


GALLIC— GAMALIEL.  345 

and  your  law/  nor  was  he  moved  by  Sosthenes,  the  chief  ruler  of 
the  synagogue,  being  brought  and  publicly  beaten  before  his  judg- 
ment-seat or  chair  of  office  (Acts  xviii.  12-17).  The  statement 
that  '  he  cared  for  none  of  these  things  (ovSkv  tovto)v  to)  VaXXiiovi 
tfieXev)  '  has  passed  into  a  proverb  for  indicating  indifference  to 
religious  teaching,  but  it  is  possible  that  Gallio  acted  from  a  sense 
of  duty  and  impartiality,  and  not  from  a  personal  indifference. 

The  title  of  'proconsul'  given  to  Gallio  in  Acts  xviii.  12  is  a 
striking  testimony  to  the  truth  of  the  narrative  there  recorded. 
Achaia  was  originally  a  senatorial  province,  but  Tiberius  (who  died 
A.D.  37)  temporarily  made  it  an  imperial  province  (and,  therefore, 
administered  by  a  propraetor,  and  not  by  a  proconsul),  in  which 
condition  it  continued  until  the  time  of  Claudius  (a.d.  41),  when 
it  returned  to  the  senate.  When,  therefore,  Paul  visited  Corinth 
(probably  a.d.  52-54)  the  governor  would  be  rightly  described  as 
a  '  proconsul.' 

Gallio's  original  name  was  Marcus  Annseus  Novatus,  but  he  had 
been  adopted  into  the  family  of  Lucius  Junius  Gallio,  and  hence 
took  the  name  of  Junius  Annseus  Gallio.  He  was  the  brother  of 
the  philosopher  Seneca,  who  was  tenderly  attached  to  him,  and 
who  describes  him  as  a  man  of  the  greatest  amiability.  He 
resigned  the  charge  of  Achaia,  in  consequence  of  ill- health,  and  is 
said  by  some  to  have  destroyed  himself  after  his  brother's  death, 
and  by  others  to  have  been  put  to  death  by  Nero. 

Gamaliel  [?t?vP2  =  Imefit  of  God,  rafxaXniX,  Gamaliel],  a 
Pharisee,  who,  when  the  apostles  were  brought  before  the  San- 
hedrim, recommended  a  policy  of  inaction,  on  the  ground  that  if 
the  Christian  cause  were  of  men  it  would  come  to  nought,  but  if 
it  were  of  God  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  council  to  overthrow 
it  (Acts  V.  34-39).  In  Acts  xxii.  3  we  find  St.  Paul  declaring 
himself  to  have  been  brought  up  at  Jerusalem  ^at  the  feet  of 
Gamaliel.'  It  is  generally  agreed  that  these  statements  refer  to 
one  person,  and  that  the  person  intended  was  a  celebrated  Jewish 
doctor  of  this  name,  the  first  of  the  seven  who  alone  were 
honoured,  on  account  of  their  great  learning,  with  the  title  of 
liabban  (see  Habbi,  in  Sect.  4).  He  was  also  called  the  '  Beauty 
of  the  Law,'  was  the  grandson  of  Hillel,  and  the  son  of  Simeon, 
and  president  of  the  Sanhedrim  under  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and 
Claudius.  He  died  eighteen  years  before  the  capture  of  Jerusalem, 
and  some  have  imagined  that  he  became  a  Christian.  But  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  otherwise  than  that  he  lived  and  died  a 


346        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Jew,  and  lie  even  composed  a  well-known  prayer  against  the 
Christians. 

Gaza  [n-jy,  VdhC,  Gaza  ;  in  Old  Testament  either  Gaza  or  Azzah 
(Deut.  ii.  23  ;  1  Kings  iv.  24)  ;  modern  name,  Ghuzzeh'],  the  south- 
west frontier-town  of  Palestine.  It  first  appears  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment as  a  border  city  of  the  Canaanites  (Gen.  x.  19),  and  was 
included  in  the  territory  of  Judah,  but  this  tribe  was  not  able  to 
subdue  it,  and  it  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Philistines  at  least 
as  late  as  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xviii.  8).  This  was  the  city  whose 
gates  were  carried  away  by  Samson,  and  where  he  died.  It  was 
utterly  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  again  by  the  Jews 
in  their  civil  wars,  about  a.d.  66  (Josephus,  B.  J.  2.  18.  1),  but  is 
now  once  more  a  flourishing  town,  extensively  engaged  in  the 
corn,  oil,  and  soap  trade.  Many  mills  are  still  found  there  (as 
probably  in  Samson's  time),  in  which  the  corn  grown  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood is  reduced  to  flour.  In  the  New  Testament,  Gaza 
appears  only  as  the  place  to  which  the  roads  from  Jerusalem  ran 
towards  Egypt,  on  one  of  which  Philip  the  Evangelist  was 
directed  to  find,  and  did  find,  the  eunuch  of  Candace  (Acts  viii. 
26).  The  words  are,  '  Arise,  and  go  towards  the  south,  unto  the 
way  that  goeth  down  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza,  which  is  desert.' 
Whether  the  road  to  Gaza,  or  Gaza  itself,  is  here  called  desert  is 
doubtful.  If  Gaza  itself,  then  this  passage  could  not  have  been 
written  before  a.d.  66  ;  but  if  the  road  is  described,  then  the  words 
formed  part  of  the  angel's  address  to  Philip.  There  are  still  two 
roads  from  Jerusalem  to  Ghuzzeh,  one  by  Ramleh,  and  another,  by 
Hebron,  through  a  comparatively  unpopulated  district.  On  this 
latter  road,  about  half-way  between  Hebron  and  Gaza,  occurs  the 
water  of  the  Wacly-el-Hasy,  very  suitable  for  the  baptism  of  the 
eunuch.  The  traditional  locality  of  the  baptism  is  Beit-Sur,  be- 
tween Jerusalem  and  Hebron. 

Gedeon  \_\'\V1k  =  cutter -do2vn  (?),  i.e.  hmve- soldier,  cf.  Is.  x.  33, 
TiO(.b}v,  Gideon.  Called  also  in  Old  Testament  Jerubbaal  =  ie^ 
Baal  plead  (Judges  vi.  32),  from  his  boldness  in  casting  down 
Baal's  altar  and  cutting  down  his  grove,  and  the  inability  of  the 
idol  to  avenge  itself.]  A  deliverer  of  the  Israelites  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Midianites.  His  history  is  recorded  in  Judges  vi.- 
viii.  32.  From  this  it  appears  that  he  was  the  son  of  Joash,  a  man  of 
Abiezer,  about  B.C.  1256.  At  this  time  the  Israelites  were  com- 
pletely impoverished  by  the  incursions  and  oppression  of  the 
Midianites  and  Amalekites,  but  on  their  crying  to  the  Lord,  a 


GAZA— Goa.  347 

prophet  was  first  sent  to  announce  deliverance,  and  then  an  angel, 
who  summoned  Gideon  to  save  Israel  from  the  hand  of  their 
enemies.  Gideon  at  first  doubted,  but  by  the  signs  of  a  wetted 
fleece  when  the  ground  was  dry,  and  a  dry  fleece  when  the  ground 
was  wet,  he  was  reassured,  and  notwithstanding  successive  dimi- 
nutions of  his  followers  to  100  men,  attacked  and  so  completely 
defeated  the  Midianites  that  forty  years  of  freedom  from  their 
oppressions  ensued.  After  this  victory,  he  was  offered  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  kingdom,  but  declined  it,  and  retired  to  his  home, 
where  he  died  '  in  a  good  old  age.'  His  deeds  are  also  recorded  in 
connection  with  the  putting  away  of  idolatry.  He  commenced 
his  career  in  this  direction  by  destroying  the  idol  and  grove  of 
Baal  belonging  to  his  father,  and  in  which  the  men  of  Ophrah 
worshipped  ;  but  he  afterwards  set  up  a  fresh  idolatry,  the  object 
of  which  was  a  sacred  ephod,  manufactured  out  of  the  spoils  of  the 
Midianites,  and,  immediately  after  his  death,  the  worship  of  Baal 
was  generally  resumed.  In  the  New  Testament,  Gideon  only 
appears  in  Heb.  xi.  32,  as  one  of  the  worthies  celebrated  for  their 
faith  C  The  time  would  fail  me  to  tell  of  Gedeon '). 

Gennesaret.     See  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

Gerg:esenes.     See  Gadarenes. 

Getlisemane  [i^^JO!^  Dl  =the  oil-jyress;  VaQaj]ixavr,,  Gethsemane\ 
the  place  where  our  Lord  was  arrested.  Matthew  (xxvi.  36)  and 
Mark  (xiv.  32)  simply  call  it  '  a  place  (xwpf'ov),'  but  Luke  (xxii. 
39)  defines  its  position  by  mentioning  that  it  was  '  in  the  mount 
of  Olives,'  and  John  (xviii.  1)  further  describes  it  as  '  over  the 
brook  Cedron,  where  was  a  garden  .  .  .  for  Jesus  ofttimes  resorted 
thither  with  his  disciples.'  A  spot  corresponding  to  this  descrip- 
tion is  still  pointed  out  as  the  traditional  site,  just  over  the  brook 
Kidron,  on  the  road  to  Bethany,  and  eastward  of  Jerusalem,  But 
considerable  doubt  of  coiu-se  attends  this  identification,    See  p.  376. 

In  Gethsemane  our  Lord  prayed  that  the  cup  might  depart 
from  Him,  and  endured  that  agony  in  which  His  sweat  was  as  it 
were  great  drops  of  blood  falling  to  the  ground.  Here  also  an 
angel  appeared,  strengthening  Him  ;  and  here  Judas  came  with  a 
band  of  soldiers  from  the  high-priests,  and  betrayed  his  Master 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies. 

Gideon.     See  Gedeon. 

Gogr  [jin,  Twy,  Gogus],  only  mentioned,  in  company  with  Magog, 
in  Rev.  xx.  8,  'Satan  .  .  .  shall  go  out  to  deceive  the  nations 
which  are  in  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth,  Gog  and  Magog,  to 


348       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

gather  them  together  to  battle  .  .  .  and  they  went  up  an  the 
breadth  of  the  earth,  and  compassed  the  camp  of  the  saints  about, 
and  the  beloved  city  ;  and  fire  came  down  from  God  out  of  heaven, 
and  devoured  them,'  But  Gog  and  Magog  are  also  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament.  In  Gen.  x.  2  and  1  Chron.  i.  5,  Magog  appears 
as  the  son  of  Japheth  ;  and  in  1  Chron.  v.  4,  a  son  of  Shemaiah 
is  called  Gog.  Again,  in  Ezek.  xxxviii.  and  xxxix.,  a  prophecy 
against  Gog  is  found,  in  which  Gog  is  called  the  prince  of  Meshech 
and  Tubal  (xxxviii.  3;  xxxix.  l),^while  Magog  appears  as  the  land 
of  Gog  (?),  and  a  terrible  conflict  between  Gog  and  Israel  is  pre- 
dicted, which  ends  in  the  entire  destruction  and  death  of  Gog's 
multitude  (xxxix.  11).  Comparing  the  passages,  it  is  evident 
that  the  prediction  refers  to  some  final  and  decisive  conflict  between 
the  powers  of  Satan  on  the  one  hand,  and  God's  people  on  the 
other,  immediately  preceding  the  final  judgment.  Some  modern 
commentators,  looking  at  Gog  and  Magog  as  the  offspring  of 
Japheth,  and  therefore  representing  the  northern  nations,  have 
identified  them  with  the  Russian  power ;  but  the  words  of  Eev. 
XX.  8  point  distinctly  to  all  the  four  quarters  of  the  world  as  the 
origin  of  these  mystic  persons. 

Golgrotha  [n^il?|  =  the  skull,  ToXyof^a,  Golgothci],  the  Hebrew 
name  of  the  place  where  our  Lord  was  crucified,  and  probably  so 
designated  on  account  of  the  skulls  of  executed  malefactors 
abounding  there.  Three  of  the  Evangelists  use  this  designation 
(Matt,  xxvii.  33 ;  Mark  xv.  22 ;  John  xix.  17).  As  to  its  locality, 
and  other  connected  circumstances,  see  Calvary. 

Gomorrba  [n^by.;  perhaps  =  «?e^re5s^ow,  Foixoppa  (a  neut.  plux. 
form),  Gomorrha,  adj.  GomorrhcBus'],  called  in  the  Old  Testament 
Gomorrah,  and  always  coupled  in  the  New  Testament  with  Sodom. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Matt.  x.  15;  Mark  vi.  11  (where  the  Vulgate 
omits  it) ;  Rom.  ix.  29  ;  2  Pet.  ii.  6 ;  Jude  7,  and  always  as  a 
typical  instance  of  complete  and  utter  destruction.  It  was  one  of 
the  five  cities  of  the  plain,  the  population  of  which  are  described 
as  '  wicked  and  sinners  before  the  Lord  exceedingly  ^  (G«n.  xiii. 
13),  and  which  were  destroyed  by  fire  and  brimstone  from 
heaven  (Gen.  xix.  24,  25).  Some  have  thought  that  the  plain 
originally  occupied  hy  these  cities  is  now  the  basin  occupied  by 
the  Dead  Sea,  but  recent  geological  investigations  seem  to  lead  to 
the  opinion  that  the  Dead  Sea  was  not  the  result  of  any  such  catas- 
trophe as  the  overthrow  of  these  cities.  The  five  cities  probably 
stood  at  the  north  end  of  the  sea,  near  the  embouchure  of  the 


GOLGOTHA— HEBREW.  349 

Jordan.  A  wady,  or  valley,  still  exists  on  the  south-west  side  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  which  recalls  the  name  imder  the  form  of  Wadi/ 
^  Amor  ah. 

Greece  [r/  "E\Xoe,  Grcscia],  occurs  only  in  Acts  xx.  2  (Paul 
^came  into  Greece,  and  there  abode  three  months ').  In  the  New 
Testament,  generally,  Greece  is  spoken  of  as  Achaia,  then  the 
name  of  a  Roman  province,  including  the  Peloponnesus  and  some 
portion  of  the  mainland.  The  term  Hellas  appears  to  have  been 
employed  in  Acts  xx.  2,  with  the  view  of  distinguishing  the 
country  referred  to  from  Macedonia,  which  was  also  reckoned  a 
part  of  Greece,  but  not  Greece  proper. 

For  particulars  of  Greece,  see  Achaia;  and  for  the  use  of  the 
words  '  Greek '  and  *  Grecian '  in  the  New  Testament,  see  under 
those  words  in  Section  4. 

Heber  ["I^V,  'E/3lp,  Heher],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord, 
son  of  Sala,  and  father  of  Phalec  (Luke  iii.  35).  He  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  Hebers,  the  Hebrew  equivalent  of  whose 
names  is  I^H,  or  Cheher,  who  are  six  in  number,  and  the  best 
known  of  whom  was  Heber  the  Keuite,  husband  of  Jael.  This 
Heber,  or  more  properly  Eber,  was  the  grandson  of  Shem. 
Nothing  is  stated  in  the  Old  Testament  of  his  history,  and  he  only 
appears  in  genealogical  tables  (Gen.  x.  21, 24, 25 ;  xi.  14, 15, 16, 17 ; 
1  Chron,  i.  18,  19,  25 ;  v.  13).  Still,  according  to  some,  his  name 
is  the  root  of  the  famous  patronymic,  ^  Hebrew,'  under  which  word 
see  below. 

Hebrew  [''")?1/,  'K/3paroc,  HehrcBUS ;  adj.  'E/3p«i/cog,  Hehraicus ; 
adv.  'Efipa'iari,  Hehraice  (  = '  in  the  Hebrew  tongue,'  A.  V. ;  John 
V.  2 ;  Rev.  ix.  11 ;  xvi.  16)— but  in  Acts  xxi.  40 ;  xxii.  2,  the  Greek 
equivalent  of  the  phrase  '■  in  the  Hebrew  tongue '  is  r^  '  Ef3patSi 
SiaXtKrii)'],  a  designation  first  applied  to  Abram  (Gen.  xiv.  13),  and 
afterwards  to  his  descendants.  Some  derive  this  name  from 
Heber  (see  preceding  article),  but  a  more  reasonable  supposition 
is  that  it  was  given  to  Abram  by  his  Canaanitish  neighbours  as 
having  come  from  beyond  the  river  Euphrates,  the  Hebrew  word 
"liy  signifying  he  passed  over.  In  the  Old  Testament,  <  Hebrew '  is 
the  appellation  commonly  applied  to  the  Jews  by  foreign  nations 
(Gen.  xxxix.  14,  17 ;  xli.  12 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  6, 9,  &c.),  or  used  by  the 
Jews  when  speaking  of  themselves  to  foreigners  (Gen.  xl.  15; 
Exod.  i.  19,  &c.),  or  when  used  in  opposition  to  other  nations 
(Gen.  xliii.  32 ;  Exod.  i.  15).  On  other  occasions,  according  to 
Gesenius,  the  term  <  Israelites '  is  used.     In  the  New  Testament, 


350       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

'  Hebrew '  is  used  Id  three  ways.  (1)  To  describe  the  vernacular 
of  Palestine  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles.  In  this 
language  the  title  on  our  Lord's  cross  was  written,  as  well  as  in 
Greek  and  Latin  (Luke  xxiii.  38;  John  xix.  20),  and  various 
specimens  of  it  are  given,  viz.  Bethesda  (John  v.  2),  Gabbatha 
{  =  Paveme7it,  John  xix.  13),  Golgotha  (  =  «  skull,  John  xix.  17), 
Abaddon  (  =  Apolhjon,  Rev.  ix.  11),  Armageddon  (Rev.  xvi.  16). 
Three  phrases  of  our  Lord  are  recorded  in  this  language,  viz. 
Ephphatha  (  =  be  thou  opened,  Mark  vii.  34),  Talitha  cumi  (  =  Damsel 
arise^  Mark  v.  41),  and  Eli,  Eli,  lama  sabachthani  (^  =  My  God,  my 
God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me,  Matt,  xxvii.  46;  Mark  xv.  34). 
Paul  is  also  stated  to  have  used  this  language  when  addressing  the 
people  assembling  in  the  Temple  just  previous  to  his  arrest,  and 
by  this  course  to  have  instantly  commanded  their  attention  (Acts 
xxi.  40;  xxii.  2).  The  languag^e  thus  referred  to  was  a  corruption 
of  the  older  Hebrew,  and  is  sometimes  called  Aramaean,  and 
sometimes  Chaldaeo-Syriac.  It  held  its  place  in  Palestine  as  the 
vernacular  of  the  natives,  pretty  much  as  Flemish  in  Belgium,  and 
Walloon  in  Luxembourg  at  the  present  time  (1872).  Besides 
this  language,  as  the  inscriptions  on  the  cross  testify,  there  were 
two  other  current  languages ;  viz.  Latin,  the  official  language  of 
the  Imperial  Roman  government ;  and  Greek,  the  common  medium 
of  conversation  between  educated  persons,  and  the  native  tongue 
of  the  Asiatic  and  Egyptian  Jews.  The  older  Hebrew  still  pre- 
served its  place  also,  as  the  language  of  scripture  and  public 
worship.  (2)  To  describe  the  native  Jewish  Christians,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  Grecians,  or  Hellenist  Jews  (Acts  vi.  1),  See 
under  Grecians,  in  Section  4.  (3)  As  an  intensitive,  signifying  the 
completely  Jewish  character  of  St.  Paul.  In  this  sense  it  is  used 
twice  ('  Are  they  Hebrews  ?  So  am  I.  Are  they  Israelites  ?  So 
am  I,'  2  Cor.  xi.,22.  '■  Of  the  stock  of  Israel,  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, an  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,'  Phil.  iii.  5).  Here  the  idea 
is  that  St.  Paul  was  not  merely  an  Israelite,  who  might  be  a 
Hellenist,  or  Greek-speaking  Jew,  but  one  who  retained  the  lan- 
guage and  nationality  of  the  Hebrew,  and  was  a  Hebrew-speaking 
Jew.     See  Acts  xxii.  2. 

Heli  ['HX/,  Hell],  the  son  of  Matthat,  and  father  of  Joseph, 
and  therefore  reputed  grandfather  of  our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  23). 
According  to  some,  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  brother  of 
Jacob,  the  Virgin  Mary's  father,  but  on  this  see  Genealogy  in 
Section  4. 

Kermas  ['Epyuac,  Kermas\2,  Roman  Christian  saluted  by  St. 


HELI— HEEOD.  35 1 

Paul  in  Rom.  xvi.  14.  He  was  identified  by  Irenaeus,  Tertullian, 
Origen  and  Jerome,  ■with  Hermas,  the  author  of  an  early  Christian 
work  called  '  The  Shepherd,'  but  it  is  more  probable  that  this 
work  was  written  by  a  brother  of  Pius,  bishop  of  Rome  about  a.d. 
150. 

Eermes  ["EjO/ur/c,  =  Mercurius,  the  Greek  God  of  gain,  Hennes], 
a  Roman  Christian  saluted  by  St.  Paul  in  Rom.  xvi.  14. 

Hermogrenes  ['Ep/xuyli'/jt'j  Hermogenes],  only  referred  to  in 
2  Tim.  i.  15  ('  all  they  which  are  in  Asia  be  turned  away  from 
me,  of  whom  are  Phygellus  and  Hermogenes ').  Nothing  is  cer- 
tainly known  of  him,  but  a  tradition  exists  that  he  had  been  a 
magician,  who,  along  with  Phygellus,  had  been  converted  by 
James  the  Just. 

Herod  ['Hpw^jjc,  Herodes],  the  family  name  of  a  regal  dynasty 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament.  In  order  to  under- 
stand their  exact  position,  it  will  be  necessary  to  review  the  course 
of  events  in  Palestine  for  some  time  previous  to  the  birth  of  our 
Lord,  and  this  will  also  furnish  a  good  opportunity  of  introducing 
the  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  times  between  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  referred  to  in  the  notice  at  the  head  of  Section  2. 

The  monarch,  whose  commission  was  given  to  Nehemiah  to 
rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  was  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  who 
died  in  B.C.  425.  It  is  uncertain  how  long  Nehemiah  continued 
his  functions,  but  after  his  death  Palestine  was  added  to  the  pre- 
fecture of  Syria,  and  appears  to  have  so  remained  until  the  breaking- 
up  of  the  Persian  empire  by  Alexander  the  Great.  This  great 
conqueror,  after  the  battle  of  Issus  (B.C.  333),  in  which  he  over- 
threw Darius  Codomannus,  marched  into  Judoea,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  punishing  the  Jews  for  supplying  the  people  of  Tyre  with 
provisions;  but  was  diverted  from  his  purpose  of  destroying 
Jerusalem  in  a  most  remarkable  manner.  The  high-priest  Jaddua, 
being  warned  in  a  dream,  went  out  in  solemn  procession  to  meet 
him,  arrayed  in  his  pontifical  robes,  and  accompanied  by  attendant 
priests,  and  an  immense  multitude  of  citizens,  clad  in  white 
garments.  Alexander,  on  beholding  this  spectacle,  at  once  made 
gestures  of  adoration,  and  explained  to  his  courtiers  that  in  a 
vision  some  time  previous,  at  Dios  in  Macedonia,  he  had  seen  this 
same  person,  and  by  him  had  been  promised  victory  over  the 
Persians.  He  then  gave  Jaddua  his  right  hand,  ascended  with 
him  into  the  temple,  where  he  was  shewn  the  prophecies  referring 
to  him  (probably  Dan.  vii.  6;  viii.  3-8,  20,  22;  xi.  3),  and  finally 
departed,  leaving  permission  for  the  Jews  to  enjoy  their  own  laws, 


352        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAiMENT   STUDY, 

and  pay  no  tribute  every  seventh  year  (Jos.  Ant.  11.  8.  5).  But 
this  state  of  peace  did  not  last  long.  In  B.C.  323,  Alexander  died  at 
Babylon,  his  empire  was  divided  amongst  his  four  generals,  and 
thenceforward,  for  many  years,  Palestine  became  the  scene  of  con- 
tinual warfare.  Being  the  only  road  between  Egypt  and  Syria, 
and  on  the  confines  of  both  these  empires,  it  became  a  continual 
subject  of  contention,  belonging  now  to  one  empire  and  then  to 
the  other,  and  occasionally  asserting  a  comparative  independence. 
At  length  the  tyranny  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (or,  as  he  was 
also  ironically  termed,  Epimanes,  i.e.  madman),  roused  the  Jews 
to  a  last  effort  for  independence.  Antiochus,  retreating  from 
Egypt  through  Palestine,  caused  all  sacrifices  to  Jehovah  to  cease, 
suppressed  all  Jewish  observances,  forbad  the  children  to  be 
circumcised,  burned  every  copy  of  the  law  upon  which  he  could 
lay  his  hand,  polluted  the  temple  by  offering  unclean  flesh  upon 
the  altar,  and  by  dedicating  the  building  to  Jupiter  Olympius,  and 
offered  every  Jew  whom  he  could  find  the  alternative  of  death 
or  submission  to  the  practice  of  idolatry.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, Mattathias,  the  great-grandson  of  Asmonaeus,  one  of  the 
priests,  assisted  by  his  five  sons,  took  up  arms,  slew  Bacchides, 
the  Syrian  general,  and,  being  joined  by  numbers  of  his  country- 
men, actually  drove  the  Syrians  out  of  the  country,  and  became 
for  a  short  time  the  sovereign.  He  was  succeeded  by  Judas,  his 
son,  surnamed  Maccabaeus,  who  recovered  the  temple,  cleansed, 
purified,  and  re-dedicated  it  (b.c.  164),  a  circumstance  commemo- 
rated by  the  Feast  of  Dedication,  yearly  solemnised  in  the  month 
of  December.  Notwithstanding  this,  he  was  in  continual  conflict 
with  the  Syrians,  and  was  at  last  slain  by  them.  His  brothers 
Jonathan  and  Simon  succeeded  him,  fulfilling  the  combined 
offices  of  high-priest  and  governor,  and  after  them  his  son  John 
Hyrcanus,  who  administered  the  government  for  thirty-three  years, 
and  who,  according  to  Josephus,  ^  alone  had  three  of  the  most 
desirable  things  in  the  world,  the  government  of  his  nation,  and 
the  high-priesthood,  and  the  spirit  of  prophecy  '  (Jos.  B.  J.  1.2.  8). 
He  was  succeeded  successively  by  his  sons  Aristobulus,  and 
Alexander  Jannseus.  The  latter  reigned  twenty-seven  years,  and 
transmitted  the  sovereignty  to  his  widow  Alexandra.  On  her 
death  in  B.C.  70,  a  conflict  arose  between  her  sons  Hyrcanus  and 
Aristobulus,  which  was  terminated  by  the  interference  of  the 
Roman  general,  Pompey  the  Great.  Pompey  took  Jerusalem, 
where  he  pillaged  the  temple  and  entered  into  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
and  made  Judaea  tributary  to  the  Komans,  with  Hyrcanus  as  a 


HEKOD.  353 

nominal  governor.  This  condition  of  affairs  lasted  until  B.C.  47, 
when  Hyrcanus  was  deposed  from  the  throne,  although  continued 
in  the  priesthood,  and  Antipater,  an  Idumaean,  made  procurator 
of  Judsea  in  his  place.  The  Idumseans  had  been  brought  over 
to  Judaism  by  John  Hyrcanus,  and  therefore,  although  not  a 
native,  Autipater  was  sufficiently  Jewish  to  be  acceptable  to  the 
people  whom  he  was  called  to  govern.  His  dynasty  accordingly 
supplanted  that  of  the  Asmonaean  princes,  and  he  became  the 
founder  of  the  family  of  the  Herods,  to  whom  reference  is  so  con- 
tinually made  in  the  pages  of  the  New  Testament.  A  table  of  the 
principal  members  of  the  family  is  printed  on  p.  354,  the  names  of 
the  persons  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  being  printed  in 
black  letters.  The  numbers  affixed  to  each  name  refer  to  the 
accounts  immediately  following.  For  a  full  account  of  the  family 
see  Jos.  Ant.  18.  5.  4,  and  B.  J.  1.  28.  4. 

1.  Herod  tlie  Great  is  called  Hei'od  the  King  in  Matt.  ii.  1, 
and  the  King  of  JudcBa  in  Luke  i.  5.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Antipater  the  Idumaean,  and,  after  holding  the  government  of 
Galilee  and  the  joint  government  of  Judsea,  was  appointed  by  the 
senate  sole  king  of  Judaea,  and  in  B.C.  31  confirmed  in  the  kingdom 
by  Augustus.  After  this  his  reign  was  comparatively  uninterrupted 
by  public  disturbances,  but  his  private  life  was  embittered  by 
ceaseless  troubles.  He  was  of  a  ferocious  and  jealous  temper,  and 
put  to  death  his  wife  Mariamne,  with  her  two  sons  Alexander  and 
Aristobulus,  and  his  eldest  son  Antipater,  who  was  executed  only 
five  days  before  his  ovm  death.  A  short  time  before  his  death,  he 
sent  for  the  principal  men  of  Palestine  to  Jericho,  wh'ere  he  then 
was,  and,  having  had  them  shut  up  in  the  hippodrome,  gave  strict 
orders  to  his  sister  Salome  to  put  them  all  to  death  immediately 
after  his  own  decease,  on  the  ground  that  in  this  way  his  death 
would  be  followed  by  such  a  mourning  as  he  considered  that  he 
deserved ! 

The  points  in  the  history  of  Herod  the  Great  which  come  into 
contact  with  New  Testament  facts  are — (1)  the  mention  of  his 
name  as  the  reigning  monarch  when  our  Lord  was  born  ;  (2)  the 
visit  of  the  Wise  Men  to  him,  followed  by  the  destruction  of  the 
infants  at  Bethlehem  ;  and  (3)  his  rebuilding  of  the  Temple. 
With  respect  to  (1)  and  (2)  reference  may  be  made  to  Section  2, 
pp.  55-59.  It  may  here  be  further  stated,  that  no  mention  of  the 
massacre  at  Bethlehem  occurs  in  Josephus,  probably  from  the 
insignificance  of  the  act  when  compared  with  the  ordinary  cruel- 
ties of  this  ferocious  sovereign  ;  and  that  the  death  of  Herod  took 

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354       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 


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HEKOD.  355 

place  at  Jericlio  in  the  beginning  of  April  B.C.  4,  his  body  being 
afterwards  conveyed  to  Herodium,  upon  a  golden  bier,  and  accom- 
panied by  a  most  magnificent  procession. 

As  to  (3),  the  Temple  of  which  our  Lord  said  '  Forty  and  six 
years  was  this  temple  in  building '  (John  ii.  20)  was  the  gift  of 
Herod  the  Great  to  the  Jews.  He  undertook  it,  not  from  any 
truly  religious  feeling  (for  he  also  restored  the  Samaritan  temple 
upon  Mount  CTerizim,  and  at  Caesarea  favoured  idolatrous  rites  j, 
but  from  political  motives.  The  work  was  commenced  in  B.C.  20, 
and  when  our  Lord  uttered  the  words  (a.d.  30),  it  was  not  really 
finished,  nor  do  the  Greek  words  used  by  our  Lord  imply  that  it 
was.  The  complete  finishing  of  this  temple  is  placed  by  Josephus 
in  the  time  of  Herod  Agrippa  II.  (about  a.d.  50).  Besides  the 
temple,  Herod  the  Great  also  built  a  palace  at  Jerusalem,  connected 
with  the  temple  by  a  bridge,  and  on  its  western  side. 

At  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great,  his  kingdom  was  divided 
amongst  three  of  his  sons,  Archelaus,  Antipas,  and  Philip — Arclie- 
laus  taking  Judaea,  Antipas  taking  Galilee,  and  Philip  taking 
Itursea  and  Trachonitis. 

2.  Archelaus  is  only  refeiTed  to  in  the  New  Testament  in 
Matt.  ii.  22  ('  He,'  i.e.  Joseph,  '  heard  that  Archelaus  did  reign  in 
Judasa  in  the  room  of  his  father  Herod  ').  His  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Jud^a  was  not  effected  without  considerable  difficulty 
and  disturbance,  both  from  the  Jews  and  from  his  brother  Antipas, 
who  desired  the  whole  kingdom  of  his  father  for  himself.  He 
therefore  sailed  to  Rome,  where  he  at  length  obtained  an  imperial 
confirmation  of  his  authority  over  one  half  of  his  father's  dominions, 
including  Idumaea,  Judaea,  and  Samaria,  with  the  title  of  Ethnarch, 
and  the  promise  of  the  title  of  king,  *  if  he  governed  virtuously  ' 
(Jos.  Ant.  18.  11.  4).  This,  however,  he  failed  to  do ;  and  by  a 
course  of  evil  government  and  private  licentiousness  so  aroused  the 
hatred  of  his  subjects  that  they  appealed  against  him  to  Rome. 
On  this  occasion  he  was  less  fortunate  than  before,  being  con- 
demned and  banished  to  Viemie  in  Gaul,  where  he  probably  died. 

3.  Antipas  ['Ai^rtVat,-  and  'AvtIttcitpoq'],  son  of  Herod  the  Great, 
by  Malthace  (who  was  the  mother  of  Archelaus)  and  therefore  own 
brother  to  Archelaus.  By  the  will  of  his  father  (which  was  after- 
wards confirmed  by  Augustus :  see  under  Archelaus)  he  was 
appointed  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  and  is  so  designated  in  Matt.  xiv.  1 ; 
Luke  iii.  1,  19 ;  ix.  7  ;  Acts  xiii.  1.  In  Mark  vi.  14,  he  is  called 
'King  Herod  (6  (iaaiXtvQ  'H.),'  but  this  title  he  never  legally 
obtained.     He  married  the  daughter  of  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia,  but 

aa2 


356       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

after  awhile  divorced  her,  and  married  Herodias,  his  brother 
Philip's  wife,  upon  which  Aretas  marched  against  him  and  defeated 
him  in  a  great  hattle.  '  Some  of  the  Jews,'  says  Josephus  (Ant. 
18.  6.  2),  '  thought  that  the  destruction  of  Herod's  army  came 
from  God,  and  that  very  justly,  as  a  punishment  of  what  he  did 
against  John,  that  was  called  the  Baptist,'  This  famous  ascetic, 
■whom  Herod  at  first  heard  gladly  (Mark  vi.  20),  had  strongly 
remonstrated  with  Herod  for  his  incestuous  conduct,  and  had  heen 
hy  him  at  first  imprisoned,  and  afterwards  (at  the  solicitation  of 
Salome,  the  daughter  of  Herodias)  put  to  death  (Mark  vi.  17-29). 
Remorse  for  this  wicked  deed  appears  to  have  continually  haunted 
Herod,  so  that  when  he  heard  of  Jesus,  he  said,  '  It  is  John  whom 
I  beheaded ;  he  is  risen  from  the  dead  '  (Matt.  xiv.  2  ;  Mark  vi.  16  ; 
Luke  ix.  7),  and  'desired  to  seehim'(Lukeix.9;xxiii.8).  Our  Lord, 
however,  sedulously  avoided  him,  nor  does  He  appear  ever  to  have 
entered  into  the  city  of  Tiberias,  which  Antipas  built,  and  where 
he  principally  resided.  Xor  was  He  unaware  of  the  real  character 
of  Antipas.  On  one  occasion  He  warned  his  disciples  to  beware  of 
'  the  leaven  of  Herod '  (Mark  viii.  15),  and  on  another  occasion, 
being  warned  by  the  Pharisees  to  leave  Perea,  or  else  Herod  would 
kill  him,  He  replied,  '  Go  and  tell  that  fox,'  &c.  (Luke  xiii.  32). 

The  Herod  to  whom  Pontius  Pilate  sent  onr  Lord  to  be  tried 
was  this  Antipas.  He  and  Pilate  had  had  a  quarrel,  and  Pilate 
was  glad  to  have  an  opportunity  of  making  it  up  by  sending  a 
Galilsean  prisoner  to  the  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  then  at  Jerusalem  for 
the  Passover.  No  doubt  by  his  directions,  Herod's  men  of  war  set 
our  Lord  at  nought  and  mocked  Him  before  sending  Him  back  to 
Pilate,  and  Herod  and  Pilate  were  that  day  once  more  reconciled. 

Seven  years  after  the  crucifixion  (a.d.  37),  the  ^eal  jusy  of  Anti- 
pas and  Herodias  was  aroused  by  the  favour  into  which  Agrippa, 
their  nephew,  was  taken  by  the  Emperor  Caligula,  on  his  accession. 
They  sailed  together  to  Rome  to  oppose  him,  but  were  there  met 
by  counter  accusations  of  treacherous  correspondence  with  the 
Parthians,  and,  being  found  guilty,  were  banished  to  Lugdunum, 
now  Lyons,  and  afterwards  to  Spain,  where  Antipas  died. 

4.  Philip  [2.],  whose  wife  Herodias  was  married  by  Antipas, 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Philip  [1.],  the  tetrarch  of  Itursea 
and  Trachonitis.  Philip  [2.]  was  also  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great, 
by  Mariamne,  but  lived  in  privacy  at  Rome,  and  it  was  during  a 
visit  of  Antipas  to  Rome,  when  he  lodged  with  his  brother,  that 
the  attachment  between  Herodias  and  Antipas  sprung  up  (Jos. 
Ant.  18.  5.  1).    Philip  [2.]  is  only  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament 


HEROD.  357 

a3  the  former  husband  of  Herodias  (Matt  xiv.  3 ;  Mark  vi.  17 ; 
Luke  iii.  19),  and  nothing  further  is  known  of  his  history. 

5.  Philip  [1.]  was  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Cleopatra  of 
Jerusalem,  and  went  to  Rome  after  his  father's  death  along  with 
Archelaus,  for  the  double  purpose  of  assisting  him  in  his  appeal, 
and  of  obtaining  if  possible  a  share  in  his  father's  dominions. 
Augustus  appointed  him  tetrarch  of  '  Batan?ea  and  Traehonitis  and 
Auranitis,  with  a  revenue  of  100  talents.'  He  afterwards  married 
Salome,  the  daughter  of  Plerodias  and  his  brother  Philip  [2.],  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  duties  of  his  government  with  energy  and 
moderation.  He  built  Banias  or  Cassarea  Phiiippi,  at  the  sources 
of  the  Jordan,  and  rebuilt  Bethsaida  Julias  (where  he  died)  near  the 
influx  of  the  Jordan  into  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  His  government  is 
referred  to  in  Luke  iii.  1.  He  died  in  a.d.  34,  having  been  pre- 
ceded by  his  wife  Salome,  and  leaving  no  children.  His  dominions 
were  at  first  added  to  the  province  of  Syria,  and  afterwards  given 
to  Herod  Agrippa  L  (Jos.  Ant.  18.  4.  6;  18.  6.  10). 

6.  Herodias,  granddaughter  of  Herod  the  Great,  daughter  of 
Aristobulus,  and  sister  of  Agrippa  I.  She  first  married  her  uncle 
Philip  [2.]  of  Rome,  and  by  him  had  a  daughter,  named  Salome, 
but,  being  seduced  by  her  uncle  Antipas,  she  agreed  to  desert  Philip 
and  live  with  Antipas,  on  the  condition  that  he  should  divorce  his 
then  wife,  the  daughter  of  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia.  This  act  was 
justly  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  opposed  to  the  moral  institutions  of 
their  country,  and  John  the  Baptist,  whom  Antipas  feared  and 
listened  to,  reproved  him  for  his  incestuous  conduct.  By  this  act 
John  aroused  the  extreme  hatred  of  Herodias,  and  the  anger  of 
Antipas,  who  cast  him  into  prison.  A  short  time  afterwards, 
Antipas  held  his  birth-day  festival,  and  incautiously  promised  to 
Salome,  who  pleased  him  by  her  dancing,  that  he  would  give  her 
whatever  she  should  ask.  Being  instructed  by  her  mother,  Salome 
demanded  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  Antipas,  for  his  oath's 
sake,  caused  John  to  be  executed,  and  his  head  given  to  Herodias 
(Matt.  xiv.  8-11 ;  Mark  vi.  24-28).  It  is  said  that  this  wicked 
woman,  when  the  head  of  John  was  brought  to  her,  di'ew  out  the 
tongue  and  pierced  it  through  with  a  needle.  Her  ambition  was 
ultimately  the  ruin  of  her  paramour.  Her  brother,  Agrippa  I., 
having  received  the  title  of  king,  she  urged  Antipas  to  go  to  Rome 
to  solicit  the  same  honour ;  but  so  far  from  obtaining  this,  Antipas 
was  met  at  Rome  by  accusations  of  treachery,  and  banished  at  first 
to  Lyons,  in  France,  and  then  to  Spain.  Thither  Herodias  ac- 
companied him,  and  there  she  is  supposed  to  have  died. 


358       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

7,  Herod  Ag:rippa  Z.,  sometimes  called  the  Great.  He  was 
the  son  of  Aristobulus  and  Berenice,  brother  of  Herodias,  and 
gTandson  of  Herod  the  Great.  Aristobulus  had  been  strangled  by 
order  of  his  father,  and  Agrippa  seems  to  have  been  reduced  to  great 
straits  in  the  early  part  of  his  life.  When  Herod  the  Great  died, 
Agrippa  was  living  at  Rome,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  that  city  on 
account  of  his  poverty,  and  returned  to  Judsea,  where  he  lived  for 
some  time  as  a  dependent  on  the  bounty  of  his  uncle  Antipas,  and 
of  Flaccus,  the  then  president  of  Syria.  After  this  he  returned  to 
Rome,  and  here  came  under  the  displeasure  of  Tiberius,  who  put  him 
under  arrest,  from  which  he  was  only  freed  by  the  accession  of 
Caligula.  Caligula  had  been  intimate  with  and  very  friendly 
towards  Agrippa,  and  he  now  not  only  released  him,  but  gave  him 
the  tetrarchy  of  his  uncle  Philip  [1.],  and  promised  him  that  of 
Lysanias.  Agrippa  then  returned  to  Judaea,  for  the  purpose  of 
assuming  the  government  of  Philip's  dominions.  His  good  for- 
tune, however,  excited  the  jealousy  and  anger  of  Antipas  and 
Herodias,  who  soon  after  went  to  Rome  to  request  Caligula  to 
confer  upon  Antipas  the  royal  title  and  an  increase  of  his  kingdom. 
In  this  they  were  disappointed,  a  freed-man  of  Agrippa,  named 
Fortunatus,  having  been  sent  by  him  to  bring  accusations  of 
intended  revolt  against  Antipas,  and  Antipas  as  a  result  being 
banished  (see  Antipas).  Agrippa  now  succeeded  to  the  dominions 
of  Antipas,  but  appears  to  have  taken  up  his  residence  at  Rome, 
where  he  was  at  the  time  of  the  assassination  of  Caligula,  and 
where  he  materially  contributed  to  the  elevation  of  Claudius  to 
the  imperial  purple.  In  gratitude,  Claudius  conferred  upon 
Agrippa  all  the  dominions  of  liis  grandfather,  Herod  the  Great. 
Agrippa  then  returned  to  Judrea,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
the  duties  of  his  government  there.  He  became  a  very  strict 
observer  of  Jewish  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  very  popular  amongst 
the  Jews.  It  is  only  during  this  latter  period  of  his  career  that  he 
comes  into  view  in  the  New  Testament,  as  the  destroyer  of  James 
the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  the  would-be  destroyer  of  Peter,  who, 
however,  was  miraculously  delivered  from  his  hands  (Acts  xii.  1- 
19).  His  death  occurred  immediately  afterwards  at  Csesarea,  in 
the  manner  related  in  Acts  xii.  20-24,  a  relation  confirmed  by 
Josephus  (Ant.  19.  8.  2),  who  adds  that  the  immediate  cause  of 
the  blasphemous  adoration  of  Agrippa  by  the  people  was  the 
splendid  appearance  which  his  garments,  entirely  composed  of 
silver,  exhibited  in  the  rays  of  the  early  sun. 

8.  Herod  il^rippa  ZX.,  the  son  of  Agrippa  I.,  by  Cypres,  was 


HEROD.  359 

a  youth  of  seventeen  years  of  age  when  his  father  died,  and  this 
circumstance  alone  prevented  Claudius,  the  Roman  emperor,  from 
giving  him  his  father's  dominions  and  position.  He  was  therefore 
advanced  to  the  hingdom  of  Chalcis,  which  had  belonged  to  his 
uncle,  and  to  this  were  added  the  tetrarchies  of  Philip  [1.],  and  of 
Abilene.  He  was  also  entrusted  with  the  office  of  Superintendent 
of  the  Temple.  In  this  latter  capacity  he  resided  at  Jerusalem, 
where  he  had  a  quarrel  with  the  Jews  on  account  of  a  wall  built 
by  them  so  as  to  obscure  the  view  of  the  interior  of  the  temple, 
which  was  commanded  by  his  palace  (see  Festus).  Agrippa 
appears  in  the  Xew  Testament,  as  coming  down  to  Ceesarea  to 
salute  Festus  on  his  appohitment  as  procurator  of  Judgea,  and  as 
being  invited  by  him  to  assist  with  his  advice  touching  the 
prisoner  Paul.  Before  him,  together  with  his  sister  Bernice  or 
Berenice,  and  the  procurator,  St.  Paul  accordingly  appeared,  and 
delivered  the  address  recorded  in  Acts  xxvi.  His  exclamation  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  address  has  become  almost  proverbial, 
*  Almost  thou  persuadest  me  to  be  a  Christian  '  (but  see  note  on 
p.  34)'.  No  real  conversion  to  Christianity,  however,  followed. 
If  the  stories  which  coupled  his  name  with  th&t  of  his  sister 
Bernice,  in  an  infamous  manner,  were  true,  this  may  easily  be 
explained.  In  the  war  with  the  Romans,  Agrippa  took  the  side 
of  the  Romans,  and  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  resided  at  Rome 
with  his  sister,  and  there  died  in  a.d.  100. 

9.  Berenice  or  Bernice,  was  the  sister  of  Herod  Agi-ippa  II. 
She  was  first  married  to  Marcus,  the  son  of  Lysimachus,  and  then 
to  her  uncle,  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis.  After  his- death,  she  lived 
with  her  brother  Agrippa  II.,  with  whom  common  report  declared 
her  to  have  had  an  infamous  relationship.  When  this  report  of 
her  became  general,  she  married  Polemo,  king  of  Cilieia,  '■  as  sup- 
posing, that  by  this  means  she  should  prove  those  calumnies  upon 
her  to  be  false '  (Jos.  Ant.  20.  7.  3).  However,  she  soon  left 
Polemo,  and  at  the  same  time  gave  up  the  profession  of  Judaism. 
Afterwards,  she  was  accused  of  being  the  mistress  both  of  Vespasian 
and  Titus,  but  of  her  end  nothing  is  known.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment she  appears  only  in  Acts  xxv.  as  joining  her  brother  Agrippa 
in  his  visit  to  Festus,  and  sitting  with  him  at  the  audience 
accorded  to  the  apostle  Paul. 

10.  Drusilla,  a  younger  sister  of  Herod  Agrippa  II.,  and  by 
him  given  in  marriage  to  Azizus,  king  of  Emesa,  upon  his  agreeing 
to  become  a  Jew.  This  marriage,  however,  was  after  a  while 
dissolved  at  the  instigation  of  Felix,  the  procurator  of  Judaea. 


360        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

He  conceived  a  passion  for  Diaisilla,  who  was  of  great  personal 
beauty,  and  being  assisted  by  a  Cypriot  magician,  named  Simon, 
induced  her  to  leave  Azizus,  and  become  his  wife.  By  Felix,  she 
had  a  son  named  Agrippa,  who  perished  with  his  wife  in  an 
eruption  of  Vesuvius.  She  appears  in  Acts  xxiv.  24,  as  being 
with  Felix,  when  he  sent  for  Paul,  and  '■  heard  him  concerning  the 
faith  in  Christ.' 

Herodians.     See  Section  4. 

Herodias.     See  under  Herod. 

Herodion  ['H|OW()iwr,  Herodion],  a  Roman  Christian  saluted  by 
St.  Paul  in  Rom.  xvi.  11,  and  designated  by  him  as  his  *  kiusman 
((Tuyy fvi7c).'  Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  him,  but  a  tradition 
exists  that  he  w^as  bishop  of  Tarsus. 

Kierapolls  [^UparcoXic,  Hiei'ajwlis],  a  city  in  the  basin  of  the 
Mseander,  not  far  from  Colossse,  and  Laodicea.  It  was  famous 
for  its  temple  of  Cybele,  and  for  its  hot  springs,  which  still  exist. 
Its  modern  name  is  Pambouk-Kolessi,  where  extensive  ruins  are 
found.  In  the  New  Testament,  the  Christians  of  Hierapolis  are 
casually  mentioned  in  Col.  iv.  13,  and  Epaphras  is  declared  to  have 
a  great  zeal  for  them,  but  nothing  is  further  known  of  the  church 
in  this  city. 

Hymenseus  ['Yfikvaioc,  Hymenaius\  a  name  occurring  in  1  Tim. 
i.  20  ('  some  concerning  faith  have  made  shipwreck ;  of  whom  is 
Hymenseus  and  Alexander,  whom  I  have  delivered  to  Satan,  that 
they  may  learn  not  to  blaspheme '),  and  2  Tim.  ii.  17,  18  ('  their 
word  will  eat  as  doth  a  canker :  of  whom  is  Hyraenseus  and 
Philetus ;  who  concerning  the  truth  have  erred,  saying  that  the 
resurrection  is  past  already').  It  has  been  argued  that  the 
persons  here  mentioned  under  the  name  of  Ilymenseus  are  not 
identical,  but  their  characters  are  so  similar  that  it  seems  more 
reasonable  to  regard  them  as  one.  Nothing  whatever  is  known 
of  the  history  of  Hymenteus,  but  the  use  of  the  singular  expression 
'  whom  I  have  delivered  to  Satan  '  with  respect  to  him  has  evoked 
much  discussion.  The  same  expression  is  used  in  1  Cor.  v.  5  ('  to 
deliver  such  an  one  unto  Satan  for  the  destruction  of  the  flesh, 
that  the  spirit  may  be  saved  in  the  day  of  the  Lord  Jesus ').  This 
strong  expression  can  hardly  refer  to  mere  exclusion  from  church 
privileges  or  excommunication  :  it  seems  more  likely  that  it  refers 
to  a  power,  possessed  by  the  Apostles  only,  of  inflicting  bodily 
death  or  disease  as  a  punishment  for  sin.  That  such  a  power  was 
exercised  is  evident  from  the  cases  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  and 
of  Ely  mas  the  sorcerer.     Its  object  was  evidently  not  the  destruc- 


HEKODIANS-IDUM.EA.  361 

tion,  but  the  saving,  of  the  offender's  soul.  Nor  is  there  any 
reason  for  presuming  that  such  a  power,  although  exercised  by 
the  apovstles,  can  be  delegated  to  any  of  their  oiiicial  successors. 
It  is  clear  from  1  Cor.  v.  4,  that  however  solemn  and  public  the 
deed  might  be,  it  was  to  be  expressly  accomplished  by  the  per- 
sonal sentence  of  the  apostle  himself. 

Zconlum  flfoi'ior,  Iconiuni\  a  town  of  Lycaouia,  now  Konieh^ 
and  still  a  considerable  place.  It  was  visited  at  least  twice  by 
Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  first  missionary  journey.  On  the  first 
visit,  the  course  of  St.  Paul  was  that  usually  adopted  by  him  in 
towns  where,  as  at  Iconium,  there  was  a  settlement  of  Jews.  Hb 
entered  first  into  the  synagogue,  ^  and  so  spake,  that  a  multitude 
both  of  the  Jews  and  also  of  the  Greeks  believed.'  This,  how- 
ever, excited  the  anger  of  the  unbelieving  Jews,  and  so  gi-eat  a 
persecution  was  raised  that  the  apostles  were  compelled  to  retire 
to  Lystra,  a  city  in  the  vicinity  (Acts  xiv.  1-7).  Hither  ^  certain 
Jews '  followed  them,  and  again  compelled  them  to  retire  to 
Derbe,  but  notwithstanding  this,  we  find  the  apostles  shortly  after- 
wards returning  to  Iconium  and  exhorting  the  disciples  '  to  con- 
tinue in  the  faith '  (Acts  xiv.  21,  22).  These  persecutions  are 
refen-ed  to  in  2  Tim.  iii.  11  (^thou  hast  fully  known  my  .... 
persecutions,  afflictions,  which  came  unto  me  at  Antioch, 
at  Iconium,  at  Lystra ').  Timothy's  acquaintance  with  these 
troubles  arose  from  his  being  a  native  of  the  neighbouring  city  of 
Lystra,  and  as  he  was  well  known  to  the  brethren  of  Iconium 
(Acts  xvi.  2),  he  probably  had  frequently  visited  that  town.  It  is 
quite  possible  from  Acts  xvi.  I,  2,  that  St.  Paul  visited  Iconium 
a  third  time,  on  the  occasion  of  his  assuming  the  charge  of  Timothy, 
and  even  a  fourth  time  (Acts  xviiL  23).  This  probability  is 
heightened  by  the  consideration  that  the  town  was  the  centre  of 
important  reads,  and  especially  was  on  the  line  of  communication 
between  the  district  of  Ephesus  on  the  west,  and  the  district  of 
Antioch  on  the  east. 

Idumaea  \j\  'Icovi-iaia^  Idumcea],  only  mentioned  in  Mark  iii.  8 
('a  great  multitude  followed  him  .  .  .  from  Idumaea').  In  the 
Old  Testament  the  country  referred  to  is  designated  '  Edom '  and 
*  Mount  Seir.'  It  lay  to  the  south-east  of  Palestine,  and  is  a 
rugged  and  mountainous  country.  Its  original  inhabitants  were 
descendants  of  Esau  (see  Esau),  but  about  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century  before  Christ,  the  country  had  fallen  into  the  power 
of  the  Nabatheans,  an  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael. 
These  Nabatheans  founded  the  kingdom  of  Arabia  Petrsea,  whose 


362        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

capital  was  Petra,  a  city  remarkable  for  dwellings  liewn  in  the 
living  rock.  The  Nabatheans,  in  their  turn,  were  subdued  by 
John  Hyrcanus,  the  son  of  Judas  Maccabaeus,  and  being  compelled 
to  follow  the  Jewish  law,  were  for  many  years  governed  by 
Jewish  prefects.  One  of  these,  Antipater,  became  procurator  of 
Judaea,  and  father  of  Herod  the  Great.  In  New  Testament  times, 
Jdumasa  was  again  a  kingdom,  whose  king  (Aretas)  had  married 
his  daughter  to  Herod  Antipas,  and  who  made  war  upon  Herod  when 
that  daughter  was  divorced.  The  same  Aretas  appears  to  have 
captured  and  held  Damascus  at  the  time  when  St.  Paul  returned 
thither  from  his  sojourn  in  Arabia  (Acts  ix.  25 ;  2  Cor.  xi.  82). 
The  country  was  ultimately  conquered  b}^  the  Romans  in  a.d.  105, 
roads  and  military  stations  were  constructed,  and  its  independence 
and  separate  existence  completely  destroyed.  It  is  now  in  a  state 
of  entire  desolation,  but  the  wonderful  ruins  and  excavations  of 
Petra,  its  capital,  attract  many  travellers, 

lUyricuizi  [to  'iXXvpucov,  Illyncuni].  A  country  only  mentioned 
in  Rom.  xv.  19  ('  So  that  from  Jerusalem,  and  round  about  unto 
{likx^d  Illyricum,  I  have  fully  preached  the  gospel  of  Christ '). 
As  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  written  from  Corinth  during 
St.  Paul's  third  missionary  journey  (see  p.  39),  and  he  had  come 
to  Corinth  from  Macedonia,  which  borders  on  Illyricum,  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  visit  to  the  borders  of  Illyricum 
(not  necessarily  into  the  countr}^)  formed  part  of  the  apostle's 
journeyings  in  Macedonia  on  this  occasion.  No  details  of  the  visit, 
however,  are  found  in  the  Acts. 

There  is  some  difficulty  even  in  determining  the  exact  district 
to  which  the  term  Illyricum  is  applied  in  Rom.  xv.  19.  Ancient 
Illyricum  consisted  of  two  portions,  Greek  Illyricum.,  or  the 
southern  portion  of  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  and  Bar- 
barous Illyricum,  or  the  northern  portion  of  the  same  eastern 
shore.  Greek  Illyricum  was  united  by  the  Romans  to  their  pro- 
vince of  Macedonia,  but  Barbarous  Illyricum  had  become  in  St. 
Paul's  time  an  imperial  province  of  itself,  and  was  often  spoken  of 
as  Dalmatia,  which  formed  its  southern  division.  It  is  now  divided 
between  the  Turkish  and  Austrian  empires. 

Isaac  [pnV''.  =  sporting,  'laaaK,  Isaac],  the  son  of  Abraham  and 
Sarah.  He  was  born  when  his  father  was  100  years  old,  in  fulfil- 
ment of  a  special  promise  several  times  repeated  (Gen.  xii.  2,  7  ; 
XV.  4 ;  xvii.  4, 16, 19, 21 ;  xviii.  10).  The  circumstance  of  this  birth 
is  referred  to  as  a  fact  in  both  the  genealogies  of  our  Lord  (Matt. 
i.  2  ;  Luke  iii.  34),  and  in  Stephen's  speech  before  the  Sanhedrim 


ILLYRICUM— ISAAC.  363 

(Acts  vii.  8),  and  as  a  type  of  the  spiritual  legitimacy  of  true 
believers,  as  distinguished  from  mere  carnal  descendants  from 
Abraham,  in  Rom.  ix.  7-9  ('  They  which  are  the  children  of  the 
flesh,  these  are  not  the  children  of  God:  but  the  children  of  the 
promise  are  counted  for  the  seed.  For  this  is  the  word  of  pro- 
mise, At  this  time  will  I  come,  and  Sarah  shall  have  a  son  '),  and 
in  Gal.  iv.  24-31  Q  We,  brethren,  as  Isaac  was,  are  the  children 
of  promise  ').  The  circumcision  of  Isaac  is  also  mentioned  in 
Acts  vii.  8,  and  the  circumstance  that  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Hagar, 
mocked  Isaac  (Gen.  xxi.  9)  is  also  mentioned  in  Gal.  iv.  29  ('As 
then  he  that  was  born  after  the  flesh  persecuted  him  tJiat  zvas  born 
after  the  spirit,  even  so  it  is  now '). 

When  Isaac  had  become  a  young  man,  direction  was  divinely 
given  to  Abraham  to  offer  him  up  as  a  sacrifice,  but  the  actual 
consummation  of  this  sacrifice  was  prevented  by  the  interference 
of  an  angel  from  heaven  (Gen.  xxii.).  Much  controversy  has  been 
expended  on  this  occurrence,  and  Abraham's  conduct  has  been 
severely  censured  by  rationalistic  writers.  The  fact,  however,  that 
the  sacrifice  was  not  intended  to  be  consummated  has  to  be  taken 
into  consideration  ;  and  if  we  regard  the  offering  of  Isaac  as  an 
emblem  of  the  death  due  to  all  sinners,  and  the  substitution  of  the 
ram,  by  which  he  was  delivered,  as  typical  of  the  divine  way  of 
salvation,  the  extreme  importance  of  the  lesson  derived  from  the 
circumstances  takes  them  out  of  the  sphere  of  merely  human  pre- 
judice on  the  subject.  This  offering  is  brought  forward  in  Heb.  xi. 
17-19  as  an  instance  of  Abraham's  faith  ('  By  faith  Abraham,  when 
he  was  tried,  offered  up  Isaac '),  and  in  Jas.  ii.  21  as  an  example  of 
faith  being  made  perfect  by  works  ('  Was  not  Abraham  our  father 
justified  by  works,  when  he  had  offered  Isaac  his  son  upon  the 
altar?'). 

When  forty  years  old,  Isaac  married  Rebekah,  and  by  her  had 
two  sons,  Jacob  and  Esau.  These  sons  were  soon  at  variance  with 
each  other,  but  this  seems  to  have  been  the  only  disturbing  element 
in  his  middle  life,  which  was  passed  in  more  than  ordinary  peace 
and  tranquillity.  His  old  age  was  not  so  peaceful.  Jacob,  by  a 
stratagem,  obtained  from  him,  when  nearly  blind,  the  blessing  of 
the  birthright  which  lawfully  belonged  to  Esau,  and  in  consequence 
was  obliged  to  leave  his  father;  while  Esau's  mrariage  with  heathen 
women  was  another  source  of  vexation  to  him.  The  blessings 
conferred  on  Jacob  and  Esau  are  brought  forward  in  Heb.  xi.  20,  as 
instances  of  faith  ('By  faith  Isaac  blessed  Jacob  and  Esau'),  the 
'  faith '  being  manifested  in  his  calm  assurance  that  God  would 


364       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

fulfil  his  promises  concerning  the  gift  of  Canaan  to  his  descendants, 
and  concerning  the  large  extension  of  his  family,  notwithstanding 
that  at  this  very  time  he  was,  like  his  father  Abraham,  only  a 
dweller  ^  in  tabernacles '  (Heb.  xi.  9). 

No  reference  is  made  in  the  New  Testament  to  the  death  of  Isaac. 
This  event  took  place  at  Hebron,  when  he  was  180  years  old.  His 
sons,  Jacob  and  Esau,  united  to  bury  him  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah. 

Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  are  several  times  referred  to  in  the 
New  Testament  as  the  recognised  representatives  of  the  Israelitish 
nation  (Matt.  viii.  11 ;  Luke  xiii.  28 ;  Acts  vii.  8).  The  fact  that 
God,  speaking  to  Moses  in  the  bush,  called  himself  the  God  of 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  was  also  adduced  by  our  Lord  to  show 
that  the  Pentateuch  recognised  the  doctrine  of  life  after  death,  since 
God  is  not  the  God  of  the  dead,  but  of  the  living  (Matt.  xxii.  32 ; 
Mark  xii.  26 ;  Luke  xx.  37). 

Isaiab  or  Esaias  [•IH^t^''.  =  ^/ie  salvation  of  Jehovah  \,  'Hcrcrfat-, 
l8aias\,  one  of  the  four  greater  prophets.  He  was  the  son  of  Amoz, 
and  prophesied  '  concerning  Judah  and  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of 
Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah '  (Is.  i.  1). 
These  reigns  lasted  from  810  B.C.  to  698  B.C.  (Usher's  Chron.),  or 
more  than  100  years,  but  as  Uzziah's  reign  continued  until 
758  B.C.,  the  period  really  required  to  meet  the  data  given  does  not 
necessarily  exceed  from  fifty  to  sixty  years.  Some  say  that  he  was 
brother  to  King  Uzziah,  and  an  ordinary  tradition  is  that  he  was 
sawn  asunder  by  order  of  Manasseh.  But  very  little  is  known  of 
the  personal  history  of  the  prophet  beyond  that  which  appears 
from  his  writings,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  he  was  well 
known  and  of  much  influence  in  the  royal  palace. 

'  The  book  of  the  prophet  Esaias '  was  the  book  put  into  our 
Lord's  hands  when  he  stood  up  for  to  read  at  his  first  visit  to 
Nazareth  (Luke  iv.  17),  and  the  eunuch  of  Candace  was  reading 
'Esaias  the  prophet'  when  Philip  met  him  (Acts  viii.  28).  The 
importance  of  his  prophecy  arises  from  his  clear  and  detailed  inti- 
mations of  the  coming  Messiah,  for  which  especially  see  vii.  14 ; 
ix.  1-7 ;  xi. ;  xl.  1-11 ;  xlii. ;  liii. ;  Ixi.  Mr.  Gough  (New  Testa- 
ment Quotations)  numbers  in  the  New  Testament  no  less  than  119 
quotations  from,  or  allusions  to,  the  words  of  Isaiah,  but  many  of 
these  are  so  slight  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible.  The  chief  refer- 
ences are  as  subjoined: — i.  9-Ilom.  ix.  29 :  v.  1,  2-Matt.  xxi.  33, 
Mark  xii.  1,  Luke  xx.  9 :  vi.  9,  10-Matt.  xiii.  13-15,  Mark  iv.  12, 
Luke  xiii.  10,  John  xii.  39,  Acts  xxviii.  25-27  :  vii.  14-Matt.  i. 
21-23,  Luke  i.  31-33  :  viii.  14-Rom.  ix.  33,  1  Pet.  ii.  8 :  viii.  17, 


ISAIAH— ITURiEA.  365 

18-Heb.  ii.  13 :  ix.  1,  2-Matt.  iv.  12-16,  Luke  i.  79 :  x.  22,  23- 
Rom.  ix.  27,  28 :  xi.  10-Rom.  xv.  12 :  xxii.  22-Rev.  iii.  7,  8 : 
XXV.  8-1  Cor.  XV.  54 :  xxviii.  11,  12-1  Cor.  xiv.  21 :  xxviii.  16- 
Eom.  ix.  33,  x.  11,  1  Pet.  ii.  4-6 :  xxix.  13-Matt.  xv.  7-9,  Mark 
vii.  6,  7 :  xxix.  14-1  Cor.  i.  19 :  xl.  3-5-Matt.  iii.  3,  Mark  i. 
2,  3,  Liike  i.  76 :  iii.  4-6-Jno.  i.  23  :  xl.  6-8-1  Pet.  i.  24,  25  :  xli. 
4,  xliv.  6,  xlviii.  12-Rev.  i.  8,  11,  17,  ii.  8,  xxi.  6,  xxii.  13 :  xlii. 
1-4-Matt.  xii.  17-21:  xlv.  23-Rom.  xiv.  11,  PMl.  ii.  10,  11: 
xlix.  6-Luke  ii.  32,  Acts  xiii.  47 :  xlix.  8-2  Cor.  vi.  2  :  Iii.  6, 
7-Rom.  X.  15:  liii.  1-Jno.  xii.  38,  Rom.  x.  16:  liii.  4-Matt. 
viii.  17:  liii.  5,  6-1  Pet.  ii.  24,  25:  liii.  7,  8-Acts  viii.  32,  33: 
liii.  9-1  Pet.  ii.  22:  liii.  12-Mark  xv.  28,  Luke  xxii.  37:  liii.  12- 
Jno.  i.  29,  Heb.  ix.  28,  1  Pet.  ii.  24 :  liv.  1-Gal.  iv.  27  :  liv.  13- 
Jno.  vi.  45  :  Iv.  3-Acts  xiii.  34 :  Ivi.  7-Matt.  xxi.  13,  Mark  xi. 
17,  Luke  xix.  46 :  lix.  20,  21-Rom.  xi.  26,  27  :  Ix.  3,  10,  11- 
Rev.  xxi.  24-26 :  Ixi.  1,  2-Luke  iv.  17-19  :  Ixiv.  4-1  Cor.  ii.  9 : 
Ixv.  1,  2-Rom.  X.  20,  21  :  Ixvi.  1,  2-Matt.  v.  M,  35,  xxiii.  32, 
Acts  vii.  48-50  :  Ixvi.  24-Mark  ix.  43-48. 

Zscariot.     See  Judas. 

Israelite.     See  Hehi-eio. 

Italy,  Italian  [>'/  'IraAirr,  'IraXfK-oc,  Italia,  Italicus],  an  extensive 
peninsula  in  the  south  of  Europe,  having  Rome  for  the  capital. 
In  New  Testament  times  Italy  was  the  centre  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, which  then  extended  over  the  whole  of  southern  Europe  and 
northern  Africa,  and  included  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  (see  Rome). 
Large  numbers  of  Jews  then  resided  in  Italy,  from  which,  how- 
ever, for  some  unascertained  cause,  they  were  banished  by  che 
emperor  Claudius  in  a.d.  52  (Acts  xviii.  2).  Italy  appears  in  the 
New  Testament  as  the  destination  of  St.  Paul  in  his  final  journey, 
and  was  first  touched  at  Rhegium,  or  Reggio.  Subsequently  to 
this,  they  '  of  Italy '  ai'e  spoken  of  as  saluting  the  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians (Heb.  xiii.  24) ;  and  no  doubt  Christian  churches,  at  the  time 
when  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  written,  must  have  been 
established  in  many  Italian  towns.  An  *  Italian  band '  is  also 
referred  to  (Acts  x.  1)  as  lender  the  centurionship  of  Cornelius. 
This  band  was  probably  recruited  from  Italy.     See  Band,  p.  140, 

Ituraea  [y)  'Irovpaia,  IturcBa\  the  region  of  which  Philip  was 
tetrarch  at  the  time  of  the  commencement  of  the  ministry  of  John 
the  Baptist  (Luke  iii.  1).  It  lies  south  of  Damascus,  and  east  of 
the  waters  of  Merom,  and  is  now  called  Jedur.  The  southern 
portion  is  fertile,  rich,  and  well  watered,  but  the  northern  is  bleak 
and  desolate.     Its  present  condition  is  one  of  complete  depression, 


366        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

and  Dr.  Porter  describes  it  as  only  inhabited  by  a  few  peasants, 
Uving  in  liovels  amongst  heaps  of  ruins. 

Jacob  [2pV'[  =  supplanter,  'laKU)j3,  Jacob'],  twin-brother  of  Esau, 
and  son  of  Isaac  and  Eebekah.  The  circumstances  of  his  birth, 
and  the  original  reasons  for  his  name,  are  related  in  Gen.xxv.  21-28. 
The  name,  however,  received  additional  significance  from  his 
ultimately  obtaining,  first  by  purchase  (Gen.  xxv.  29-34),  and 
then  by  fraud  (Gen.  xxvii.),  the  birthright  which  legally  belonged 
to  Esau.  After  this,  the  anger  of  his  brother  Esau  compelled 
Jacob  to  depart  to  Padan-aram,  or  Mesopotamia,  where  he 
remained  a  considerable  period  with  his  mother's  relatives,  and 
married  his  cousins  Leah  and  Rachel.  On  the  journey  to  Padan- 
aram  occurred  a  remarkable  intimation  of  the  Divine  favour 
towards  him,  in  a  dream  at  Bethel,  in  which  he  saw  angels 
ascending  and  descending  upon  him,  and  received  the  promise 
originally  given  to  Abraham.  In  Padan-aram  he  amassed  large 
property  in  flocks  and  herds,  and  at  length  returned  with  his 
possessions  and  family,  and,  having  been  reconciled  with  his 
brother  Esau,  dwelt  with  his  father  Isaac  in  Palestine.  On  the 
homeward  journey  God  again  revealed  Himself,  and  changed  his 
name  to  Israel  ('prince  of  God').  On  the  death  of  Isaac,  Jacob 
became  the  recognised  head  of  the  Hebrew  family.  He  was  now 
the  father  of  twelve  sons  and  one  daughter,  the  youngest  two  of 
the  sons  being  Joseph  and  Benj  amin.  The  elevation  of  Joseph  to 
power  in  Egypt  had  an  important  effect  upon  the  fortunes  of 
Jacob,  who,  at  Joseph's  invitation,  went  down  with  all  his  family 
into  Egypt,  and  there  died  in  the  land  of  Goshen.  His  body  was 
embalmed  and  carried  to  Machpelah  for  burial. 

Many  references  to  Jacob  are  found  in  the  New  Testament.  He 
is  classed  with  Abraham  and  Isaac,  both  as  representatives  of 
the  Israelitish  nation  (Matt.  viii.  11;  Luke  xiii.  28;  Acts  vii.  8), 
and  in  the  argument  for  a  life  after  death  derived  from  the  fact 
that  God  calls  Himself  the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob 
(Matt.  xxii.  32 ;  Mark  xii.  26 ;  Luke  xx.  37).  The  history  of  his 
birth  is  referred  to,  in  Rom.  ix.  10-13,  to  show  fhat  '  the  purpose 
of  God  according  to  election '  stands  '  not  of  works  but  of  Him 
that  calleth.'  In  Heb.  xii.  16  the  sale  of  the  birthright  is  men- 
tioned, and  in  John  i.  51  is  a  possible  allusion  to  the  angels  seen  at 
Bethel.  In  John  iv.  5,  12  the  gift  of  a  well  and  parcel  of  grouna 
by  Jacob  to  Joseph  is  referred  to,  but  this  circumstance  is  not 
detailed  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  the  speech  of  Stephen  his  life 
is  briefly  sketched  (Acts  vii.  8-16 :  as  to  the  alleged  difficulties  in 


JACOB— JA]VIES.  367 

this  passage,  see  under  Stephen) ;  and  in  Heb,  xi.  21  his  dying 
blessing  of  his  sons  is  described  as  an  act  of  faith  ('  By  faith  Jacob, 
when  he  was  a  dying,  blessed  both  the  sons  of  Joseph ;  and  wor- 
shipped, leaning  upon  the  top  of  his  staff  (tTrl  to  uKpov  rf/c  pajicov 
avTov)  ' ).  The  Greek  here  translated  '  staif '  is  the  LXX.  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word  nt^D  in  Gen.  xlvii.  31.  According  to  the 
different  vowel-points  employed,  this  word  =  either  bed  or  staff. 
Our  A.  V.  takes  the  meaning  '  bed,'  whereas  the  LXX.,  followed 
in  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  takes  the  meaning  as  '  staff.' 

Jairus  \y^^)  =  ivhom  he  (i.e.  God)  enlightens,  'latipoq^  Jainis~\,  a 
ruler  of  the  synagogue  (apx"^'')  Matt.  ;  tlq  rCov  apxKrvvaydjyiov, 
Mark;  dpxcjv  TfjQ  avi^ayujyvg,  Luke),  whose  daughter  Jesus  restored 
to  life.  The  history  of  this  miracle  is  found  in  Matt.  ix.  18-26  ; 
Mark  v.  21-43 ;  Luke  viii.  40-56.  Jairus  was  probably  one  of 
the  elders,  or  governing  body,  of  the  synagogue  at  Capernaum. 
For  their  position  and  duties  see  under  Synagogue  in  Section  4. 

Jambres  ['laju/3|0^c,  Mamb?r.s~\.     See  Jarines. 

James  [Heb.  form,  Jacob,  i.e.  ^'pVI,  'Iuku>I3oc,  Jacobus'],  a  name 
attributed  in  the  New  Testament  to  at  least  three  persons. 

1.  James,  the  son  of-Zebedee,  and  brother  of  John  the  Evan- 
gelist. He  first  appears  with  his  brother  John,  and  his  partners 
Simon  and  Andrew,  when  employed  in  fishing  on  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  and  while  thus  engaged  received  with  them  a  call 
from  our  Lord  to  become  fishers  of  men  (Matt.  iv.  18-22 ;  Mark 
i.  16-20).  He  does  not  appear,  however,  to  have  entirely  for- 
saken his  calling  until  some  little  time  afterwards,  when,  being 
again  found  by  Jesus  employed  in  washing  the  nets,  and  having 
been  favoured  with  a  miraculous  draught  of  fishes,  he  forsook  all, 
and  gave  himself  entirely  to  the  service  of  Jesus  (Luke  v.  1-11). 
After  this  he  was  selected  as  one  of  the  apostles,  his  name  being 
generally  coupled  with  his  brother,  in  company  with  whom  he 
received  the  surnameof  Boanerges,  or /Sowsq/'TViMnJer  (Mark  iii.  17). 
He  was  now  received  into  the  special  companionship  of  our  Lord, 
and,  with  Peter  and  John,  was  the  only  attendant  upon  him  at 
the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter  (Mark  v.  37 ;  Luke  viii.  51),  at 
the  Transfiguration  (Matt.  xvii.  1 ;  Mark  ix.  2  ;  Luke  ix.  28),  and 
during  the  Agony  in  the  garden  (Matt.  xxvi.  37  ;  Mark  xiv.  33). 

A  different  side  of  the  character  of  James  is  exhibited  in  two  other 
incidents.  In  the  former  of  these,  when  the  Samaritans  of  a  certain 
village  declined  to  receive  our  Lord,  he  and  his  brother  requested 
that  Jesus  would  call  down  fire  from  heaven  to  destroy  the  village, 


368       ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

but  received  for  reply  the  memorable  rebuke,  '  Ye  know  not  what 
spirit  ye  are  of;  the  Son  of  Man  is  not  come  to  destroy/  men's 
lives,  but  to  save  them '  (Luke  ix.  51-56,  but  the  words  in  italics 
are  of  doubtful  authority).  On  the  second  occasion,  Salome,  the 
mother  of  James  and  John,  in  all  probability  accompanied  by 
them,  demanded  for  them  a  position  of  authority  and  influence  in 
the  kingdom  which  they  expected  that  our  Lord  would  immediately 
establish  (Matt.  xx.  20-28 ;  Mark  x.  35-45).  In  this  request  also 
they  were  disappointed,  and  were  informed  that  '  to  sit  on  the 
right  hand  and  on  the  left  hand  '  of  their  triumphant  Lord  was  to 
be  given  only  to  those  for  whom  it  was  prepared. 

After  the  Agony  in  the  garden  we  lose  sight  of  James,  except 
as  a  member  of  the  apostolate,  until  in  Acts  xiii.  2  we  read  that 
'  Herod  the  king  '  (Agrippa  I.)  '  stretched  forth  his  hands  to  vex 
certain  of  the  church,  and  killed  James  the  brother  of  John  with 
the  sword.'  This  probably  happened  in  a.d.  44,  and  tradition 
relates  that  the  bearing  of  James  at  his  martyrdom  was  so  bold 
and  unshrinking  that  one  of  his  accusers  was  moved  by  his  aspect 
to  declare  himself  a  Christian,  for  which  offence  he  was  at  once 
executed  in  company  with  the  apostle. 

2.  James  the  son  of  Alphasus  or  Clopas.  It  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  names  Alphseus  and  Clopas  are  only  two  forms  of 
the  same  Hebrew  name,  and  it  is  also  probable  that  Mary,  the  wife 
of  Clopas,  who  stood  by  the  cross  of  Jesus  (Matt,  xxvii.  56  ;  Mark 
XV.  40 ;  John  xix.  25),  was  the  same  as  the  mother  of  James  the 
Little  (A.  V.  '  the  Less ')  and  Joses.  Hence  James  the  son  of 
Alphseus  must  be  regarded  as  identical  with  James  the  Little. 
But  whether  this  James  is  the  same  with  James  the  Lord's 
brother,  and  James  the  brother  of  Jude,  is  a  question  which  has 
been  argued  with  extreme  skill  and  tenacity  on  both  sides.  Alford 
and  Davidson  strongly  deny  the  identity,  while  Mr.  Meyrick,  in 
an  elaborate  article  in  Smith's  '  Bible  Dictionary,'  as  strongly 
asserts  it.  Referring  to  these  writers  for  more  complete  informa- 
tion, we  shall  here  assume  that  James  the  Lord's  brother  is  dis- 
tinct from  James  the  Little,  son  of  Alphaeus  or  Clopas.  We  shall 
also  assume  that  James  the  brother  of  Jude  is  identical  with  James 
the  Lord's  brother,  or  James  'the  servant  of  God  and  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ '  and  author  of  the  epistle. 

James,  the  son  of  Alphseus,  or  Clopas  (see  under  Alphceus'),  only 
appears  in  the  lists  of  the  apostles,  given  in  Matt.  x.  3 ;  Mark  iii. 
18;  Luke  vi.  15;  Acts  i.  13.  His  mother's  name,  as  has  been 
seen,  was  Mary,  and  (possibly  to  distinguish  him  from  James  the 


JAMES.  369 

son  of  Zebedee)  he  had  the  surname  of  'The  Little  '  (6  fUKpSg,  Mark 
XV.  40).  The  arguraent  from  the  construction  of  John  xix.  25 
('  There  stood  by  the  cross  of  Jesus  his  mother,  and  his  mother's 
sister,  Mary  the  wife  of  Cleophas  (Gr.  Clapas),  and  Mary  Magda- 
lene '),  that  Mary,  the  wife  of  Clopas,  must  have  been  the  sister  of 
the  Virgin  Mary  seems  not  altogether  convincing.  The  four  names 
here  mentioned  may  be  arranged  in  two  pairs,  each  pair  united  by 
the  conjunction  'and,'  just  as  in  the  lists  of  the  apostles  we  find 
*  Simon,  who  is  called  Peter,  and  Andrew  his  brother ;  James  the 
son  of  Zebedee  and  John  his  brother,'  &c.     See  under  Mary. 

3.  James  the  brother  of  our  Lord.  Who  were  the  brethren  of 
the  Lord  ?  Various  answers  have  been  given  to  this  question. 
Some  suppose  that  they  were  the  cousins  of  our  Lord,  the  children 
of  Alphseus,  or  Clopas,  and  Mary,  a  sister  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
The  objections  to  this  view  are — 1.  The  improbability  of  two 
sisters  having  the  same  name.  2.  The  unreasonableness  (to  use  a 
gentle  term)  of  supposing  our  Lord's  cousins  to  be  called  his 
brothers.  3.  The  fact  that  his  brethren  did  not  believe  on  our 
Lord,  a  statement  which  would  have  been  at  least  partially  untrue 
if  two  of  his  brethren  were  among  his  apostles.  Others  suppose 
that  the  brethren  of  the  Lord  were  children  born  to  Joseph  and 
Mary  after  our  Lord's  birth.  But  if  so,  why  did  our  Lord  on  the 
cross  deliver  his  mother  into  the  care  of  John,  and  not  to  one  of 
her  own  children  ?  Finally,''it  has  been  supposed  that  the  brethren 
of  our  Lord  were  the  children  of  Joseph  by  a  former  wife,  and 
therefore  were  all  older  than  Jesus.  This  would  to  a  great 
extent  explain  their  conduct  towards  Him,  and  account  also  for  the 
desolate  condition  of  the  Virgin  at  the  time  of  the  crucifixion,  as 
well  as  be  in  accordance  with  tradition,  which  has  always  repre- 
sented Joseph  as  an  elderly  man  at  the  time  of  his  marriage  with 
Mary. 

Assuming,  then,  that  James  the  brother  of  our  Lord  was  one  of 
the  four  '  brethren  of  the  Lord '  ('  James,  Joses,  Judas,  and 
Simon,'  Matt.  xiii.  55 j,  he  probably  joined  with  his  brethren  at 
first  in  want  of  belief  in  our  Lord's  Messiahship.  This  want  of 
belief  took  an  active  form  at  first,  and  on  one  occasion  the  '  friends ' 
of  our  Lord  even  endeavoured  to  put  Him  under  personal  restraint, 
on  the  ground  that  He  was  'beside  himself  (Mark  iii.  21). 
Further  on,  their  opposition  was  not  so  marked.  We  find  the 
'  brethren,'  with  the  mother  of  our  Lord,  standing  without  while 
Jesus  is  teaching  within,  and  assuming  a  somewhat  deferential 
attitude  (Matt.  xii.  46-50  j  Mark  iii.  31-35;  Luke  viii.  19-21). 


370       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Later  still,  their  opposition  dwindles  to  a  doubt  only  half  expressed, 
and  an  invitation  to  manifest  Himself  publicly  in  Jerusalem  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  in  the  autumn  of  a.d.  29.  Ultimately,  the 
'  brethren  of  the  Lord  '  are  distinctly  numbered  amongst  the  dis- 
ciples (Acts  i.  14  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  5).  By  what  means  their  views  were 
changed  does  not  appear,  but  that  the  change  in  James  was  con- 
spicuous is  evident  from  Gal.  i.  19  (compare  Acts  ix.  27),  in  which 
St.  Paul  speaks  of  finding  him  among  the  apostles  when  he  visited 
Jerusalem  ('But  other  of  the  apostles  saw  I  none,  save  (el  fit)) 
James  the  Lord's  brother.'  In  this  text  it  has  been  proposed  to 
take  a*  fit)  Ra  =  but,  as  in  Gal.  i.  7 ;  but  a'  fit)  never  has  this  force, 
and  there  is  much  reason  for  supposing  the  real  meaning  of  Gal. 
i.  7  to  be  '  which  is  nothing  else  except  that,'  &c.).  This  circum- 
stance, of  course,  makes  strongly  for  the  identification  of  James  the 
Lord's  brother  and  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus,  but  (see  above) 
such  a  supposition  introduces  still  greater  difiiculties.  Olshausen 
supposes  that  when  James  the  son  of  Zebedee  was  slain,  James 
the  Lord's  brother  succeeded  to  his  position  and  influence,  in 
right  of  his  close  relationship  to  our  Lord.  At  any  rate,  James, 
Cephas,  and  John  are  spoken  of  by  St.  Paul  in  Gal.  ii.  9  as  seem- 
ing '  to  be  pillars  (rrryXot),'  and  in  the  parallel  passage  to  this  in 
Act  XV.  James  appears  as  the  president  of  the  council  held  at 
Jerusalem  to  decide  on  the  application  of  Jewish  law  to  the 
Gentiles,  and  as  the  person  who  sums  up  the  opinion  of  that 
council. 

James,  again,  is  the  person  to  whom  Peter  on  his  deliverance 
from  prison  requests  that  information  may  be  immediately  given 
(Acts  xii.  17).  In  Gal.  ii.  12  certain  persons  are  spoken  of  as 
coming  'from  James'  to  Antioch,  and  there  leading  Peter  to  a 
doubtful  course  of  conduct  with  respect  to  Mosaic  ordinances. 
This  clearly  shows  the  great  influence  of  James,  and  the  same 
conception  of  his  position  is  borne  out  in  the  last  notice  of  him  in 
the  New  Testament,  where  Paul,  on  his  final  arrival  at  Jerusalem, 
goes  in  '  unto  James,  and  all  the  elders  were  present '  (Acts  xxi. 
18). 

From  1  Cor.  ix.  6  ('  have  we  not  power  to  lead  about  a  sister,  a 
wife  {ahX(piiv  yvvalKa  Trtpidytiv),  as  well  as  Other  apostles,  and  the 
brethren  of  the  Lord,  and  Cephas '),  it  appears  that  James  was  a 
married  man. 

No  further  information  as  to  James  is  supplied  by  the  New 
Testament.  Tradition,  however,  informs  us  that  he  was  regarded 
as  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  that  he  was  surnamed  the  Just  j 


JANNA— JASON.  371 

and  Hegesippus  is  quoted  by  Eusebius  as  describing  his  death  by 
stoning.  The  account  of  his  death  given  by  Josephus  is  diflferent, 
but  on  this  matter  see  Section  1,  p.  43. 

The  Epistle  of  St.  James  is  addressed  to  Jews,  and  declared  to 
be  written  by  '  James,  a  servant  of  God,  andof  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ' 
(Jas.  i.  1),  nor  can  there  be  any  reasonable  doubt  for  supposing 
that  the  wi-iter  was  identical  with  James  the  Just.  The  Epistle 
of  Jude  is  also  declared  to  be  written  by  '  Jude,  the  servant  of 
Jesus  Christ,  and  brother  of  James.'  Probably,  unless  this  James 
had  been  James  the  Just,  whose  name  was  peculiarly  well  known, 
some  other  mark  of  distinction  would  have  been  added.  Assuming 
that  James  and  Jude,  the  authors  of  the  epistles,  were  the  brethren 
of  the  Lord,  their  silence  on  their  relationship  may  well  be  ascribed, 
and  has  been  ascribed,  to  modesty  and  unwillingness  to  put  forward 
any  apparent  claim  to  superiority  over  their  brethren.  In  support 
of  this,  it  may  be  further  noticed  that  neither  James  the  son  of 
Alphgeus  nor  James  the  son  of  Zebedee  is  ever  mentioned  with- 
out some  addition  to  his  name,  sufficient  to  distinguish  him  from 
any  other  James. 

Janna  ['lai'va,  Jamia],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  son  of 
Joseph,  and  father  of  Melchi  (Luke  iii.  24). 

Jannes  [^lavuriQ,  Jannes],  coupled  with  Jambres  in  2  Tim.  iii.  8 
(^As  Jannes  and  Jambres  withstood  Moses,  so  do  these  also  resist  the 
truth  ').  Jannes  and  Jambres  are  supposed  to  be  the  names  of  two 
of  the  Egyptian  magicians,  who  endeavoured  to  resist  Moses  and 
Aaron  before  Pharaoh,  and  to  imitate  their  miracles.  A  Jewish 
tradition  states  that,  failing  to  offer  a  successful  resistance,  they 
confessed  that  the  power  of  God  was  with  their  opponents.  Hiller 
states  that  the  names  are  of  Abyssinian  origin,  and  that  Jannes 
=  trickster,  and  Jambres  =  juggler. 

Jared  [^T).1  =  descent,  'lapiS,  Jared],  the  son  of  ]Mahalaleel,  and 
father  of  Enoch,  and  hence  sixth  in  descent  from  Adam  (Gen.  v. 
15,  18,  19,  20,  where  his  age  at  death  is  given  at  962  years).  He 
appears  in  the  genealogy  of  Luke  iii.  37. 

Jason  ['Idaojv,  Jason],  a  Christian  of  Thessalonica.  He  appears 
to  have  been  a  substantial  person,  as  the  authorities  of  Thessalonica 
were  willing  to  accept  his  security  for  the  peace.  He  received 
Paul  and  Silas,  on  Paul's  second  missionary  journey,  and 
when  a  tumult  was  raised  in  Thessalonica,  by  the  unbeliev- 
ing Jews,  he  secreted  them.  An  attack  was  made  on  his 
house,  and  Jason  himseif,  with  '  certain  brethren,'  were  brought 
before  the    authorities    (rovg    -KokiTapxaQ — see    under    Thcssalo- 

bb2 


372       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

nica),  but  dismissed  on  giving  security.  In  Eom.  xvi.  21, 
Jason  is  again  mentioned  as  saluting  the  Roman  Church,  and  as 
it  is  pretty  certain  that  this  epistle  was  written  at  Corinth,  five 
or  six  years  later  than  St.  Paul's  visit  to  Thessalonica,  either  this 
Jason  is  another  person  or  he  may  have  joined  St.  Paul.  That 
the  two  Jasons  are  identical  seems  more  probable  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  Jason  of  Kom.  xvi.  21  is  described  as  St. 
Paul's  kinsman  {(rvyyevijg),  and  his  conduct  at  Thessalonica  is  upon 
this  supposition  easily  explained. 

Jechonias  ['Uxoviag,  Jeconias].  A  name  found  in  Matt.  i. 
11,  12  ('  Josias  begat  Jechonias  and  his  brethren,  about  the  time 
they  were  carried  away  to  Babylon  ;  and  after  they  were  brought 
to  Babylon,  Jechonias  begat  Salathiel ').  From  a  comparison  of 
this  passage  with  the  Old  Testament,  it  is  probable  that  the 
Jechonias  of  verse  11  represents  Eliakim,  the  son  of  Josiah,  whom 
Pharaoh-Necho  made  king  in  Josiah's  stead,  changing  his  name  to 
Jehoiakim  (p*'\>*!\\\\  =  whom  Jehovah  has  setup).  He  reigned  B.C. 
6J  0-599,  and  his  history  is  contained  in  2  Kings  xxiv.  34 — xxv. 
6,  and  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  4-8.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Jechonias 
of  verse  12  represents  Jehoiachin  (pDjini  =  ivhom  Jehovah  has 
established),  son  of  Jehoiakim,  who,  after  reigning  a  short  time 
after  his  father's  death,  was  deposed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of 
Babylon,  and  taken  to  Babylon ;  his  uncle  Mattaniah,  or  Zedekiah, 
being  made  king  in  his  stead.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  in 
Babylon  he  was  kindly  treated,  but  never  restored  to  the  throne. 
His  history  is  to  Tae  found  in  2  Kings  xxiv.  6-16 ;  xxv.  27-30, 
and  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9,  10.  Dean  Alford  states  that  this  double 
meaning  of  '  Jeconias '  is  '  contrary  to  usage,'  but  Bishop  Hervey 
quotes  Jerome,  Clement  Alex.,  Ambrose,  and  others,  as  accepting 
it,  and  very  aptly  refers  to  1  Esdras  i.  37,  43,  as  presenting  exactly 
the  same  double  identification  ('  The  king  of  Egypt  bound  Joacim^ 
.  .  .  And  Joacim  his  son  reigned  in  his  stead  '). 

Jeplithae  [nriD'',  =  who7n  God  sets  free,  'Upeas,  Jephte"],  a  judge 
of  Israel,  called  in  Old  Testament  Jephthah.  He  was  a  Gileadite, 
an  illegitimate  son  of  Gideon.  His  exploits  are  recounted  in 
Judges  xi.  1-xii.  7,  whence  it  appears  that  he  delivered  his  coun- 
try from  the  Ammonites,  and  was  also  successful  against  the 
Ephraimites,  who  attacked  him  on  the  pretext  of  having  neglected 
to  seek  their  aid  against  the  people  of  Ammon.  His  contest  with 
the  Ephraimites  was  rendered  peculiarly  notorious  by  the  device 
employed   by   him  to   detect  them  in  their  retreat  after    the 


JECHONIAS— JEKEmAS.  373 

battle.  Takiiig  possession  of  the  fords  of  Jordan,  over  wLich 
the  defeated  Ephraiinites  were  compelled  to  pass,  he  forced 
each  passenger  to  pronounce  the  word  Shibboleth  ( =  a  sfrea7n), 
which  the  Ephraimites  called  Sibboleth.  But  the  most  remark- 
able circumstance  of  his  life  is  his  sacrifice  of  his  daughter,  in 
pursuance  of  a  vow  made  by  him,  when  setting  forth  against  the 
Ammonites,  that  if  he  returned  victorious,  he  would  offer  up  for 
a  burnt-offering  whatsoever  (or  whosoever)  should  first  meet  him. 
His  daughter  being  the  first  to  meet  him,  fell  a  victim  to  this 
rash  vow.  Some  indeed  have  thought  that  actual  sacrifice  was 
commuted  for  perpetual  celibacy,  but  this  is  at  best  conjectural. 
In  Heb.  xi.  32,  Jephthse  is  mentioned  among  the  worthies  who 
through  faith  did  mighty  works ;  but  though  this  is  the  case,  it 
does  not  follow  that  every  act  of  Jephthse  is  thereby  approved  of. 
Many  acts  of  Jacob,  Gideon,  Samson,  and  others,  who  are  also 
there  mentioned  as  working  through  faith  on  certain  occasions, 
were  exceedingly  reprehensible. 

Jeremias  (Matt.  xvi.  14),  or  Jeremy  (Matt.  ii.  17 ;  xxvii.  9) 
[n^P")";  or  •in^jp*!''.  «=  exalted  or  ajjjjointed  hy  the  Lord,  'Itptn'uiQ, 
Jereynias],  ©ne  of  the  four  greater  prophets.  He  was  '  the  son  of 
Hilkiah,  of  the  priests  that  were  in  Anathoth '  (i.  1),  a  town  about 
three  miles  from  Jerusalem,  and  was  a  child  in  the  thirteenth 
year  of  Josiah  (b.c.  628),  when  he  received  his  prophetic  call. 
During  the  eighteen  years  of  his  work  before  the  death  of  Josiah, 
his  appearances  seem  to  have  been  only  casual,  and  he  took  no 
part  in  the  extraordinary  reformation  of  Josiah's  eighteenth  year. 
After  the  death  of  Josiah,  followed  three  months  after  by  the  de- 
position of  his  successor  Jehoahaz,  or  Shallum,  Jeremiah  became 
more  prominent.  During  the  troubles  which  now  ensued,  and  until 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  586,  he  appears  as  the  consistent  ad- 
vocate of  resistance  to  Egypt,  and  prophet  of  approaching  sub- 
mission to  the  Chaldaeans.  Under  these  circumstances,  as  might 
be  expected,  he  experienced  the  greatest  indignities,  and  was  fre- 
quently in  danger  of  his  life. 

The  Book  of  Lamentations  sets  forth  the  feelings  of  the  prophet 
after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  He  himseE  remained  in  the  city 
for  a  while,  under  the  protection  of  its  Chaldaean  masters,  and  for 
a  while  there  was  an  interval  of  peace.  At  length  this  was  put 
an  end  to  by  the  massacre  of  Gedaliah,  the  governor,  which  was 
followed  by  the  withdrawal  of  a  large  number  of  the  Jews  to 
Egypt,   taking  with  them  by  force    Jeremiah  and  his  disciple 


374       ESSENTIAXS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Baruch.      Beyond  this  nothing  is  known  with  certainty  of  the 

prophet's  fate.     A  Christian  tradition  declares  that  he  was  at  last 

stoned  to  death  by  the  Jews  of  Tahpanhes,  in  Egypt,  the  place  to 

which  he  was  carried 

to  this  circumstance. 

Glares  that,  in  company  with  Baruch,  he  escaped  to  Babylon  and 

there  died. 

Only  three  references  to  Jeremiah  occur  in  the  New  Testament. 
In  one,  the  disciples  tell  our  Lord,  in  answer  to  his  question,  *  Whom 
say  men  that  1  am  ?',  '  Some  say  John  the  Baptist ;  some  Elias  ; 
and  others  Jeremias,  or  one  of  the  prophets  '  (Matt.  .xvi.  14).  In 
the  other  two,  reference  is  only  made  to  Jeremiah  as  a  prophet ; 
*  Then  was  fulfilled  that  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremy  the  pro- 
phet, saying,  In  Rama  was  there  a  voice  heard,  lamentation,  and 
weeping,  and  great  mourning ;  Rachel  w&eping  for  her  children, 
and  would  not  be  comforted,  because  they  are  not'  (Matt.  ii.  17, 
18);  '  Then  was  fulfilled  that  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremy  the 
prophet,  saying.  And  they  took  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  the 
price  of  him  that  was  valued,  whom  they  of  the  children  of  Israel 
did  value ;  and  gave  them  for  the  potter's  field,  as  the  Lord  ap- 
pointed me  '  (Matt,  xxvii.  9,  10).  The  former  prophecy  is  very 
exactly  quoted  from  the  Hebrew  of  Jer.  xxxi.  15.  The  other 
prophecy  is  really  taken  from  Zech.  xi.  12,  13.  Many  MSS.,  in 
fact,  omit  '  Jeremias '  after  the  words  '  the  prophet.'  But  as- 
suming that  the  words  should  be  as  in  the  Received  Text,  two 
explanations  may  be  offered.  Lightfoot  considers  that,  since  the 
Book  of  Zechariah  is  included  in  that  portion  of  the  sacred  canon 
which  begins  with  Jeremiah,  it  is  here  called  by  that  name. 
Others  consider  that  the  words  were  originally  Jeremiah's  (compare 
Jer.  xix.  11-13),  and  were  cited  and  enlarged  by  Zechariah.  On 
this  point  see  Dr.  Lee's  'Inspiration  of  Scripture,'  Lect.  vii., 
p.  339. 

Jericbo  [in^^  =  citj/  of  the  moon,  'lepixM,  but  Strabo  and  Josephus 
'UpLxovg,  Jericho],  a  city  lying  about  fifteen  miles  east  of  Jerusalem, 
and  nearly  opposite  the  lower  fords  of  Jordan.  It  is  now  called 
Eriha,  but  its  present  condition  is  very  humble  compared  with  its 
former  magnificence.  The  Old  Testament  history  of  this  city  is 
important  and  interesting.  It  was  the  first  city  captured  by  the 
Israelites  on  their  entrance  into  Canaan.  The  story  of  its  capture, 
including  the  episode  of  the  harlot  Rahab,  is  recounted  in  Josh, 
ii.,  vi.,  and  referred  to  in  Heb.  xi.  30,  31  ('  By  faith  the  walls  of 
Jericho  fell  down,  after  they  were  compassed  about  seven  days. 


JERICHO— JERUSALEM.  375 

By  faith  the  harlot  Rahab  perished  not  with  them  that  believed 
not,  when  she  had  received  the  spies  with  peace ').  After  its 
destruction  Joshua  pronounced  this  curse  upon  it — '  Cursed  be  the 
man  before  the  Lord  that  riseth  up  and  buildeth  this  city  Jericho ; 
he  shall  lay  the  foundation  thereof  in  his  firstborn,  and  in  his 
youngest  son  shall  he  set  up  the  gates  thereof '  (Josh.  vi.  26). 
Deterred  by  this,  no  one  ventured  to  rebuild  the  desolated  city  until 
the  time  of  Ahab  (b.c.  929),  when  Hiel  the  Bethelite  entered 
upon  the  task,  and  *  laid  the  foundation  thereof  in  Abiram  his 
firstborn  and  set  up  the  gates  thereof  in  his  youngest  son  Segub, 
according  to  the  word  of  the  Lord,  which  he  spake  by  Joshua,  the 
son  of  Nun '  (1  Kings  xvi.  34).  The  city,  thus  rebuilt,  became 
once  more  important,  and  many  references  to  it  occur  in  Old 
Testament  history.  In  New  Testament  times  it  was  a  city  of 
considerable  magnificence,  and  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  its 
situation  were  so  proverbial  that  it  received  the  title  of '  The  City 
of  Palms.'  Here  also  was  (and  is)  a  celebrated  medicinal  fountain. 
Herod  the  Great  enriched  it  with  many  splendid  buildings,  fre- 
quently resided  there,  and  there  died.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord  it 
was  the  head-quarters  of  the  revenue  department,  and  hence  the 
road  between  Jerusalem  and  Jericho  was  infested  with  highway 
robbers,  a  circumstance  which  gave  point  to  the  parable  of  the 
traveller  who  *  went  down  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho,'  and,  falling 
among  thieves,  was  rescued  by  the  Good  Samaritan  (Luke  x. 
30-37).  It  lay  also  on  the  direct  road  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
Jordan  valley  to  Jerusalem,  and  hence  our  Lord,  ascending  from 
Peraea  to  Jerusalem,  passed  through  Jericho.  Here  He  healed 
Bartimseus  and  his  companion ;  and  here  He  was  entertained  by 
Zacchseus,  the  chief  of  the  publicans,  who  resided  in  the  town. 
(Matt.  XX.  20-34;  Mark  x.  35-52;  Luke  xviii.  35-xix.  11). 
Here  also,  in  the  company  of  persons  whose  employment  was 
about  money,  the  parable  of  The  Pounds  was  fittingly  spoken 
(Luke  xix.  12-27).  Of  the  subsequent  history  of  the  city  little  is 
known.  It  was  certainly  destroyed  under  the  Romans,  but  by  whom 
and  when  is  doubtful,  and  it  is  now  only  a  very  inferior  town.  The 
palm-trees  and  mulberry-figs  (or  sycamores)  of  its  plain  have  also 
ceased  to  exist,  but  many  architectural  remains  still  testify  to  its 
former  splendour. 

Jerusalem  [D??^-'!")";,  but  more  commonly  D^K^-n^.  =  the  possession 
of  peace  (Ewald),  or  home  of  peace  (Gesenius)  ;  'Ifpocr6\u/ia  (so  in 
Matthew,  Mark,  and  John  always,  except  Matt,  xxiii.  37  and  Mark 
xi.  1,  but  in  Luke  sometimes  'UpovaaXqfi.     The  Greek  'l<?poa6\vfia 


376        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

is  regarded  as  a  neuter  plural,  just  as  the  Hebrew  word  is  a  dual 
form ;  and  some  writers  consider  that  when  Jerusalem  is  spoken 
of  as  a  city  under  heathen  domination  'UpoaoKvua  is  used;  whereas 
the  ancient  Hebrew  and  the  spiritual  Jerusalems  are  represented 
by  'ItpovffaXrjfx :   but  this  statement,  however  interesting*,  cannot 


be  received  without  considerable  qualifications),  Jerosolyma, 
modern  name  El  Xodesh  =  the  Holy  (city)],  the  principal  city  of 
Palestine.  To  recount  its  history  in  Old  Testament  times  in  detail 
is  far  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work.  The  utmost  which  can  be 
here  attempted  is  to  give  a  short  sketch  of  so  much  of  its  topo- 


A  N  C  J  E  N  T 

JlIOJMllM. 


S       c       o 


]1       u       s 


1»# 


JERUSALEM.  377 

graphy  and  history  as  will  illustrate  its  condition  in  the  time  of 
our  Lord. 

Jerusalem  (north  lat.  31°  46',  east  long.  35°  18')  is  situated 
towards  the  south  of  Palestine,  in  that  part  which  was  originally- 
allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  nearly  on  the  southern 
border  of  that  tribe.  In  the  New  Testament  times  it  occupied  a 
central  position  in  the  Roman  province  of  Judaea.  Its  distance  in 
a  straight  line  from  the  Mediterranean  is  about  thirty  miles,  and 
from  the  Dead  Sea  about  twenty  miles.  From  these  two  seas  the 
land  rises  to  a  central  ridge,  upon  which  the  city  stands,  at  an 
elevation  (at  its  highest  point,  viz.  the  north-west)  of  about 
2,o80  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  and  3,580  above  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  actual  site  of  the  city  is  an  undulating  table-land,  at 
present  unmarked  by  any  considerable  depressions,  but  formerly 
divided  from  north  to  south  by  a  valley,  known  as  the  Tyropoean 
valley.  On  the  east,  south  and  west  of  the  city  are  ravines  (that 
on  the  east  named  Kidron  or  Cedron  or  JehoshajjJiat,  those  on  the 
south  and  west  named  Hinnom  or  Tojjhet)  of  from  200  to  400  feet 
in  depth.  On  the  north,  the  ground  slopes  away  gradually.  To 
the  east,  on  the  far  side  of  the  Kidron  ravine,  stands  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  rising  to  an  elevation  of  2,724  feet,  or  144  feet  above 
the  highest  point  of  the  city.  The  ravines  are  drained  by  streams 
which  unite  at  the  south-east  corner  (En-rogel  ?),  and  carry  off 
their  waters  to  the  Dead  Sea. 

Jerusalem  first  appears  in  the  Bible  as  the  capital  of  Adoni- 
zedek,  a  king  of  the  Amorites  conquered  by  Joshua  (Josh.  x.  1-27), 
but  Jewish  tradition  identifies  '  the  Land  of  Moriah/  where 
Abraham  was  directed  to  offer  up  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  2),  and  Salem, 
of  which  Melchisedek  was  king  (Gen.  xiv.  IS),  with  this  city. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Samaritan  tradition,  in  which  many  con- 
cur, supports  Mount  Gerizim  as  the  locality  of  Isaac's  offering, 
and  Salim,  near  yEnon,  as  the  city  of  Melchisedek. 

From  Josh.  xv.  8,  63 ;  xviii.  28 ;  Judges  i.  21 ;  xix.  10 ;  2  Sam. 
V.  6,  it  appears  that  another  name  for  Jerusalem  was  Jehus, 
and  that  the  tribes  of  the  Jebusites  (probably  a  subordinate 
division  of  the  Amorites)  inhabited  the  town.  After  its  capture  by 
Joshua,  these  Jebusites  still  continued  to  dwell  with  the  Israelites 
in  the  city,  and  held  the  '  stronghold  of  Zion,'  which  some  suppose 
to  signify  the  western  hill  above  mentioned,  and  others  to  be  a 
fortress  on  the  northern  side  of  the  temple.  Whatever  this 
'  stronghold  of  Zion  '  may  be,  it  is  clear  that  David  got  complete 
possession  of  both  hills.     The  western  hill  then  became  '  the  city 


378        ESSENTIALS   OF    NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

of  David/  and  on  the  eastern  hill  were  built,  in  due  course,  the 
palace  and  Temple  of  Solomon,  the  two  portions  of  the  city  being 
united  by  a  circumscribing  wall. 

In  the  time  of  Herod  the  Great,  many  changes  had  been  made. 
The  valley  still  existed  between  the  eastern  and  western  hills,  and 
the  eastern  hill  was  still  occupied  by  the  Temple.  But  the 
Temple  was  now  in  reality  a  strong  fortress,  connected  with  the 
Upper  City  by  a  bridge  across  the  Tyropoean  valley,  and  on  the 
north-western  corner  of  the  temple  platform  a  tower  called 
Antonia  had  been  erected.  This  was  the  '  castle  (7rapfixf3n\7j)  '  of 
Acts  xxii.  24.  It  was  united  with  the  Temple  buildings  by  a 
cloister,  and  from  its  upper  windows  all  that  went  on  in  the  Temple 
could  be  observed.  The  ancient  wall  still  surrounded  the  town 
on  the  western  hill,  called  the  Upper  City,  and  united  it  with  the 
Lower  City  on  the  eastern  hill,  while  another  wall  enclosed  an 
additional  space  to  the  north.  In  this  Upper  (or  Western)  City, 
were  the  palace  of  Herod,  at  the  north-west  corner,  the  old 
Asmonaean  palace  opposite  the  Temple,  and  three  strong  towers, 
called  Hippicus,  Phaselus,  and  Mariamne.  To  the  north  stretched 
an  entirely  new  city,  called  Bezetha,  which  in  the  time  of  our  Lord 
was  undefended,  but  was  afterwards  covered  by  a  wall,  whose  erec- 
tion was  commenced  in  a.d.  45.  Between  Bezetha,  and  the  other 
portions  of  the  city  to  the  south,  there  was  probably  a  slight  valley. 

Such  being  the  general  aspect  and  configuration  of  the  city,  it 
remains  to  enquire  as  to  the  exact  position  of  various  localities 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  narrative.  A  few  of  these  are 
well  ascertained.  77*6  Pool  of  Siloam  still  exists  to  the  south  of 
the  city,  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom.  The 
Pool  of  Bethesda  is  similarly  identified  with  considerable  certainty 
with  a  large  reservoir,  to  the  north  of  the  Temple.  Gethsemone 
must  have  been  near  the  pathway  leading  to  Bethany,  and  i5t  the 
Kidron  valley. 

With  regard  to  any  other  spots,  it  seems  impossible  now  to 
identify  them  with  any  certainty.  Various  Holy  Places  are  now 
shown  in  Jerusalem  ;  the  road  by  which  our  Saviour  went  with 
his  cross,  the  place  of  crucifixion,  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  so  on, 
have  been  all  localised.  But  no  credit  can  be  attached  to  any  of 
these  localisations;  and  Mr.  Ferguson  has  lately  argued,  with 
some  force,  that  the  place  of  execution  (or  Golgotha)  was  some- 
where on  the  eastern  side  of  the  open  space  now  called  the  Haram, 
in  which  the  Temple  used  to  stand,  and  that  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
is  actually  covered  by  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  which  now  stands  in 


JERUSALEM.  379 

that  space.  The  arguments  by  which  these  notions  are  supported 
may  be  seen  in  Smith's '  Bible  Dictionary ; '  but  they  do  not  amount 
to  more  than  showing  that  such  an  arrangement  of  the  Holy  Places 
is  not  absolutely  impossible.  On  the  other  hand,  recent  publica- 
tions of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  throw  great  doubt  on  the 
accuracy  of  Mr,  Ferguson's  views. 

The  difficulty  of  thus  identifying  what  must  have  been  well- 
known  sites  arises  from  the  circumstance  that  Jerusalem  has  been 
several  times  more  or  less  completely  destroyed  since  the  time  of 
our  Lord.  After  innumerable  troubles  and  conflicts,  the  city  was 
finally  besieged  and  taken  by  the  Roman  general  Titus,  afterwards 
emperor,  in  a.d.  70.  He  assaulted  the  town  from  the  north,  and 
captured  in  succession,  first  Bezetha,  then  the  Temple  (which  was 
accidentally  destroyed  by  fire)  and  the  fortress  of  Antonia,  then 
the  Lower  City,  which  lay  in  the  Tyropoean  valley,  and,  finally, 
the  Upper  City,  on  the  western  Hill.  After  this,  ail  that  was  left 
of  the  city  was  demolished,  with  the  exception  of  the  western 
wall,  and  Herod's  three  towers  at  the  north-west  corner.  In  the 
time  of  Hadrian  (a.d.  136)  these  ruins  were  further  obliterated  by 
levelling  and  ploughing  over  the  site  of  the  city,  and  a  new  Roman 
city  was  built,  called  ^Elia  Capitolina.  A  temple  to  Capitoline 
Jupiter  was  erected  on  the  Temple  site,  in  which  a  statue  of 
Hadrian  was  erected  on  the  spot  occupied  by  the  Holy  of  Holies ; 
the  worship  of  Serapis  was  also  introduced,  Jews  were  forbidden 
to  reside,  and  every  effort  was  made  to  completely  change  the  insti- 
tutions and  traditions  of  the  place.  This  continued  until  the  time 
of  Constantine,  who  in  a.d.  325  swept  away  all  heathen  buildings 
and  erected  a  Martyrion,  or  Church  of  the  Crucifixion,  on  a  spot 
where  a  portion  of  the  cross  was  supposed  to  have  been  found, 
and  the  church  of  the  Anastasis,  which  Mr.  Ferguson  considers  to 
be  now  represented  by  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  but  which  is  claimed 
by  others  as  being  represented  by  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  Thirty  years  later,  Julian  the  apostate  conceived  the 
idea  of  rebuilding  the  Jewish  temple,  but  his  design  was  brought 
to  an  end  by  an  outbreak  of  fire,  which  most  persons  have  regarded 
as  a  judgment  of  God  upon  the  attempt  to  falsify  our  Lord's  pre- 
dictions. Since  this  period  Jerusalem  has  been  successively  in 
the  hands  of  the  Persians  (who  assaulted  and  partially  destroyed 
it  again  in  a.d.  614),  the  Arabs  (under  the  calif  Omar,  who  seized 
it  in  A.D.  637),  the  Crusaders  of  the  West  (a.d.  1099-1187),  the 
Saracens,  and  the  Turks,  who  now  possess  it. 

The  principal  events  narrated  in  the  New  Testament  as  oc- 


380        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

curring  at  Jerusalem  are :  The  Annunciation  to  Zacbarias  of  the 
birth  of  John  the  Baptist  •  The  Presentation  of  our  Lord  in  the 
Temple ;  The  visit  of  our  Lord  to  the  Temple  when  twelve  years 
old :  Our  Lord's  cleansing  of  the  Temple  at  the  passover  of  a.d,  28, 
and  conversation  with  Nicodemus ;  Healing  of  the  lame  man  at 
the  pool  of  Bethesda ;  Latter  part  of  our  Lord's  ministry,  from  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  October,  a.d.  29,  together  with  the  Passion, 
Crucifixion,  Death,  and  Resurrection ;  Our  Lord's  Ascension  (near 
Bethany,  in  the  neighbourhood) ;  All  the  incidents  recorded  in 
Acts  i.-vii. ;  Death  of  James,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  imprison- 
ment of  Peter  (Acts  xii.) ;  Visits  of  St.  Paul  to  Jerusalem,  and 
decision  of  a  council  there  on  the  obligation  of  the  Mosaic  law  on 
Gentile  Christians. 

Finally,  a  Jerusalem  of  the  future  appears  in  the  New  Testament. 
Such  is  the  designation  of  the  city  of  the  redeemed,  which  the 
apostle  John  saw  descending  out  of  heaven  upon  earth  (Rev.  iii. 
12 ;  xxi,  10-27),  and  which  the  apostle  Paul  regards  as  at  present 
existing,  the  spiritual  home  of  true  believers  (^  Jerusalem  which 
is  above  is  free,'  Gal.  iv.  26  j  'Ye  are  come  unto  Mount  Sion,  and 
unto  the  city  of  the  living  God,  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,'  Heb. 
xii.  22 ;  '  Here  have  we  no  continuing  city,  but  we  seek  one  to 
come,'  Heb.  xiii.  14). 

Jesse  ['^l^\  =  wealthy  ? ,  'litrcral,  Jesse'],  the  father  of  David.  He 
was  a  Bethlehemite,  descended  through  Boaz  and  Ruth  the 
3Ioabitess  from  Pharez,  the  son  of  Judah  by  Tamar  (Ruth  iv. 
18-22 ;  Gen.  xxxviii.  29),  and  '  went  for  an  old  man  in  the  time  of 
Saul.'  He  had  eight  sons,  of  whom  the  youngest  was  David,  and 
two  daughters  (Abigail  and  Zeruiah),  and  the  tradition  is  that  he 
was  a  weaver  of  the  veils  necessary  for  the  sanctuary;  but  he 
possessed  sheep  and  goats,  and  may  have  been  in  comfortable 
circumstances.  He  was  removed  by  David,  at  the  time  of  his 
persecution  by  Saul,  into  the  country  of  the  Moabites,  who 
received  him  kindly,  and  nothing  more  is  known  of  him.  Abigail, 
being  also  called  the  daughter  of  Nahash,  some  have  supposed 
Nahash  to  be  another  name  for  Jesse.  In  the  New  Testament 
his  name  appears  in  the  genealogies  of  Matt.  i.  and  Luke  iii.,  and 
he  is  mentioned  as  the  father  of  David  in  the  address  given  by 
St,  Paul  in  the  synagogue  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  22). 
The  prophecy  of  Isaiah  xi.  1  and  10,  ('  There  shall  come  forth  a 
rod  out  of  the  stem  of  Jesse,  and  a  branch  shall  grow  out  of  his 
roots ; '  '  In  that  day  there  shall  be  a  root  of  Jesse,  and  it  shall  be 
for  an  ensign  of  the  people  ')  is  referred  to  in  Rom.  xv.  12  ('  There 


JESSE— JESUS.  381 

shall  be  a  root  of  Jesse  {tarai  ii  pi^a  rov  'Ucraai  =  lit.  thei'e  shall  be 
the  foot  of  Jesse)  and  he  that  shall  rise/  &c.).  It  should  be 
noticed  that  it  is  only  our  Lord  who  can  at  once  be  called  the  root 
and  the  branch  of  Jesse. 

Jesus  [^lijGovqj  Gen.  Dat.  and  Voc.  ^h)oovy  Ace.  'liiauvv  ,  Jesus. 
The  full  Hebrew  form  is  yC^ini  Jehoshuah  =  helj)  of  the  Lord,  or 
Saviour  (Num.  xiii.  16;  1  Chron.  vii.  27),  and  contracted  y-ltJ*.''. 
Deprived  of  its  sacred  prefix,  the  same  name  appears  as  Wf'\T\  =  sal- 
vation, and  is  so  applied  to  Joshua  (Num.  xiii.  8,  16),  to  a  King  of 
Israel  (2  Kings  xv.  30,  &c.),  and  to  the  prophet  Hosea  (Hos.  i. 
1,  2)]  a  name  applied  in  the  New  Testament  to  three  persons. 

(1)  Our  blessed  Lord.  For  the  incidents  of  his  life  upon  earth 
see  Section  2.  The  name  was  originally  given  by  the  angel 
Gabriel,  when  announcing  the  coming  birth  of  the  Eedeemer  to 
the  Virgin  Mary  (Luke  i.  31),  and  the  same  name  was  indicated 
to  Joseph  as  the  name  which  should  be  given  to  the  expected 
child  (Matt.  i.  21).  The  phrase  '  name  of  Jesus '  frequently 
occurs  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts  iii.  6;  iv.  10,  30;  viii.  12; 
ix.  21,  27;  xv.  26;  xvi.  18;  xxvi.  9;  1  Cor.  v.  4;  vi.  11;  Eph. 
V.  20 ;  Col.  iii.  17)  ;  sometimes  varied  as  *  the  name  of  the  Lord ' 
(1  Cor.  i.  10),  or  '  the  name  of  Christ '  (1  Peter  iv.  14).  Baptism 
was  directed  to  be  administered  'in  the  name  (n'f  rb  6vofia  =  into 
the  name)  of  .  .  .  the  Son  .  .  .  )  '  (Matt,  xxviii.  19;  Acts  ii.  38; 
xix.  5;  comp.  1  Cor.  i.  13,  14).  In  this  name  all  supplications 
are  to  be  addressed  to  God  (Johnxiv.  13;  xv.  16).  This  name 
is  elsewhere  called  '  the  worthy  name '  by  which  Christians  are 
called  (James  ii.  7),  and  the  giving  of  it  to  the  incarnate  Son  is 
regarded  as  an  honour  and  a  future  glory  (*  Wherefore  God  also 
hath  highly  exalted  Him,  and  hath  given  Him  a  name  which  is 
above  every  name,  that  at  {tv  np  6v6fxaTL  =  in  the  name)  of  Jesus 
every  knee  shall  bow,  of  things  in  heaven,  and  things  in  earth, 
and  things  under  the  earth,'  Phil.  ii.  9,  10).  This  name,  notwith- 
standing, is  to  be  either  superseded  or  added  to  in  the  final  glory 
of  the  Redeemer's  kingdom  Q I  will  write  upon  him  my  new 
name,'  Rev.  iii.  12  ;  comp.  Rev.  ii.  17,  from  which  it  appears  that 
the  new  name  is  at  present  unknown). 

The  letters  I.  H.  S.  sometimes  stand  for  the  name  of  Jesus. 
They  =  Jesus  Hominum  Salvator  =  Jesus  Men's  Saviour,  and  as 
these  letters  resemble  the  ancient  Greek  for  Ix^vq  (  =  ajish)  a  fish 
is  sometimes  used  as  a  symbol  of  the  name.  The  letters  INRI  are 
also  used  occasionally  to  indicate  the  same  name.  Th&j  =  Jesus 
Nazarenus  Rex  Judceorum  =  Jesus  Nazarene  King  of  the  Jews. 


382       ESSENTIALS  OP  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

(2)  A  Hebrew  Christian,  sumamed  Justus,  who  was  with  St. 
Paul  at  Rome,  and  whom  the  apostle  names  in  Col.  iv.  11  as  one 
of  his  'fellow-workers  unto  the  kingdom  of  God,  which  have  been 
a  comfort  to  me.'  Tradition  makes  him  bishop  of  Eleuthero- 
polis. 

(3)  The  leader  of  the  Israelites  after  the  death  of  Moses.  See 
Joshua. 

Jewry,  eij[uivalent  to  Judaea  in  Luke  xxiii.  o  and  John  vii.  1. 
See  Judea. 

Joanna  ['Iwawa,  Joanna],  1.  One  of  the  ancestors  of  our 
Lord,  son  of  Rhesa,  and  father  of  Judah.  Probably  the  name  is 
identical  with  Hananiah,  the  son  of  Zerubbabel,  who  was  the 
Mhesa  or  Prince  of  the  captivity  (?).  Comp.  1  Chron.  iii.  19,  and 
see  Genealogy  of  Christ  in  Section  4. 

2.  'The  wife  of  Chuza,  Herod's  steward,'  who,  with  other 
women,  ^  ministered  unto  the  Lord  out  of  their  substance  {hriKovow 
dirb  70)1/  vTTcipxovTujv  avrdli:),^  Luke  viii.  3.  From  the  context  to  this 
passage,  it  also  seems  that  she  accompanied  our  Lord  and  his  dis- 
ciples, when  going  about  preaching.  From  Luke  xxiv.  10,  it 
further  appears  that  she  was  one  of  the  women  who  came  to  the 
sepulchre  on  the  resurrection  morning,  and  therefore  we  may  also 
well  suppose  that  she  took  a  share  in  the  other  circumstances 
recorded  of  the  women  who  came  from  Galilee  at  the  time 
of  our  Lord's  death.  The  '  Herod '  in  question  was  Herod  Anti- 
pas,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  name  of  Joanna's  husband, 
Chusa,  is  suppressed  on  the  second  occasion  of  her  name  being 
mentioned,  because  he  had  been  dismissed  from  his  office  on  account 
of  his  religious  opinions. 

Joattaam  [pJ)V  =  Jehovah  is  upright,  'IiodOafi,  Joatham'],  one  of 
the  kings  of  Judah,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Jothani.  He  ad- 
ministered the  Kingdom  for  several  years  during  the  leprosy  of 
Uzziah  his  father  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  21),  and  then  himself  succeeding 
in  B.C.  758,  reigned  until  B.C.  742.  He  was  on  the  whole  a  righte- 
ous sovereign,  although  still  permitting  the  existence  of  'high 
places.'  He  built  the  '  higher  gate  of  the  house  of  the  Lord,'  with 
certain  cities,  towers  and  castles,  and  subdued  the  Ammonites, 
whom  he  reduced  to  the  condition  of  tributaries  (2  Kings  xv.  32- 
38  ;  2  Chron.  xxvii.).  Li  the  New  Testament  he  only  appears  as 
one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  9). 

Jol>  [nVX  =persectited  or  one  recovering  his  senses,  'Iw/3,  Job~\,  a 
patriarch  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  history  of  whose  life  forms 


JEWEY— JOHN.  383 

■  the  subject  of  one  of  its  books.  Except  in  the  book  bearing  his 
name,  Job  is  only  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  in  Ezekiel  xiv. 
14,  20,  where  he  is  classed  with  Noah  and  Daniel  as  the  three 
persons  whose  '  righteousness  '  is  unable  to  deliver  any  but  their 
own  souls.  In  the  New  Testament '  the  patience  of  Job '  (James  v. 
11),  is  referred  to  as  an  example  to  persecuted  Christians.  Thi 
*  patience  '  consisted  in  the  bearing  without  complaint  the  inflic- 
tion of  great  losses,  both  in  his  family  and  in  his  possessions 
Much  controversy  has  been  expended  on  the  question  as  to  whethe. 
Job  was  a  real  or  fictitious  person,  and  whether  his  story  be 
imaginary  or  not ;  but  the  references  of  Ezekiel  and  St.  James 
clearly  determine  that  he  was  a  real  person,  otherwise  his  example 
could  not  have  been  quoted. 

Xoel  i?^)'^  =  worshipper  of  Jehovah,  'Iw/jX,  Joel],  one  of  the  minor 
prophets,  son  of  Pethuel  or  Bethuel.  No  notes  of  time  are  affixed 
to  his  prophecy,  but  from  the  absence  of  reference  (except  prophe- 
tically) to  the  Chaldseans,  and  his  mention  of  the  Edomites  and 
Egyptians,  it  has  been  generally  supposed  that  he  prophesied 
during  the  reign  of  Uzziah  (b.c.  810-758).  His  mission  was  to 
Judah,  and  his  prophecy  regarded  the  infliction  of  a  terrible  judg- 
ment upon  the  land,  with  exhortations  to  penitence  and  prayer  for 
its  removal,  and  promises  -^f  deliverance  and  ultimate  prosperity. 
From  this  latter  portion  of  the  prophecy  St.  Peter  quoted  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost,  declaring  that  the  occurrences  of  this  day  fulfilled 
the  words  of  Joel  ii.  28-32  ('  It  shall  come  to  pass  afterward  that 
I  will  pour  out  my  spirit  upon  all  flesh,  &c.'). 

Jobn  ['IojdvvT]c,  Johannes,  Heb.  form  j^nin?  =  v)hom  Jehovah  gavej] 

1.  One  of  the  kindred  of  Annas  the  high-priest,  and  associated 
with  him  in  the  examination  of  Peter  and  John,  after  the  miracle 
by  which  the  lame  man  was  cured  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the 
Temple  (Acts  iv.  6).  Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  this  John, 
but  Lightfoot  supposes  him  to  be  the  same  as  Rabbi  Johanan  ben 
Zacchai,  who  lived  forty  years  before  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple,  and  afterwards  became  president  of  the  great  synagogue 
at  Jabne. 

2.  The  evangelist  St.  Mark.  For  his  life  and  writings,  see 
Section  1,  pp.  9-12. 

3.  The  son  of  Zebedee,  evangelist  and  apostle.  For  his  life  and 
writings,  see  Section  1,  pp.  17-27. 

4.  John  the  Baptist.  He  was  the  son  of  Zacharias,  a  priest,  and 
Elizabeth,  and  born  to  them  in  their  old  age.  His  birth,  name, 
personal  character  as  a  Nazarite,  and  oflice  as  the  Forerunner  of 


384       ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Christ,  were  announced  by  the  angel  Gabriel  to  his  father  Zacharias, 
when  ministering  in  the  temple ;  and  for  his  unbelief  concerning 
the  possibility  of  his  having  a  son,  his  father  was  struck  with 
dumbness  until  the  day  of  the  child's  circumcision.  When  this 
came  the  dumbness  was  suddenly  removed,  and  Zacharias  poured 
out  the  well-known  hymn,  known  as  the  Benedict  us  {'  Blessed  be 
the  Lord  God  of  Israel,'  &c.,  Luke  i.  5-25,  57-80). 

The  birth  of  John  the  Baptist  preceded  by  six  months  that  of 
our  Saviour,  and  they  were  related  to  each  other,  Elizabeth  being 
the  kinswoman  (A.  V.  '  cousin ')  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  cousins, 
however,  do  not  appear  to  have  had  personal  knowledge  of  each 
other,  as  John  declared  of  his  first  official  interview  with  our  Lord 
that  he  then  '  knew  him  not.'  This  is  easily  explained.  The  resi- 
dence of  '  John's  parents,'  Zacharias  and  Elizabeth,  was  in  the  south 
of  Palestine,  whereas  Nazareth,  the  residence  of  Joseph  and  Mary, 
was  in  the  north.  Besides  this,  we  read  that  John  the  Baptist 
'  was  in  the  deserts  until  the  day  of  his  shewing  unto  Israel ' 
(Luke  i.  80),  while  the  residence  of  our  Lord  was  in  the  populous 
and  commercial  district  of  Galilee. 

No  notice  is  given  in  the  New  Testament,  beyond  that  of  Luke 
i.  80,  jusi  quoted,  of  the  career  of  John  until  his  appearance  in  the 
wilderness  of  Judaea,  clad  in  the  rough  coat  of  camel's  hair,  which 
befitted  a  prophet,  and  declaring  himself  a  preacher  of  repentance 
and  of  the  coming  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  This  appearance  took 
place  A.D.  27  or  28,  and  immediately  great  numbers  of  the  Jews 
of  all  classes  went  out  to  him.  The  nature  of  his  teaching  may 
be  seen  in  Matt.  iii.  1-12 ;  Mark  i.  1-8 ;  Luke  iii.  1-17.  It  in- 
volved (1)  Repentance,  (2)  the  immediate  coming  of  the  Lord, 
whose  Forerunner  John  declared  himself  to  be,  quoting  Isa.  xl.  3-5, 
and  (3)  the  use  of  baptism.  As  to  the  nature  of  this  baptism,  see 
under  Baptism,  in  Section  4.  Very  large  numbers  of  persons  availed 
themselves  of  the  ordinance,  and  amongst  them  our  Lord  himself. 
The  circumstances  of  our  Lord's  baptism  are  detailed  in  Matt.  iii. 
13-17  5  Mark  i.  9-11 ;  Luke  iii.  21-23.  At  first  John  refused  to 
administer  the  rite,  but,  when  our  Lord  declared  it  to  be  becoming 
for  him  to  fulfil  all. righteousness,  he  assented.  As  they  came  out 
of  the  water  the  Holy  Spirit  descended  upon  Jesus,  and  a  voice 
from  heaven  was  heard,  saying,  ^  This  is  my  beloved  Son,  in  whom 
I  am  well  pleased.' 

After  this,  John  bore  witness  yet  again  to  the  Messiahship  of 
Jesus,  after  his  return  from  the  Temptation,  and  declared  him  to 
be  the  '  Lamb  of  God.'     On  this,  Andrew  and  Simon  (Peter),  two 


JOHN   THE  BAPTIST,  385 

of  his  disciples,  and  probably  John  the  apostle  also,  joined  them- 
selves to  Jesus  (John  i.  19-37). 

But  little  information  as  to  the  subsequent  career  of  John  is  given 
in  the  New  Testament.  His  work  as  a  forerunner  was  now  com- 
pleted, and  many  of  his  former  disciples  probably  attached  them- 
selves to  Jesus.  But  he  still  continued  to  baptise  (John  iii.  23 ; 
iv.  1),  and  to  instruct  his  disciples  (Matt.  ix.  14;  Luke  v.  33). 
His  teaching  involved  prayer,  abstinence  from  food  and  luxurious 
drinks,  and  asceticism  generally,  and  in  these  last  two  points  was 
eminently  distinguished  from  the  teaching  of  our  Lord.  At  length 
he  aroused  against  himself  an  hostility  which  proved  fatal.  Herod 
Antipas  had  been  amongst  his  hearers  ('  Herod  feared  John,  know- 
ing that  he  was  a  j  ust  man  and  an  holy,  and  observed  him  ;  and 
when  he  heard  him,  he  did  many  things,  and  heard  him  gladly,' 
Mark  vi.  20).  But  when,  on  his  marriage  with  Herodias,  his 
brother's  wife,  John  ventm-ed  to  reprove  him,  he  at  once  shut  John 
up  in  the  prison  of  Machaerus,  a  fortress  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  and 
shortly  afterwards  put  him  to  death,  in  fulfilment  of  a  rash  pro- 
mise to  Salome,  the  daughter  of  Herodias  (Matt.  xiv.  3-12 ;  Mark 
vi.  17-29).  For  the  details  see  Section  2,  pp.  72,  73.  During  this 
imprisonment,  John  sent  messengers  to  Jesus  to  ask,  '  Art  thou  He 
that  should  come  ?  '  The  probable  reason  for  such  an  embassy 
was  to  assure  his  disciples,  rather  than  himself,  of  our  Lord's 
Messiahship,  so  that  after  his  own  death,  which  he  probably  ex- 
pected from  day  to  day,  they  might  unite  with,  and  become  fol- 
lowers of,  Jesus.  The  answer  to  the  question  was  the  performance 
of  a  series  of  miracles  in  their  presence,  and  our  Lord  also  took 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  declare  of  John  that  he  was  Elias 
the  Forerunner,  and  that  '  among  them  that  are  born  of  women, 
there  hath  not  risen  a  greater  than  John  the  Baptist ;  notwith- 
standing he  that  is  least  (o  /xiKpSrepot:)  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
is  greater  than  he '  (Matt.  xi.  11 ;  Luke  vii.  28).  The  usual 
interpretation  of  this  sentence  is  that  the  humblest  Christian  being 
born  under  the  New  Covenant,  and  one  with  Christ  the  bride- 
groom, is  greater  than  John,  who  was  born  under  the  Old  Cove- 
nant, and  was  only  the  friend  of  the  bridegroom.  This  interpreta- 
tion is  open  to  the  objection,  that  John  the  Baptist  is  said  to  have 
been  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  even  from  his  mother's  womb, 
and  therefore  his  position  could  scarcely  be  more  elevated. 
Another  (and  ancient)  interpretation  translates  jxiKportpoc,  by 
'  lesser  '  instead  of  '  least,'  and  refers  it  to  our  Lord  Himself, 

The  death  of  John  probably  took  place  about  April,  a.d.  29. 
c  c 


386        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

His  head  was  carried  to  Herodias,  who  is  said  to  have  run  a  needle 
through  the  tongue,  in  vengeance  for  the  reproofs  which  it  had 
uttered  against  her,  and  the  body  was  buried  respectfully  by  his 
disciples.  But  the  name  and  teaching  of  John  long  survived. 
When  Antipas  heard  of  Jesus,  his  conscience  was  aroused  and  he 
said,  '  This  is  John  whom  I  beheaded  ;  he  is  risen  from  the  dead.' 
A  personal  knowledge  of  the  '  baptism  of  John  '  was  regarded  as 
one  qualification  of  an  apostle  (Acts  i,  22),  and  his  testimony  to 
Jesus  was  quoted  by  St.  Paul  in  his  address  at  the  synagogue  of 
Antioch  in  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  24,  25).  At  Ephesus,  again,  and 
possibly  at  Alexandria  (if  we  may  judge  from  the  case  of  Ap olios), 
'  disciples  '  were  found,  only  baptised  '  unto  John's  baptism,'  i.e. 
probably  with  an  anticipative  view  of  a  future  Messiah,  but  not 
with  a  retrospective  view  of  the  actual  coming  of  a  Messiah  in  the 
person  of  Jesus  (Acts  xviii.  2o-xix.  5). 

Josephus  (Ant.  18.  5.  2.)  refers  to  John  the  Baptist,  whom  he 
describes  as  *  a  good  man,  who  commanded  the  Jews  to  exercise 
virtue,  both  as  to  righteousness  towards  one  another,  and  piety 
towards  God,  and  so  to  come  to  baptism.'  But  he  wrongly  describes 
his  death  as  owing  to  the  fears  which  Herod  Antipas  entertained 
lest  he  should  excite  the  people  to  rebellion. 

Jonan  ['laji'dv,  Jonci],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  son  of 
Eliakim  and  father  of  Joseph  (Luke  iii.  30). 

Jonas  [nyv  =  dove,  'lojvd,  but  in  John  i.  42 ;  xxi.  15,  16,  17, 
some  MSS.  read  ^lodvov  or  'liodwov,  Jonas]  the  name  of — 

1.  The  father  of  Simon  Peter,  but  never  mentioned  except  in 
the  phrases  '  Simon  son  of  Jonas  '  (John  xxi.  15-17,  &c.),  '  Simon 
Bar-jona  '  (Matt.  xvi.  17).     Nothing  is  known  of  him. 

2.  The  prophet  who  gives  his  name  to  one  of  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  where  his  story  may  be  found  related.  He  was 
the  son  of  Amittai,  and  lived  at  Gath-hepher  in  Galilee  (2  Kings 
xiv.  25).  The  only  reference  to  him  in  the  Old  Testament,  else- 
where than  in  the  book  of  Jonah,  is  in  this  passage,  whence  we  also 
learn  that  his  mission  included  a  prophecy  of  the  restoration  of 
the  coast  of  Israel,  and  where  he  receives  the  official  title  of 
'  prophet.'  The  date  of  Jonah's  career  is  doubtful,  and  has  been 
variously  given  from  B.C.  860  to  B.C.  750.  In  the  New  Testament 
he  is  several  times  referred  to  by  our  Lord.  His  mission  to 
Nineveh  and  the  repentance  of  the  Ninevites  at  his  preaching  are 
held  up  as  an  example  to  the  Jews,  seeing  that  they  had  the 
opportunity  of  listening  to  our  Lord,  '  a  greater  than  Jonas  '  (Matt, 
xii.  41 )  Luke  xi.  32).     The  '  sign  of  the  prophet  Jonah '  is  also 


JONAN— JORAM.  387 

said  to  be  the  only  sign  which  will  be  vouchsafed  to  the  Jews, 
and  this  sign  is  explained  to  be  that '  as  Jonah  was  three  days  and 
three  nights  in  the  whale's  belly  :  so  shall  the  Son  of  Man  be  three 
days  and  three  nights  in  the  heart  of  the  earth  '  (Matt.  xii.  39,  40 ; 
xvi.  4 ;  Luke  xi.  29,  30).  This  remark  has  occasioned  some  diffi- 
culty to  persons  not  observant  of  the  Jewish  method  of  comput- 
ing time.  The  Jews  reckoned  by  spaces  of  time  which  included  a 
day  and  a  night  (Heb.  njiy,  Greek,  wxOni^spov ;  see  Gen.  vii.  12  ; 
Exodus  xxiv.  18 ;  1  Sam.  xxx.  12 ;  2  Cor.  xi.  25),  and  the  Talmud 
ot  Jerusalem,  quoted  by  Stier,  says  '  the  part  of  such  is  the  whole.' 
Hence,  although  our  Lord  was  in  the  grave,  according  to  our 
reckoning,  only  until  the  third  day,  he  was  in  the  grave,  according 
to  Jewish  reckoning,  three  day-night  spaces. 

Joppa  [iS^  =  ie«2<)^y,  'Iotttt//,  Joppe,  mod.  name  Yafa  or  Jaffa], 
a  sea-port  town  on  the  south-west  of  Palestine.  The  harbour  is, 
in  reality,  only  a  roadsvead,  but,  being  the  nearest  port  to  Jeru- 
salem, Joppa  has  always  been  much  used  for  the  seaborne  traffic 
to  that  city.  Here  Solomon  brought  in  rafts  the  Tyrian  timber 
destined  for  the  Temple  and  his  palace ;  and  here  Jonah  found  a 
ship  going  to  Tarshish,  when  he  endeavoured  to  flee  from  the 
presence  of  the  Lord.  In  New  Testament  times  it  appears  as  the 
residence  of  Dorcas,  or  Tabitha,  whose  death  was  the  occasion  of 
St.  Peter's  being  brought  thither  from  Lydda,  a  town  about  ten  miles 
ofi",  where  he  was  residing.  Having  restored  Dorcas  to  life,  Peter 
remained  for  some  time  as  a  resident  in  Joppa,  lodging  at  the 
house  of  '  one  Simon  a  tanner,  by  the  sea-side.'  There  he  saw 
the  vision  of  a  vessel  descending  from  heaven,  which  announced 
the  admission  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  privileges  of  the  Gospel  j  and 
thence  he  went  immediately  afterwards  to  Cornelius  at  Csesarea 
(Acts  ix.  36-x.  23). 

Joppa  has  been  many  times  besieged,  destroyed,  and  rebuilt. 
At  present  it  is  a  town  of  about  four  thousand  inhabitants,  sur- 
rounded by  gardens  in  which  all  sorts  of  sub-tropical  fruits  grow 
luxuriantly,  and  largely  employed  in  the  soap  manufacture. 

Toram  [U'i)r\\  =  zvhom  Jehovah  nj^holds,  'Iwpdfx,  Jora7nj,  a  king 
of  Judah,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Jehoram.  He  was  the  son 
of  Jehoshaphat,  and  reigned  B.C.  891-884.  His  history  is  found 
in  2  Kings  viii.  16-24  5  2  Chron.  xxi.,  from  which  we  learn  that 
he  was  given  to  idolatry,  that  he  married  Ahab's  daughter,  and 
died  of  a  fearful  bowel  disease.  In  the  New  Testament  he  only 
appears  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  8). 

cc2 


388       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Jordan  [H"]!,  in  prose  always  with  the  art.  |7!"l!n  =  the  descender, 
6  'lopSdvT}c,  Jordanes],  the  principal  river  of  Palestine.  It  has  two 
principal  sources,  one  in  the  spurs  of  Antilibanus,  and  the  other 
not  far  from  Banias  or  Paneas,  called  in  the  New  Testament 
Caesarea  Philippi.  The  streams  from  these  two  sources  unite  in  a 
inarshy  lake,  originally  called  the  Waters  of  Me^-om  (Josh.  xi.  5,  7) 
but  now  Lake  Huleh.  Much  controversy  has  taken  place  as  to  the 
exact  topography  of  the  Jordan  up  to  this  lake,  but  the  question 
has  been  recently  set  at  rest  by  Mr.  Macgregor,  who  personally 
inspected  the  waters  in  a  canoe,  and  whose  discoveries  are  printed, 
together  with  excellent  maps,  in  his  work  entitled  '  Rob  Roy  on 
the  Jordan.'  From  Lake  Huleh  the  river  runs  in  a  deep  valley 
and  directly  south  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  which  it  enters  at  the 
north  by  an  opening  about  seventy  feet  wide.  This  lake  is  de- 
scribed under  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  a  map  of  it  is  to  be  found  on 
p.  79.  The  Jordan  leaves  it  at  the  south,  passing  round  a  small 
peninsula,  and  then  again  runs  directly  south  for  a  distance  which 
measures  in  a  straight  line  about  sixty  miles,  but  is  more  than 
trebled  by  windings.  Finally  it  empties  itself  into  the  Dead  Sea, 
which  is  1,292  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 
valley  of  its  course,  between  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
is  called  the  Ghor,  and  is  seldom  more  than  two  miles  wide.  This 
valley  is  shut  in  by  steep  cliffs,  which  form  the  edge  of  a  plain 
reaching  back  several  miles  to  a  second  series  of  enclosing  hills. 
Hence  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  is  in  fact  double,  the  river  running, 
as  it  were,  in  the  centre  of  _a  deep  trench,  which  is  scooped  out  of 
the  centre  of  a  fiat  valley.  In  the  trench  thus  formed  the  tem- 
perature is  necessarily  very  high,  and  a  profusion  of  tropical  vege- 
tation accordingly  results.  So  high  up  the  river  £is  Luke  Huleh, 
the  Egyptian  papyrus  is  found  growing  to  the  height  of  sixteen 
feet,  and,  lower  down  the  river,  corn  is  ripe  in  March,  melons  ripen 
in  winter,  indigo  is  cultivated,  and  palms,  oleanders,  and  zukkum 
trees  abound. 

No  towns  are  now  found  upon  the  Jordan,  but  Csesarea  Philippi 
(as  already  stated)  is  in  close  proximity  to  one  of  its  sources. 
Bethsaida  Julias  was  near  its  entrance  into  the  lake  of  Galilee, 
and  Jericho  is  not  far  from  its  outflow  into  the  Dead  Sea.  Its 
only  tributaries  are  the  Hieromax  or  Yarmuk,  and  the  Jabbok 
or  Zerka.  Both  these  flow  in  on  the  eastern  bank,  the  former  a 
short  distance  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  latter  about  half- 
way between  the  two  seas. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  Jordan  is  only  mentioned  in  con- 


JORDAN— JOSEPH.  389 

nexion  with  the  baptism  administered  by  John  the  Baptist,  and  as 
the  region  to  which  our  Lord  retreated  before  his  final  journey  to 
Jerusalem  (Matt.  iii.  5,  6,  13  ;  iv.  15,  25  ;  xix.  1 ;  Mark  i.  5,  9 ; 
iii.  8;  x.  1 ;  Luke  iii.  3;  iv.  1 5  John  i..28;  iii.  26;  x.  40).  The 
traditional  site  of  our  Lord's  baptism  is  at  the  fords,  nearly  oppo- 
site Jericho,  but  no  certainty  can  be  attached  to  the  tradition 
which  places  it  here.     See  Bethahara. 

Jorixn  ['Iwpf  jV,  Jorim^j,  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  son  of 
Matthat,  and  father  of  Eliezer  (Luke  iii.  29). 

Josapbat  [\2^&\T])  =  tvhose  cause  Jehovah  pleads,  "lojaacpar,  Josa- 
phat'\,  a  king  of  Judah,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Jehoshaphat. 
He  reigned  B.C.  914-889,  and  was  on  the  whole  a  wise  and 
righteous  monarch,  although  he  erred  by  alliance  with  Ahab  and 
Aliaziah,  idolatrous  kings  of  Israel.  His  history  is  contained  in 
1  Kings  xxii.  2-50 ;  2  Chron.  xvii-xx.  He  gave  his  name  to  the 
valley  of  the  brook  Kidron.  In  the  New  Testament  he  only 
appears  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  8). 

Jose  ['Iw(T//,  Jesu'],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord^  son  of 
Eliezer,  and  father  of  Er  (Luke  iii.  29). 

Joseph  [^PV  =  he  takes  aioay  and  he  shall  add,  see  Gen.  xxx. 

23,  24 ;  'Iwaqcp,  Joseph'],  a  common  Hebrew  name  and  applied  to 
(1)  Three  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  otherwise  unknown  (Luke  iii. 

24,  26,  30). 

(2)  The  Patriarch,,  son  of  Jacob  and  Rachel.  The  circumstances 
of  his  birth  are  detailed  in  Gen.  xxx.  22-24,  and  his  remarkable 
history  more  or  less  occupies  the  last  fourteen  chapters  of  Genesis. 
In  the  New  Testament  he  is  referred  to  in  the  speech  of  Stephen, 
who  shortly  and  beautifully  sums  up  his  history  (^  The  patriarchs, 
moved  with  envy,  sold  Joseph  into  Egypt :  but  God  was  with  him, 
and  delivered  him  out  of  all  his  aiflictions,  and  gave  him  favour 
and  wisdom  in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt ;  and  he  made 
him  governor  over  Egypt  and  all  his  house.  Now  there  came  a 
dearth  over  all  the  land  of  Egypt  and  Chanaan,  and  great  affliction  : 
and  our  fathers  found  no  sustenance.  But  when  Jacob  heard  that 
there  was  com  in  Egypt,  he  sent  out  our  fathers  first.  And  at 
the  second  time  Joseph  was  made  known  unto  his  brethren  -,  and 
Joseph's  kindred  was  made  known  unto  Pharaoh.  Then  sent 
Joseph  and  called  his  father  Jacob  to  hmi/  Acts  vii.  9-14).  He 
is  also  referred  to  as  an  example  of  faith,  in  Heb.  xi.  22  ('  By  faith 
Joseph,  when  he  died,  made  mention  of  the  departing  of  the 
children  of  Israel ;  and  gave  commandment  concerning  his  bones ') 


390       ESSENTIAI.S  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

and  the  blessing  of  liis  sons  Epliraim  and  Manasseh  by  his  father 
Jacob  is  similarly  referred  to  as  an  instance  of  faith  (Heb.  xi. 
21). 

(3)  The  husband  of  Mary,  and  reputed  father  of  Jesus.  Tradi- 
tion has  many  stories  to  relate  concerning  him,  and  one  of  the 
apocryphal  gospels,  called  the  Protevangelium,  recounts  minutely 
all  the  circumstances  of  his  marriage,  as  well  as  the  early  history 
of  Mary  herself.  No  reliance  whatever  can  be  placed  upon  these 
stories,  nor  can  any  certainty  be  attached  to  the  common  opinion 
that  Joseph  had  been  previously  married,  and  had  a  family  of 
children  before  his  marriage  with  the  Virgin  Mary,  although  such 
a  supposition  certainly  solves  many  of  the  difficulties  connected 
with  the  identification  of  the  brethren  of  our  Lord.  In  the  New 
Testament  he  appears  as  the  son  of  Heli  or  Jacob,  and  as  descended 
from  David  in  the  genealogies  of  both  Matthew  and  Luke  (Matt, 
i.  16;  Luke  iii.  23).  He  was  therefore  designated  by  the  angel 
who  addressed  him  in  a  dream  as  '■  son  of  David  '  (Matt.  i.  20), 
and  '  because  he  was  of  the  house  and  lineage  of  David  '  he  went 
up  to  Bethlehem,  the  ancestral  city  of  David,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  general  enrolment  ordered  by  Augustus  (Luke  ii.  4).  His 
residence  was  at  Nazareth  in  Galilee,  where  he  practised  the  trade 
of  a  carpenter  (Matt.  xiii.  55).  In  character  he  was  *  a  just  man 
(oi/catof)'  (Matt.  i.  19).  He  was  espoused  to  his  cousin  Mary,  and 
when  she  was  found  with  child  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  instructed 
by  an  angel  not  to  put  her  away,  and  that  the  child  which  should 
be  born  should  be  called  Jesus.  On  this  instruction  he  acted,  and 
took  Mary  with  him  to  Bethlehem  to  be  enrolled.  Here  the  child 
Jesus  was  born,  and  here  Joseph  must  have  been  during  the  visit 
of  the  Shepherds  and  the  Wise  Men,  as  well  as  on  the  occasion  of 
the  Circumcision,  and  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  at  the  Purifi- 
cation. After  this,  being  warned  by  a  dream,  he  went  down  to 
Egypt  with  Mary  and  the  child,  until  the  death  of  Herod  the 
Great,  and  then  returning  with  the  intention  of  residing  at  Beth- 
lehem, found  Archelaus  established  as  the  king  of  Judaea.  On  this 
he  went  back  (^ nvt\MO't]iiv''  A.  V.  'turned  aside')  to  Nazareth, 
and  there  appears  to  have  remained  until  the  end  of  his  life.  Hence- 
forward he  only  appears  in  the  New  Testament  as  in  the  habit  of 
attending  thepassover  in  Jerusalem  annually,  and  on  one  occasion- 
when  our  Lord  was  twelve  years  old,  as  taking  our  Lord  with 
him,  and  there,  after  having  for  awhile  missed  Him,  seeking  and 
finding  Him  in  the  temple,  sitting  in  the  midst  of  the  Rabbisj 
hearing  them  and  asking  them  questions.  That  Joseph  lived  for 
some  time  afterwards  is  evident  from  the  statement  that  after  this 


JOSES.  391 

'Jesus  went  down  to  Nazareth  and  was  subject  unto  tlieni/  i.e. 
unto  Joseph  and  Mary  (Luke  ii.  51).  But  from  John  xix,  27, 
where  our  Lord  on  the  cross  commits  Mary  to  the  care  of  John,  it 
seems  almost  obvious  that  Joseph  had  died  before  the  date  of  the 
crucifixion;  and  the  absence  of  his  name  on  several  occasions  when 
our  Lord's  '  mother  and  brethren  '  are  mentioned  seems  to  indicate 
that  he  had  died  even  earlier  than  this  (Matt.  xii.  46  ;  Mark.  iii. 
31 :  vi.  3  ;  Luke  viii.  19 ;  John  ii.  1,  12). 

(4)  Joseph  of  Arimathaea.  Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  this 
person  except  that  which  is  recorded  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
even  the  place  of  his  residence  or  birth  is  not  thoroughly  identified 
(see  Arimathcea).  Legend  relates,  however,  that  he  came  to 
England  and  there  preached  the  gospel  at  Glastonbury  in  Somerset- 
shire, where  a  holy  thorn  is  shown,  supposed  to  have  sprung  from 
his  staflf.  In  the  New  Testament,  Joseph  appears  for  the  first 
time  in  connexion  with  our  Lord's  condemnation,  crucifixion,  and 
burial  (Matt,  xxvii.  57-60;  Mark  xv.  42-46;  Luke  xxiii.  50-53; 
John  xix.  38-42).  He  was  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrim,  honourable, 
good,  just,  and  rich.  He  waited  for  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  was 
a  disciple  of  Jesus,  at  first  '  secretly  for  fear  of  the  Jews.'  How- 
ever, after  the  crucifixion  '  he  went  in  boldly  to  Pilate  and  begged 
the  body  of  Jesus.'  Having  wrapped  it  in  fine  linen,  he  then  de- 
posited it  in  a  new  tomb,  in  a  garden  hard  by,  which  tomb  belonged 
to  him  and  which  he  appears  to  have  intended  for  himself.  In 
this  pious  ofiice  he  was  assisted  by  Nicodemus,  who  also  brought 
a  large  quantity  of  myrrh  and  aloes,  in  which  the  body  of  Jesus 
was  wound  by  means  of  the  linen  cloths. 

(o)  Joseph  Barsabas  {BapaaiSiiaq  =  son  of  Sabbas — which  may 
be  a  shorter  form  of  Zebedee — or,  if  Sabbas  is  not  a  proper  name, 
son  of  conversion,  of  quiet,  of  an  oath,  of  wisdom,  of  the  old  man) 
surnamed  Justus ;  one  of  the  two  persons  (Matthias  being  the 
other),  who  were  appointed  as  candidates  for  the  vacant  apostle- 
ship  of  Judas  Iscariot  (Acts  i.  23).  Nothing  else  is  certainly  known 
of  him,  but  as  one  of  the  conditions  of  candidature  was  a  complete 
personal  knowledge  of  our  Lord's  work,  and  the  power  of  wit- 
nessing to  his  resurrection,  it  has  been  assumed  that  he  was  at 
least  one  of  the  seventy  disciples.  Eusebius  states  on  the  autho- 
rity of  Papias,  that  he  drank  a  cup  of  poison  and  remained  un- 
injured.    See  also  Barsabas. 

Toses  ['Iw(Tr/e,  or  'lr]aovQ  (?),  Joseph],  (1)  the  name  of  Barnabas, 
but  only  used  to  designate  him  on  his  first  appearance  in  the  Acts 
(iv.  36),  where  it  is  said  that  '  Joses,  who  by  the  apostles  was  sur- 
named Barnabas  .  .  .  having  land,  sold  it,  and  brought  the  money, 


392        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

and  laid  it  at  the  apostles'  feet.'     Elsewhere,  he  is  called  Bm-nabaSy 
and  for  his  history  see  under  that  word. 

(2)  One  of  our  Lord's  brethren  (Matt.  xiii.  55).    See  James  (3). 

Josliua,  the  Hebrew  form  of  the  Greek  'Inaovq.  For  the  mean- 
ing of  the  name  see  under  Jesus,  by  which  appellation  Joshua  is 
mentioned  in  the  only  place  in  which  the  New  Testament  speaks 
of  him  (Heb.  iv.  8),  '  For  if  Jesus  had  given  them  ' — that  is,  the 
Israelites — 'rest,  then  would  he  not  afterward  have  spoken  of 
another  day.'  Joshua  w^as  the  son  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim, 
and  first  emerges  as  the  victorious  leader  of  the  Israelites  against 
the  Amalekites  at  Rephidim  (Ex.  xvii.  9).  He  was  the  attend- 
ant on  Moses  when  the  Law  was  first  given  (Ex.  xxiv.  13  ; 
xxxii.  17).  He  and  Caleb  were  two  of  the  twelve  spies  sent  to 
report  upon  the  Land  of  Canaan,  and  they  alone  brought  back  an 
encouraging  report  (Num.  xiii.  xiv.).  Shortly  before  the  death  of 
Moses,  he  was  solemnly  invested  by  Moses  himself  with  the 
leadership  of  the  Israelites  (Num.  xxvii.  18),  and  in  pursuance  of 
this  commission,  he  led  them  safely  across  the  Jordan,  and  estab- 
lished them  firmly  as  the  conquerors  of  Palestine,  although  the 
orio-inal  inhabitants  still  retained  some  strongholds.  He  died  at 
the  ao-e  of  110  years,  having  previously  caused  the  Israelites  to 
enter  into  a  solemn  covenant  with  God,  and  was  buried  at 
Timnath-serah,  probably  about  b.c  1427. 

Joshua  is  only  mentioned  in  the  passage  already  referred  to, 
but,  in  reliance  upon  this,  he  has  been  regarded  by  many  Christian 
writers  as  a  type  of  our  Lord.  Thus  Bishop  Pearson  ('  On  the 
Creed,'  art.  2)  enlarges  on  (1)  the  significance  of  his  name, 
which  =  Saviotir;  (2)  that  he  alone  led  the  people  into  Canaan, 
which  Moses  could  not  do,  thus  showing  the  continuance  of  the 
Law  till  Jesus  came ;  (3)  that  Joshua  and  not  Moses,  received  the 
command  to  circumcise,  for  Jesus  is  the  true  circumciser ;  (4)  that 
he  began  his  olfice  at  the  Jordan ;  (5)  that  he  chose  twelve  men, 
to  carry  twelve  stones,  as  Jesus  chose  twelve  apostles,  the  founda- 
tion-stones of  the  church;  (6)  that  he  saved  Rahab  the  harlot 
alive,  whereas  our  Lord  says  to  the  Pharisees,  '  The  publicans  and 
the  harlots  go  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven  before  you ' ;  (7)  that 
he  caused  the  sun  to  stand  still,  as  an  emblem  of  the  Sun  of  righ- 
teousness ;  (8)  that  he  smote  the  Amalekites,  and  so  opened  the 
way  to  Canaan. 

Josiab,  [•in*^^N''  =  wAom  Jehovah  heals,  'Twcr/ac,  Josias'],  one  of  the 
kings  of  Judah,  son  of  Amon.  He  succeeded  Amon  in  B.C.  642, 
when  only  eight  years  of  age.     He  restored  the  observance  of  the 


JOSHUA— JUD  AH.  393 

law,  which,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign,  he  and  his  people 
entered  upon  a  solemn  covenant  to  keep.  After  a  reign  of  thirty- 
one  years  he  entered  into  conflict  at  Megiddo  with  Pharaoh-Necho, 
king  of  Egypt,  and,  being  wounded  in  the  ensuing  battle,  died  on 
the  road  to  Jerusalem.  In  the  New  Testament  Josiah  is  only 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  10, 11). 

Jada.     See  Judah. 

Judaea.     See  Judea. 

Judab  [T\y\r\\=2)raised,  'lovSat;,  gen.  'loida  (Matt.  ii.  6;  Luke 
iii.  33  j  Heb.  vii.  14;  Rev.  v.  5;  vii.  5),  Judas],  a  name  variously 
rendered  in  A.  V.,  as — 

1.  Juda,  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  the  portion  of  Palestine 
allotted  to  it.  This  country  is  mentioned  in  Matt.  ii.  6,  where  the 
prophecy  of  Micah  v.  2  {'  Thou,  Bethlehem  Ephratah,  though 
thou  be  little  among  the  thousands  of  Judah,  yet  out  of  thee  shall 
he  come  forth  unto  me  that  is  to  be  ruler  in  Israel ')  is  quoted  by 
the  priests  and  scribes  in  answer  to  Herod's  question,  where  Christ 
should  be  born.  Bethlehem  was  indifferently  called  Bethlehem 
Ephratah  and  Bethlehem  Judah,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other 
Bethlehem  in  the  north  of  Palestine.  This  '  Lan4  of  Juda ' 
formed  the  most  southerly  tribal  division  of  Palestine ;  and  was 
more  important  and  populous  than  any  other  division.  It  con- 
tained an  extensive  pasture-country  on  the  south,  a  rich  corn- 
country  to  the  west,  a  '  hill  country  '  in  the  centre,  in  which 
oliveyards  and  vineyards  abounded,  and  a  wilderness  to  the  east. 
All  the  priestly  cities  were  situated  within  its  boundaries.  In 
Rev.  V.  5  our  Lord  is  called  '  the  lion  of  the  tribe  of  Juda,'  pro- 
bably in  reference  to  the  ancient  description  of  the  tribe  by  Jacob 
as  ^  a  lion's  whelp  '  (Gen.  xlix.  9) ;  and  in  Rev.  vii.  5  twelve 
thousand  of  the  tribe  are  sealed. 

2.  Juda,  two  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  otherwise  unknown  (Luke 
iii.  26,  30). 

3.  Judas  or  Juda,  but  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Judah,  one 
of  the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob.  He  only  appears  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  genealogies  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  2,  3 ;  Luke  iii.  33), 
and  in  Heb.  vii.  14  ('  It  is  evident  that  our  Lord  sprang  out  of 
Juda ;  of  which  tribe  Moses  spake  nothing  concerning  priesthood '). 
By  the  phrase  '  it  is  evident '  St.  Paul  no  doubt  refers  to  the 
well-known  historical  fact  that  Jesus  was  bom  at  Bethlehem- 
Judah,  and  not  (as  some  have  supposed)  that  the  Jews  expected 
the  Messiah  to  arise  from  Judah,  because  he  was  to  be  of  the  seed 
of  David.     That  the  Messiah  was  to  be  of  the  tribe  of  Juda  might. 


394       ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

of  course,  have  Ibeen  anticipated  from  Gen.  xlix.  10  ('  The  sceptre 
shall  not  depart  from  Judah,  nor  a  lawgiver  from  between  his 
feet,  until  Shiloh  come  '). 

4.  Judas,  one  of  our  Lord's  brethren.  The  question  of  who 
these  '  brethren '  were  is  discussed  under  James  (3),  and  reasons 
are  given  why  this  Judas  should  not  be  regarded  as  the  apostle 
Judas,  the  brother  (?)  of  James,  And  if  he  be  not  the  same  as 
No.  5  (see  below),  then  nothing  whatever  is  known  of  him  except 
that  he  was  the  '  brother '  of  our  Lord. 

5.  Judas,  called  in  the  lists  of  the  apostles  '  the  brother  (?)  of 
James '  ('lovdag  'luKwfSov,  Luke  vi.  16 ;  Acts  i.  13),  and,  therefore, 
son  of  Alphseus  or  Clopas.  He  was  apparently  identical  with 
Lebbseus,  or  Thaddeus  (Matt.  x.  3 ;  Mark  iii.  18),  but  no  satisfactory 
reason  can  be  assigned  why  this  apostle  should  thus  be  known  by 
three,  or  at  least  two  names  (if  Lebbseus  be  rejected,  on  which 
see  p.  71).  No  incident  peculiar  to  Judas  is  reported,  except  that 
in  John  xiv.  22,  where  we  read, '  Judas  saith  unto  Him,  not  Iscariot, 
Lord,  how  is  it  that  thou  wilt  manifest  thyself  unto  us,  and  not 
unto  the  world  ?  '  But  Jude,  the  author  of  the  epistle,  is  generally 
regarded  as  identical  with  the  apostle  Judas,  and  tradition  variously 
states  that  he  died  a  natural  death  at  Edessa,  and  that  he  was 
martyred  either  in  Phoenicia  or  in  Persia. 

6.  Jude,  the  author  of  the  Epistle  bearing  this  name,  see  No.  5. 
In  the  preface  to  this  epistle  the  writer  calls  himself  '  the  brother 
of  James,  and  servant  of  Jesus  Christ.'  It  is  only  fair  to  state  that 
those  who  maintain  the  identity  of  No.  4  with  5  and  6,  meet  the 
argument  from  the  latter  description  by  declaring  that  the  apostle 
was  actuated  by  humility  in  so  describing  himself.  With  regard 
to  the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude,  see  pp.  52,  53. 

7.  Judas,  surnamed  Barsabas  (for  the  meaning  of  Barsabas,  see 
under  Joses),  was  possibly  a  brother  of  Joseph  Barsabas  (Acts  i. 
23).  He  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xv.  22,  along  with  Silas,  as  one  of 
the  '  chief  men  among  the  brethren  (yj-yovfihin  tv  ring  ddeXfoTc).' 
He  and  Silas  were  sent  along  with  Barnabas  and  Paul  from  Jeru- 
salem to  Antioch,  as  fellow-bearers  of  the  decision  of  the  Council 
at  Jerusalem  as  to  the  obligation  of  the  Mosaic  law  upon  Gentile 
Christians.  After  delivering  their  message  to  the  Church  at 
Antioch,  and  tarrying  there  '  a  space  (xpo^''^'^),'  Silas  determined 
to  remain  at  Antioch,  but  Judas  returned  to  Jerusalem  (ver.  33, 34). 
Nothing  further  is  known  of  him.     See  Barsabas. 

8.  Judas  of  Galilee  (6  TaXiXatog),  a  leader  of  an  insurrection, 
referred  to  by  Gamaliel  in  his  speech  before  the  Sanhedrim,  as 


JUDAH.  395 

one  who  rose  up  '  in  the  days  of  the  taxing,  and  drew  away  much 
people  after  him ;  he  also  perished ;  and  all,  even  as  many  as 
obeyed  him,  were  dispersed  '  (Acts  v.  37).  Nothing  further  is 
stated  of  him  in  the  New  Testament,  but  Josephus  (Ant.  18.  1.  1, 
2,  6  ;  20.  5.  2  ;  B.  J.  2.  8.  1.)  gives  an  interesting  account  of  him, 
from  which  it  appears  that  he  was  a  Gaulonite,  of  the  city  of 
Gamala,  who,  when  Cyrenius  (or  Quirinus)  came  into  Syria, 
charged  with  the  execution  of  a  general  census,  joined  with  him 
one  Sadduc,  a  Pharisee,  and  persuaded  the  people  to  revolt,  saying 
that  the  proposed  taxation  '  was  little  better  than  an  introduc- 
tion to  slavery.'  He  also  became  the  leader  of  a  fourth  sect  of 
Jewish  philosophers,  whose  tenets  agreed  with  those  of  the  Pha- 
risees, but  added  a  stedfast  determination  to  accept  no  ruler  but 
God,  and  to  re^st  every  foreign  power.  The  sects  of  the  Sicarii 
and  Zealots,  of  the  latter  days  of  Jerusalem,  no  doubt  sprang  from 
this  source,  and  their  existence  rendered  it  impossible  for  the 
Roman  government  to  deal  with  the  Jews  except  by  utter  exter- 
mination. At  least  three  of  the  sons  of  Judas  followed  in  their 
father's  steps  of  overt  rebellion,  and  similarly  perished ;  James 
and  Simon  by  crucifixion,  and  Manahem  '  with  many  sorts  of  tor- 
ments '  (B.  J.  2.  17.  9). 

9.  Judas  Zscariot  [_'l(TKapiwri]c,  Isca?'iotes.  The  meaning  of  the 
name  is  very  doubtful.  It  probably  =  nVlp  t^''X  i.e.  a  man  of 
Kerioth  (in  Juda,  Josh.  xv.  25),  but  other  interpretations  more 
or  less  conjectural — for  which  see  Smith's  'Dictionary  of  the 
Bible' — have  been  advanced],  called  'the  son  of  Simon  '  in  John 
vi.  71 ;  xiii.  2,  26,  and  in  all  the  three  lists  of  the  apostles  '  the 
betrayer.'  Nothing  is  known  of  this  Judas  until  he  appears  in 
the  lists  of  the  apostles,  and  that  he  was  not  selected  for  such  a 
position  without  a  full  knowledge  on  our  Lord's  part  of  what  he 
would  prove  to  be  is  evident  from  John  vi.  64  ('  Jesus  knew  from 
the  beginning  who  they  were  that  believed  not,  and  who  should 
betray  him  ');  John  vi.  70,  71  ('  Have  not  I  chosen  you  twelve, 
and  one  of  you  is  a  devil  ?  He  spake  of  Judas  Iscariot,  the  son  of 
Simon,  for  he  it  was  that  should  betray  him'),  and  John  xiii.  11 
{'  For  He  knew  who  should  betray  him ').  Into  the  reasons,  how- 
ever, which  induced  the  choice  of  such  a  person  it  is  probably  im- 
possible for  us  fully  to  enter.  But  Olshausen  well  remarks  on 
this  point,  'Faith  perceives  even  in  this  a  miraculous,  gracious 
dispensation  of  our  Lord.  Evil  is  everywhere  entwined  and 
mixed  up  with  the  good,  w  order  that  it  may  he  overcome  hy  the 
redeeming  power  of  Christ.  ...  It  is  true  that  the  unhappy  man 


396       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

was  to  become  the  instrument  of  our  Lord's  batrayal,  because 
he  did  not  avail  himself  of  the  opportunity,  but  this  was  by  no 
means  his  destiny.  The  God  of  mercy  only  ordains  everywhere, 
in  this  temporaiy  system  of  the  world,  the  intermixture  of  good 
and  evil,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  be  overcome  by  the  former  ; 
or,  if  it  will  not  allow  itself  to  be  overcome,  to  consummate  the 
good  by  contrast  with  the  evil.  For  although  Judas  brings  our 
Lord  to  the  Cross,  yet  by  this  very  act  he  must  assist  in  founding 
an  everlasting  redemption '  (Com.  on  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  p.  18). 

The  notices  of  Judas,  as  separate  from  the  other  apostles,  are 
very  few,  previously  to  the  commission  of  the  act  which  has 
made  him  eternally  infamous.  He  became  the  treasurer  of  the 
little  company  of  apostles,  but  being  a  thief  appropriated  its 
contents  to  his  own  purposes.  Hence,  when  Marj^,  the  sister  of 
Lazarus,  anointed  our  Lord's  feet  with  precious  ointment,  he 
grudged  the  subtraction  of  the  value  of  the  ointment  from  his  hoped- 
for  gains,  and  said,  '  Why  was  not  this  ointment  sold  for  three  hun- 
dred pence,  and  given  to  the  poor?'  (John  xii.  1-6).  It  is  true 
that  in  Matt.  xxvi.  8 ;  Mark  xiv.  4,  this  saying  is  attributed  to 
'some'  of  'the  disciples,' but  with  the  fuller  information  from 
St,  John,  it  is  evident  that  none  other  than  Judas  was  the  first 
suggestor  of  the  notion,  although  he  may  have  induced  others  to 
join  him  in  giving  open  expression  to  it. 

Immediately  after  this  event,  Judas  is  related  by  all  the  syn- 
optics to  have  gone  to  the  chief  priests,  and  agreed  to  betray 
Jesus  into  their  hands  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver  (Matt.  xxvi.  14- 
16;  Mark  xiv.  10,  11 ;  Luke  xxii.  3-6).  This  is  declared  to  have 
been  done  because  '  the  devil  entered  into '  him,  and  an  oppor- 
tunity was  soon  found,  immediately  after  the  Last  Supper.  Judas 
appears  to  have  been  present  only  at  the  beginning  of  this  supper, 
having  withdrawn  before  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (see 
pp.  103,  104).  The  object  of  his  withdrawal  was  supposed  by  the 
general  body  of  disciples  to  have  for  its  object  the  buying  of  some 
necessary  things,  and  our  Lord  favoured  this  view  by  saying  to 
him  as  he  went '  That  thou  doest,  do  quickly.'  But  his  real  in- 
tention was  to  betake  himself  to  the  priests  and  indicate  where 
Jesus  might  be  conveniently  apprehended,  and  that  this  was  his 
real  intention  our  Lord  not  only  knew,  but  actually  indicated  to 
John  and  Peter  by  the  sign  of  dipping  a  sop  in  the  sour  sauce 
usual  at  the  Paschal  Feast,  and  giving  it  to  the  betrayer  (Matt, 
xxvi.  21-25;  Mark  xiv.  18-21;  Luke  xxii.  21-23;  John  xiii.  18- 


JUDAH.  397 

SO).  'After  the  sop/  we  read,  '  Satan  entered  into  Judas,'  and  he 
went  out.     St.  John  expressively  adds,  'And  it  was  night.' 

The  next  appearance  of  the  traitor  is  in  the  Garden  of  Geth- 
semane,  coming  with  the  high-priests'  servants  and  soldiers  to 
apprehend  Jesus.  It  had  been  agreed  that  he  should  point  out 
his  master  by  kissing  him,  and  therefore  at  once  approaching  our 
Lord  the  traitor  said,  'Hail,  master,'  and  kissed  him.  Further 
than  this,  he  seems  to  have  taken  no  part  in  the  arrest,  and  it  may 
be  well  conceived  that,  having  done  his  part,  he  would  be  only  too 
glad  to  escape,  if  possible,  unnoticed  (Matt.  xxvi.  47-50 ;  Mark 
xiv.  43-46 ;  Luke  xxii.  47,  48 ;  John  xviii.  2-9).  The  time  and 
place  of  his  receiving  the  wages  of  his  iniquity  are  unnoticed,  and 
it  may  be  that  he  now  went  and  claimed  them,  and  then  returned 
to  watch  the  course  of  proceedings.  This  appears  either  to  have 
surprised  him,  or  to  have  too  late  excited  his  remorse.  Either  he 
did  not  expect  that  our  Lord  would-be  put  to  death  (a  course 
indeed  manifestly  illegal),  or  else  he  may  have  thought  that  a  less 
shameful  death  than  crucifixion  would  have  been  inflicted,  or 
simple  remorse  overcame  even  his  covetousness.  Only  the  eifect 
is  known  to  us.  'When  he  saw  that  he  was  condemned,  he 
repented  himself,  and  brought  again  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  to 
the  chief  priests  and  elders,  saying,  I  have  sinned  in  that  I  have 
betrayed  the  innocent  blood.  And  they  said.  What  is  that  to  us  ? 
see  thou  to  that.  And  he  cast  down  the  pieces  of  silver  in  the 
temple  and  departed,  and  went  and  hanged  himself  -  (Matt,  xxvii. 
3-6)-  For  the  use  made  of  the  money  by  the  priests  in  buying  the 
Potter's  Field,  see  Aceldama. 

Another  view  of  the  motives  of  Judas  in  the  betrayal  of  our 
Lord  cannot  be  passed  over  without  notice.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  his  object  was  to  bring  about  by  violent  means  a  public  de- 
claration of  his  Messiahship  by  our  Lord,  and  an  open  manifesta- 
tion of  his  Divine  power.  When  disappointed  in  this  expectation, 
repentance  filled  his  soul  to  such  an  extent  that  he  durst  no 
longer  live,  but  determined  to  meet  his  Lord  in  the  regions  of 
death,  and  there  implore  his  pardon.  The  objections  to  this  opi- 
nion are,  (1)  that  no  hint  of  such  a  notion  on  the  part  of  Judas  is 
ever  given,  (2)  that  his  character  is  invariably  described  as  grasp- 
ing and  covetous  even  to  theft,  and  (3)  that  his  taking  a  bribe 
when  engaged  in  such  a  course  is  almost  inconceivable. 

In  Acts  i.  18,  we  find  St.  Peter,  on  the  occasion  of  the  meeting 
to  select  a  successor  to  Judas  in  the  apostleship,  giving  another 


398        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

account  of  his  death  {'  This  man  purchased  a  field  with  the  reward 
of  iniquity ;  and  falling  headlong  he  burst  asunder  in  the  midst, 
and  all  his  bowels  gushed  out.')  Various  solutions  of  this  apparent 
discrepancy  between  the  accounts  of  Judas'  death  have  been  pro- 
posed. (1)  That  when  Judas  hung  himself  the  rope  broke,  and 
that  described  by  St.  Peter  happened ;  while  as  to  the  expression 
'  purchased  (krj/ffaro),'  this  should  be  rendered  '  obtained,'  St. 
Peter's  meaning  being  that  all  Judas  got  for  his  pains  was  this 
field.  (2)  That  the  fiiends  of  Judas  circulated  the  story  of  Acts  i. 
18,  and  St.  Peter  merely  repeated  the  common  account,  in  the 
correction  of  which  we  have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  he  would 
necessarily  receive  special  divine  illumination.  When,  however, 
the  story  had  to  be  historically  related  under  the  immediate 
guidance  of  God's  Spirit,  then  the  true  story  was  given. 

The  career  of  Judas  has  been  often  taken  as  a  striking  instance 
of  the  power  of  one  bosom  sin  (in  this  case,  covetousness)  to  over- 
come the  largest  possible  opportunities. 

Several  prophetic  allusions  are  found  in  the  Old  Testament  to 
the  fact  that  our  Lord  should  be  betrayed  by  a  friend.  See  Ps. 
xli.  9  ;  Iv.  12-14. 

10.  Judas.  The  person  in  whose  house,  at  Damascus,  Saul 
was  when  Ananias  came  to  him  and  opened  his  eyes  (Acts  ix.  11). 
It  is  still  pointed  out  in  the  street  called  Straight,  being  '  a  com- 
modious dwelling,  with  traces  of  having  once  been  a  church,  and 
then  a  mosque.'  But  as  Dean  Alford  well  says,  'imposture  is  so 
easy,  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  cherish  the  thought  that  the 
spots  now  pointed  out  can  be  the  true  ones.' 

Judas.     See  Judah,  Nos.  3,  4,  5,  7,  8,  9  and  10. 

Jude.     See  Judah,  Nos.  5  and  6. 

Judea  ['lo/'oatrt,  Judcsa],  rendered  '  Jewry '  by  xA.V.,  in  Luke 
xxiii.  5,  and  John  vii.  1,  was  the  southernmost  of  the  three 
provinces  into  which  in  New  Testament  times  Palestine  was 
divided.  It  embodied  the  old  tribal  divisions  of  Judah  (see  Judo), 
Benjamin,  Dan  and  Simeon,  and  very  nearly  represented  the  old 
Kingdom  of  Judah.  It  extended  from  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
west  to  the  Dead  Sea  on  the  east,  and  to  the  desert  on  the  south. 
On  the  north  its  frontier  was  of  the  shape  of  the  letter  L,  the  top 
of  the  letter  touching  the  Mediterranean  a  little  north  of  Csesarea, 
and  the  frontier  then  running  directly  south  to  near  Lydda,  when 
it  turned  to  the  east,  and  ran  directly  east  to  the  Jordan.  In  one 
place  'the  coasts  of  Judsea  beyond  Jordan'  (Matt.  xix.  1)  are 
spoken  of,  but  it  would   seem  that   this   expression    (if  rightly 


JUDAS— JUPITER.  399 

translated)  merely  refers  to  places  beyond  Jordan,  very  near  to  the 
Judaean  frontier. 

In  Acts  ii,  14,  where  A.V.  renders  Aucpig  'lovSaXoi,  by  'Ye 
men  of  Judea,'  the  probable  meaning-  is  simply  'Ye  men  who  are 
Jews/  i.e.  Israelites. 

Julia  [only  found  in  ace.  'lotAiav,  Juliam],  a  person  saluted 
along  with  Philologus  in  Eom.  xvi.  15.  It  is  undecided  whether 
the  nominative  is  Julias,  or  Julia,  on  which  the  determination 
of  the  sex  depends.  If  Julia  be  a  female,  she  may  have  been  the 
wife  of  Philologus. 

Julius  ['lovXtoc,  Julius\  a  centurion  of  Augustus'  band  (see 
Band),  under  whose  charge  St.  Paul  sailed  from  Csesarea  to  Italy. 
He  '  courteously  entreated  Paul,'  and  at  Sidon  gave  him  liberty  to 
go  on  shore,  and  visit  his  friends  (Acts  xxvii.  3).  At  Myra  he 
hired  a  second  ship,  and  transferred  his  soldiers  and  prisoners  into 
it  (xxvii.  6).  At  Crete,  when  it  became  a  question  whether  the 
voyage  should  be  continued,  and  Paul  dissuaded  him  from  doing 
so,  alleging  that  he  perceived  '  that  this  voyage  will  be  with  much 
hurt  and  damage,'  he  believed  the  master  and  owner  of  the  ship 
rather  than  Paul,  and  so  gave  orders  to  continue  the  voyage 
(xxvii.  11).  When  the  vessel  was  wrecked  at  Melita,  he  kept  the 
soldiers  from  killing  Paul,  and  the  other  prisoners,  as  they  desired 
to  do  (xxvii.  43).  Finally,  on  the  arrival  of  the  convoy  at  Rome, 
he  delivered  the  prisoners  to  '  the  captain  of  the  guard  (nrparoTri- 
eapxy)  '  (Acts  xxviii.  16).  Nothing  more  is  known  of  him.  But 
Wieseler,  followed  by  Conybeare  and  Howson,  suggests  that  he 
may  have  been  identical  with  Julius  Priscus,  who  was  afterwards 
prefect  of  the  Praetorian  Guards,  under  the  Emperor  Vitellius. 

Junia  [only  found  in  ace.  'IqwUiv,  Jimiain\  a  person  saluted  by 
St.  Paul  in  Rom.  xvi.  7,  along  with  Andronicus,  as  '  my  kinsmen, 
and  my  fellow-prisoners,  who  are  of  note  among  the  apostles,  who 
also  were  in  Christ  before  me.'  The  sex  of  Junia  cannot  be  de- 
termined from  the  name,  nor  is  anything  further  known  of  the 
persons  or  circumstances  referred  to. 

Jupiter  \^Livi;,  geu.  \wc^  Jiqnter,  gen.  Jovis],  the  principal 
divinity  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Pantheons,  and  regarded  as  the 
'  father  of  gods  and  men.'  The  New  Testament  refers  to  Jupiter 
in  two  places.  1.  When  Paul  and  Barnabas  visited  Lystra  in 
Lycaonia,  and  there  healed  the  cripple,  the  people  cried  '  The  gods 
are  come  down  to  us  in  the  likeness  of  men,'  and  '  called  Barnabas, 
Jupiter ;  and  Paul,  Mercurius,  because  he  was  the  chief  speaker.' 
We  further  read  that  '  the  priest  of  Jupiter,  which  was  before  the 


400       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

city '  (rou  A.  Tov  ovTog  irpb  rrfQ  TroXeojc,  i.e.  of  the  Jupiter  whose 
temple  was  in  front  of  the  city,  probably  so  spoken  of  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  another  Jupiter  whose  temple  was  elsewhere), 
'  brought  oxen  and  garlands,  and  would  have  done  sacrifice  with 
the  people,'  had  not  the  apostles  prevented  it  (Acts  xiv.  11-13). 
The  readiness  of  the  Lycaonians  to  believe  in  such  divine  visits  is 
peculiarly  explicable  from  the  fact  that  a  popular  legend  (related 
by  Ovid,  Met.  viii.  611-724)  described  Jupiter  and  Mercury  as 
having  formerly  visited  a  humble  couple,  named  Baucis  and  Phi- 
lemon, in  these  very  regions.  2.  The  image  of  Diana,  or  Artemis, 
at  Ephesus,  is  spoken  of  by  Demetrius  as  having  '  fallen  down 
from  Jupiter.'  Here  the  words  ^  image  which  fell  down  from 
Jupiter  '  are  represented  in  the  Greek  by  the  single  word  Aio7rt7-;;g 
(Acts  xix.  35).  As  to  the  image,  and  its  worship,  see  under 
Diana  and  Ephesm. 

Justus  ['loOffrog,  Justus],  a  common  surname,  applied  in  the 
New  Testament  to :  1.  Joseph  Barsabas  (Acts  i.  23).  See  under 
Joseph.  2.  A  citizen  of  Corinth,  in  whose  house,  which  was  close 
to  the  synagogue,  Paul  lodged  on  his  second  missionary  journey. 
He  is  described  as  '  one  that  worshipped  God,'  and  was  probably 
a  Greek  proselyte.  3.  A  Christian  at  Rome,  named  Jesus,  joined 
with  St.  Paul  and  others  in  greetings  to  the  Colossians,  and 
stated  to  be  '  of  the  circumcision  '  (Col,  iv.  11).  Whether  he  is 
identical  with  No.  2  cannot  be  determined. 

Kidron.  A  brook  and  ravine  on  the  east  of  Jerusalem.  For  a 
detailed  account,  see  Cedron,  and  also  under  Jerusalem. 

Kisb.     See  Cis. 

Iiamech  \y[y?.,  meaning  not  ascertained,  Aofxex,  LamecK],  the 
father  of  Noah.  Nothing  is  recorded  of  him  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment except  his  genealogy,  and  age,  and  that  he  gave  the  name 
Noah  (see  Noah)  to  his  eldest  son  (Gen.  v.  26,  28-31).  In  the 
New  Testament  he  appears  only  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord 
(Luke  iii.  36).  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  this  Lamech 
with  Lamech  the  son  of  Cain. 

Iiaodicea  [Aao^ifcaa,  Laodicia'].  A  wealthy  Roman  town  in 
the  valley  of  the  river  Mseander,  not  far  from  Colossse  and  Hiera- 
polis  (Col.  iv.  13).  The  epigraph  to  1  Tim.  describes  it  as  '  the 
chiefest  city  of  Phrygia  Pacatiana.'  It  is  now  totally  destroyed, 
and  its  site  doubtful.  The  church  at  Laodicea  is  mentioned  in 
Col.  ii.  1 ;  iv.  13,  16,  and  the  angel  of  the  church  is  reproved 
in  Rev.  iii.  14-22,  for  lukewarmness  and  self-righteousness.  The 
Colossians  are  exhorted  to  read  *  the  epistle  from  Laodicea '  (Col. 


JUSTUS— LAZAEUS.  401 

iv.  6),  by  which  the  Epistle  to  Philemon,  or  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,  has  been  supposed  to  be  meant,  but  no  satisfactory  proof 
of  either  of  these  hypotheses  has  been  adduced.  An  apocryphal 
Epistola  ad  Laodicenses  also  exists.  But  on  this  point  see  further 
on  p.  39. 

]baodic8ans  [_AaociKe7c,  Laodicenses],     See  Laodicea. 

Iiasea  [Aaaaia,  T/iakissa],  a  city  of  Crete,  only  mentioned  in 
Acts  xxvii.  8,  as  near  the  Fair  Havens,  where  St.  Paul  advised  the 
centurion  and  shipmaster  of  the  vessel,  which  was  carrying  him  to 
Rome,  to  winter.  Traces  of  such  a  city  have  been  discovered  four 
or  five  miles  east  of  Cape  Matala,  but  no  reference  to  it  is  given  in 
classical  writers. 

Iiazarus  [1\^p^  =  ivhojn  God  aids,  Adc^apoc,  Lazai'us']  1.  The 
brother  of  Martha  and  Mary,  possiblj^  the  son  or  brother-in-law 
(see  Martha)  of  Simon  the  leper,  beloved  by  Jesus,  and  an  in- 
habitant of  Bethany,  a  town  in  Mount  Olivet,  about  two  miles 
from  Jerusalem.  The  earliest  statement  respecting  him  is  that 
Jesus,  hearing  of  his  sickness,  left  '  the  place  where  he  was,'  and 
came  with  his  disciples  into  Judaea.  Having  arrived  at  Bethany, 
our  Lord  found  that  Lazarus  had  been  dead  four  days,  and  was 
already  entombed.  Accompanied  by  Martha  and  others,  He 
visited  the  grave,  and  having  caused  the  stone  to  be  removed  from 
its  mouth,  summoned  Lazarus  with  the  words,  '  Lazarus,  come 
forth  ! '  The  dead  man  came  forth,  and  so  many  of  the  Jews  con- 
sequently believed,  that  the  enmity  of  the  chief  priests  was 
aroused,  and  Jesus  compelled  to  withdraw  for  a  time  into  privacy 
(John  xi.).  After  this,  six  days  before  the  final  passover,  a  supper 
was  made  at  Bethany,  where  Martha  served,  and  Lazarus  sat  at 
table.  For  the  incidents  of  this  supper  see  Mary.  The  chief 
priests  then  consulted  with  the  view  of  putting  Lazarus  to  death, 
but  nothing  is  certainly  known  of  his  further  history.  All  the 
foregoing  incidents  are  related  in  John  xi.  and  xii.,  and  no  other 
evangelist  mentions  Lazarus.  The  silence  of  the  synoptics  may 
be  attributed  to  either  (1)  their  fear  of  drawing  down  persecution 
on  the  family  of  Lazarus,  or  (2)  a  feeling  of  delicacy  towards  the 
same  persons  ;  for  as  the  incidents  of  the  supper  were  known  to 
at  least  two  of  them  (Matt.  xxvi.  6-13 ;  Mark  xiv.  3-9)  their 
ignorance  of  the  other  events  cannot  be  presumed.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  identify  Lazarus  with  the  young  ruler  {ci.pxo)v) 
who  '  had  great  possessions '  (Matt.  xix.  16-22  ;  Mark  x.  17-22 ; 
Luke  xviii.  18-23),  and  with  the  young  man  who  fled  away  naked 
from  the  chief  priests'  servants,  after  the  capture  of  Jesus  (Mark 


402        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

xiv.  51).  Tradition  relates  that,  after  his  resurrection,  Lazarus 
visited  Marseilles,  and,  having  founded  a  Christian  church  there, 
finally  sufiered  martyrdom. 

2.  One  of  the  personages  in  a  parable  (Luke  xvi.  19-31),  and 
there  described  as  lying,  full  of  sores  and  hungry,  at  the  door  of 
a  rich  man,  usually  named  Dives.  Upon  his  death  Lazarus  is 
conveyed  by  the  angels  into  Abraham's  bosom,  and  is  there  seen 
by  the  rich  man  from  amidst  the  torments  of  hell.  Dives  demands 
that  Lazarus  should  be  sent  with  water  to  cool  his  tongue,  but 
Abraham  informs  him  that  the  great  gulf  which  separates  them 
renders  this  impossible.  The  rich  man  then  petitions  that  Lazarus 
may  be  sent  to  warn  his  five  brethren,  but  Abraham  declares  that 
these  have  Moses  and  the  prophets,  and  that,  therefore,  the  resur- 
rection of  a  dead  man  is  unnecessary.  Whether  the  history  of 
Lazarus  of  Bethany,  viewed  prospectively  (and  with  which,  in  its 
effects  upon  the  world,  the  latter  remark  of  Abraham  corresponds), 
suggested  the  story  of  the  beggar ;  or  whether  any  well-known 
beggar  with  the  name  of  Lazarus  existed  in  our  Lord's  time,  is 
equally  unknown. 

2iebbseus  [A6f3/3aToc1,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  Matthew 
alone  mentions  him  {x.  3)  as  ^  Lebh<^us  whose  5«rw«7?2e  ^s  Thaddeus,' 
but  many  versions  (including  the  Vulgate),  and  ^{,  omit  the  italic- 
ised words.  As  to  the  identity  of  Lebbaeus  (or  Thaddeus)  with 
Judas  the  Ir other  (P)  of  James,  see  Judah  (o). 

Iievi  ['•^7  —garland  or  crown,  Afwt,  im].  1.  Son  of  Melchi,  and 
an  ancestor  of  our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  24). 

2.  Son  of  Simeon,  and  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  29). 

3.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  apostle  Matthew.  After  his  call 
(Mark  ii.  14 ;  Luke  v.  27,  29)  he  ceased  to  be  called  by  this  name. 
See  Mattheiv,  in  Sect.  1,  p.  6. 

4.  Used  in  Heb.  vii.  9  to  designate  the  Levitical  priesthood, 
which  is  there  pronounced  inferior  to  that  of  Melchisedec,  to  whom 
Abraham  (the  ancestor  of  the  yet  unborn  Levi)  payed  tithes.  In 
Rev.  vii.  7  it  is  said  that  '  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  there  were  sealed 
{hdpayinfisvoi)  twelve  thousand.'  The  tribe  of  Levi  appears  to 
have  been  consecrated  to  the  priesthood  at  the  time  of  the  idolatry 
of  the  calf  (Exod.  xxxii.).  Before  that  period  the  firstborn  males 
of  all  Israel  fulfilled  the  Levitical  duties,  for  which  see  Num.  iii. 
and  iv.  Moses  and  Aaron  were  Levites,  being  the  sons  of  Amram, 
who  was  the  eldest  son  of  Kohath,  who  was  the  second  son  of 
Levi.     See  also  under  Levites  in  Sect.  4. 


LEBB.EUS -LOT.  403 

ILibertines.     See  under  the  same  word  in  Sect.  4. 

Iiibya  [ At/it; /y,  Lihya\  one  of  the  places  from  which  the 
strangers,  who  assembled  to  hear  the  apostles  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  came  (Acts  ii.  10).  All  the  then  known  portion  of 
Africa,  excluding  Egypt,  received  this  name,  and  large  numbers 
of  Jews  resided  there.     See  Gyrene. 

l^inus  [AtVoc,  Linus],  only  mentioned  in  2  Tim.  iv.  21  (^  Eubulus 
greeteth  thee,  and  Pudens,  and  Linus,  and  Claudia,  and  all  the 
brethren').  The  place  (Rome)  and  date  (just  before  St.  Paul's 
martyrdom)  of  2  Tim.  being  considered,  it  is  evident  that  Linus 
was  at  Home  about  a.d.  68,  and  universal  tradition  makes  him  to 
have  been  a  bishop  of  Rome ;  whether  in  succession  to  St.  Peter, 
or  not,  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  Eusebius  gives,  for  the  duration 
of  his  episcopate,  a.d.  68-80. 

ILois  [4w'c,  Lois,  gen.  Loidis'],  grandmother  of  Timothy,  and 
possibly  mother  of  his  mother  Eunice  (2  Tim.  i.  5).  Beyond  the 
character  of  possessing  '  unfeigned  faith  (di^vTroKplrot;  Trtortc),' 
assigned  to  her  by  Paul,  nothing  is  known  of  her.  But  cf.  2  Tim. 
iii.  15. 

Iiot  [o'l")  =  a  veil,  Awr,  Lot],  son  of  Haran,  Abram's  younger 
brother.  He  accompanied  Abram  into  Egypt,  but  upon  their 
return  thence,  their  herdmen  quarrelled  about  the  pasturage  neces- 
sary for  their  immense  flocks  (Gen.  xiii.),  and  a  separation  was 
agreed  on.  Lot  chose  the  well-watered  and  fertile  plain  of 
Jordan,  and  went  to  dwell  in  Sodom,  notwithstanding  the  vicious 
practices  of  its  inhabitants.  2  Peter  ii,  7  describes  him  in  Sodom 
as  '  vexed  with  the  filthy  conversation  of  the  wicked,'  and  as  a 
*  righteous  man '  who  '  vexed  his  righteous  soul  from  day  to  day 
with  their  unlawful  deeds.'  His  temporal  prosperity  was  also 
interrupted  by  the  battle  of  four  kings  against  five  (Gen.  xiv.)  in 
which  he  was  captured,  together  with  his  goods,  but  rescued  by 
his  uncle  Abraham.  We  next  hear  of  him  (Gen.  xviii.)  as  ofier- 
ing  a  shelter  to  the  two  angels  who  visited  Sodom  on  the  eve  of 
its  destruction  (cf.  Heb.  xiii.  2),  and  as  being  forewarned  by  them, 
and  escaping  with  his  wife  and  children  from  the  doomed  city. 
His  wife,  however,  looked  back,  and  was  turned  into  *  a  pillar  of 
salt,'  by  which  may  be  meant  that  she  was  overwhelmed  by  the 
bituminous  and  sulphureous  showers  by  which  the  cities  of  the 
plain  were  destroyed.  Her  fate  is  referred  to  by  our  Lord  (Luke 
xvii.  32)  as  a  prospective  warning  as  to  the  conduct  of  his  disciples 
'  in  the  days  of  the  Sou  of  Man.'     Of  Lot's  further  history  nothing 

D  D  2 


404       ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

is  known,  except  that  from  an  incestuous  intercourse  with  his 
daughters,  Moab  and  Ammon  sprang. 

Iiucas  [AovKcic,  Lucas],  translated  '  Lucas '  in  Philem.  24,  but 
'  Luke '  in  other  places.     See  Luke,  in  Sect.  1,  p.  12. 

Xiucius  [AovKioc,  Lucius].  A  kinsman  (fn;y%f  cr/c)  of  Paul,  men- 
tioned in  Rom.  xvi.  21  as  uniting  with  Jason  and  Sosipater  in  a 
salutation  to  the  Eoman  Christians.  The  name  also  occurs  in 
Acts  xiii.  1,  where  '  Barnabas,  Simeon  that  was  called  Niger, 
Lucius  of  Cyrene,  and  Manaen/  being  prophets  or  teachers  of  the 
church  at  Antioch,  ordained  Barnabas  and  Saul,  for  St.  Paul's 
First  Missionary  Journey.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  Lucius 
became  a  Christian  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when  persons  from 
'the  parts  of  Libya  about  Cyrene'  (Acts  ii.  10)  listened  with 
others  to  the  address  of  St.  Peter.  Tradition  also  states  that  he 
was  bishop  of  Cenchrese,  whence  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was 
possibly  sent.  Whether  the  Lucius  of  Rom.  xvi.  21,  and  the  Lucius 
of  Acts  xiii.  1  were  distinct  persons  or  not,  is  not  ascertained. 

Xiuke.     See  Section  1,  p.  12. 

Iiycaonia  \_\vK-aovui,  Lycaonia\  A  district  of  Asia  Minor, 
separated  from  Cilicia  on  the  south  by  Mount  Taurus,  and  ex- 
tending to  the  Cappadocian  hills  on  the  north.  The  nature  of  the 
country  is  an  extensive  plain,  of  which  the  soil  is  for  the  most  part 
bare  and  waterless,  but — like  Australia,  its  suggested  counterpart 
— eminently  fitted  for  sheep  farming.  Its  chief  town,  named 
Iconium,  situated  to  the  north-east,  and  not  far  from  Laodicsea,  is 
identified  with  the  modern  Koniyeh,  and  was  visited  by  Paul  and 
Barnabas  (Acts  xiii.  51).  Berbe  and  Lystra,  of  which  the  sites 
are  now  unknown,  are  also  mentioned  as  visited  by  the  same 
apostles  (Acts  xiv,  6-8;  xvi.  1).  The  'speech  of  Lycaonia ' 
(Acts  xiv.  11)  appears  to  have  differed  from  ordinary  Greek,  and 
has  been  variously  conjectured  to  have  been  either  a  Semitic 
language,  or  a  corrupt  dialect  of  Greek.  For  the  occurrences  at 
the  towns  referred  to  see  under  their  respective  names. 

Iiycia  [Aufc/a,  Lycin'].  A  district  to  the  south-west  of  Asia 
Minor,  at  first  combined  with  Pamphylia  under  one  proconsul,  but 
afterwards  administered  as  a  separate  government.  The  region  is 
bold  and  mountainous,  being  formed  by  the  western  extremities  of 
the  Taurus  range,  which  there  sinks  into  the  sea.  Patara,  one  of 
the  cities  of  Lycia,  was  visited  by  Paul  on  his  last  journey  to 
Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi.  1)  ;  and  Myra,  another  of  its  towns,  is  men- 
tioned as  the  place  where  the  centurion  Julius,  to  whose  charge 
Paul  had  been  committed,  found  a  '  ship  of  Alexandria,'  which 


LUCAS—LYSANIAS.  405 

he  chartered  for  the  conveyance  of  his  troops  and  prisoners  to 
Rome  (Acts  xxvii.  6). 

Iiydda  [Accca,  Lydcla.  Hebrew  form  np].  A  town  on  the 
northern  of  the  two  roads  from  Joppa  to  Jerusalem,  and  nine 
miles  from  the  former  place.  It  appears  in.  Acts  ix.  32  as  a  place 
where  Christians  were  residing,  and  as  visited  by  the  apostle  Peter. 
Here  the  apostle  found  '  a  certain  man  named  ^Eueas,  which  had 
kept  his  bed  eight  years,  and  was  sick  of  the  palsy;  '  and  whose 
miraculous  cure  at  the  word  of  Peter  produced  such  an  effect  that 
*  all  that  dwelt  at  Lydda,  and  '  its  neighbouring  town  '  Saron  turned 
to  the  Lord.'  From  Lydda  the  same  apostle  was  summoned  by  the 
friends  of  Tabitha  to  Joppa,  The  town  has  endured  many  vicis- 
situdes of  fortune,  and  still  exists  under  the  name  of  Lydd.  St. 
George,  the  patron  saint  of  England,  was  born  there,  and  the 
remains  of  a  church  dedicr.ted  to  him  still  form  one  of  the  curi- 
osities of  the  place. 

Zfj-dia  [Ai/n'a,  Lydiii].  A  native  of  Thyatira,  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  by  trade  a  '  seller  of  purple,'  or  dyed  goods,  for  which  that 
place  was  famous,  but  for  unknown  reasons  a  resident  at  Philippi. 
She  was  one  who  '  worshipped  God  ((niSofievr]  rhv  dtov),'  and 
amongst  other  women  visited  on  the  sabbath  day  the  place  by  a 
river  side  where  *  prayer  was  wont  to  be  made  (ov  tvopiZoi-itv  -n-pua- 
Mxr)v  thun)/  or,  perhaps,  where  a  building  for  worship  stood.  Here 
she  heard  the  apostle  Paul,  then  on  his  second  missionary  jour- 
ney, and  having  been  by  God's  grace  converted,  was  baptised,  to- 
gether with  her  hourehold.  She  afterwards  received  Paul,  Silas, 
and  Luke  into  her  house  as  inmates,  and  therefore  must  have  been 
a  person  in  at  least  comfortable  circumstances.  Her  steadfastness 
in  the  faith  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that,  when  Paul  and 
Silas  had  been  imprisoned  by  order  of  the  magistrates  of  Philippi, 
and  miraculously  delivered,  her  house  was  again  the  place  to  which 
they  retired  (Acts  xvi.  14-40).  It  is  possible  that  Lydia  is 
referred  to  by  Paul  amongst  the  Philippiau  '  women  who  laboured 
with  me  in  the  Gospel '  (Phil.  iv.  3). 

ILj-sanias  [  liunai'lac,  Lysanias\  Tetrarch  (jirpnpxric)  of  Abi- 
lene, in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius  Caesar,  at  the  time  when  the 
ministry  of  John  the  Baptist  commenced  (Luke  iii.  1).  Tiberius 
Caesar  was  united  in  the  government  with  his  step-father,  Augus- 
tus, in  the  year  a.d.  11,  three  years  before  the  death  of  Augustus 
(a.d.  14).  The  fifteenth  year  from  this  brings  us  to  a.d.  26,  which 
may  be  accordingly  taken  as  the  date  of  Lysanias.  See  Ahilmey 
in  this  section,  and  Tetrarch  in  section  4. 


406        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

l^ysias  \_fii\av5ioQ  Avaiac,  Claudius  Lysia^'].  The  second  name  of 
Claudius  Lysias  the  '  chief  captain  of  the  baud  (rr/j  x'-'^'-'^PX^  '"'K' 
<77rsipag),'  He  was  in  commaEd  of  the  garrison  of  the  Fortress 
Antonia,  overlooking  the  Temple  area  at  Jerusalem,  when  the. 
apostle  Paul  amved  there  for  the  last  time  (Acts  xxi.  17).  The 
coming  of  Paul  to  Jerusalem,  and  his  supposed  introduction  of  the 
Greek  Trophimus  into  the  Temple,  created  a  popular  tumult, 
which  would  have  ended  in  the  apostle's  murder  had  not  Lysias 
interfered,  and  after  permitting  him  to  address  the  people  (by  which 
a  new  tumult  was  raised)  brought  him  by  main  force  into  '  the 
castle  (7ra|OfjU|(3o/\ »'/).'  Here  he  was  about  to  examine  him  by 
scourging,  but  desisted  on  being  informed  that  Paul  was  a  Roman 
citizen.  The  next  day  Lysias  brought  Paul  before  the  Sanhe- 
drim, but  the  only  result  was  that  a  third  tumult  was  raised  (Acts 
xxiii.  10),  which  compelled  him  once  more  to  bring  his  prisoner 
into  the  castle.  Meanwhile,  more  than  forty  Jews  had  bound 
themselves  by  an  oath  to  kill  Paul,  and  were  preparing  to  send  a 
message  to  Lysias,  inviting  Paul's  attendance  before  the  Sanhe- 
drim, and  intending  to  kill  him  on  the  way  thither.  From  this 
danger  Lysias,  being  warned  of  the  conspiracy  by  Paul's  sister's 
son,  saved  the  apostle,  by  despatching  him  the  same  night  to  Ca3- 
sarea,  the  Roman  capital  of  Palestine,  with  a  letter  to  Felix,  the 
governor,  and  under  a  strong  guard.  The  letter,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  dexterous  falsehood  (Acts  xxiii.  27),  inserted  to  save  his 
own  credit,  gave  the  iisual  abstract  of  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  apostle  came  into  the  chief  captain's  hands,  and  handed 
over  the  final  decision  of  the  matter  to  Felix. 

Iiystra  ^Avarpn,  Lrjstra].  A  city  of  Lycaonia,  the  exact  site  of 
which  has  not  been  settled,  but  which  probably  lay  to  the  south- 
west of  that  province.  Here  Paul  and  Barnabas,  having  been 
driven  from  Iconium,  in  the  course  of  their  first  missionary  jour- 
ney, arrived  and  preached  the  gospel  (Acts  xiv.  6).  Amongst 
others,  a  cripple  heard  Paul  speak,  and  the  apostle  perceiving  his 
faith  healed  him  with  a  word.  The  people  of  Lystra,  headed  by 
*  the  priest  of  Jupiter  which  was  before  their  city  {tuv  Awq  roi- 
oi'Tog  Tvpo  TYiQ  TToXiojc')/  HOW  deslred  to  sacrifice  to  them,  calling 
Barnabas,  Jupiter,  and  Paul,  Mercurius,  and  crying,  '  The  gods  are 
come  down  to  us  in  the  likeness  of  men.'  This  idea  probably 
originated  in  their  popular  tradition  that  Jupiter  and  Mercury  had 
visited  the  Lycaonians,  Philemon  and  Baucis  (see  Ovid,  Met.  viii., 
611-724).  But  the  apostles  refused  to  accept  the  homage.  They 
ran  in  among  the  crowd,  addressed  them   on  the  folly  of  their 


LYSIAS— MACEDONIA.  407 

conduct,  and  of  idolatry  in  general,  and  thus  with  difficulty  kept 
them  from  their  purpose.  The  unbelieving  Jews  of  Antioch  and 
Iconium  now  arrived  at  Lystra,  and  having  persuaded  the  inha- 
bitants stoned  Paul,  and  left  him  for^  dead.  After  a  short  time, 
however,  Paul  revived  and  retired  with  Barnabas  to  Derbe. 
Having  preached  the  gospel  there,  he  returned  to  Antioch  through 
Lystra,  '  confirming  the  souls  of  the  disciples  there.'  In  Acts  xvi. 
1,  Lystra  again  appears  as  the  place  where,  on  St.  Paul's  second 
missionary  journey,  Paul  and  Silas  found  '  Timotheus,  the  son  of 
a  certain  woman  which  was  a  Jewess,  and  believed ;  but  his 
father  was  a  Greek.'  From  2  Tim.  iii.  10,  11,  it  appears  probable 
that  Timotheus  had  been  a  spectator  of  Paul's  sufferings  on  his 
previous  visit,  and  he  may  have  owed  his  conversion  to  that 
spectacle. 

IXZaatb  [\TaaP,  MahatJi].  Son  of  Mattathias,  an  ancestor  of 
our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  26). 

IVIacedonia  [MaK-jcorn'ot,  Macedonia  ;  adj.  i\Ta/c6^cot',  Macedo],  A 
Roman  province,  lying  to  the  north-west  of  the  JEgean,  bounded 
by  lUyricum  and  Modesia  on  the  north,  by  Thrace  and  the  ^gean 
on  the  east,  by  Epirus  and  the  Adriatic  on  the  west,  and  by  Achaia 
on  the  south.  Its  principal  city  was  Thessalonica,  and  the  cities 
of  Neapolis,  Philippi,  Amphipolis,  ApoUonia  and  Berea  are  also 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  It  appears  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment only  in  connexion  with  the  labours  of  St.  Paul.  Having  be- 
held at  Troas  in  a  vision  (Acts  xvi.  9)  a  man  of  Macedonia,  saying 
*  Come  over  into  Macedonia  and  help  us,'  this  apostle  sailed  thither 
with  Luke,  Silas  and  others,  and  landed  at  Neapolis.  From 
Neapolis,  he  proceeded  to  Philippi  (Acts  xvi.  12),  where  his  stay 
was  rendered  memorable  by  the  conversions  of  Lydia,  and  the 
jailer  of  the  prison  in  which  he  and  Silas  were  confined.  From 
Philippi  he  passed  with  Silas  and  Timotheus  through  Amphipolis 
and  Apollonia  to  Thessalonica  (Acts  xvii.  1),  where  a  tumult 
was  excited  by  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel ;  and  thence  he  came  to 
Berea  (Acts  xvii.  10).  From  this  place  he  was  compelled  by  per- 
secution to  flee  to  Athens.  A  second  journey  of  the  same  apostle  to 
Macedonia  is  referred  to  in  Acts  xx.  1-5  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  13  :  vii.  5;ix.  4. 
In  this  journey  he  passed  and  re-passed  through  the  province.  No 
details  are  left  of  his  first  passage,  but  it  is  conjectured  from  2 
Cor.  vii.  5  :  xi.  9,  that  he  made  some  stay  at  Philippi,  and  was 
there  joined  by  Titus.  Of  his  return  route  (Acts  xx.  3,  4)  nothing 
can  be  with  certainty  ascertained.  It  is  uncertain  whether  ITim. 
i.  3  refers  to  a  third  visit  or  not.     The  Macedonian  Christians  were 


408        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEAV   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

evidently  of  an  advanced  religious  character  (2  Cor,  viii.  1  ;  xi.  9 ; 
Phil.  iv.  15;  1  Thess.  i.  3),  and  they  were  the  objects  of  Paul's 
peculiar  affection  (1  Thess.  ii.  8,  17-20  ;  iii.  9,  10). 

IVIag-dala  \_MayaMv,  bul^  Pec.  Text.  MaySaXd,  Magedan'].  One 
of  the  many  Migdols  or  '  watch-towers  '  of  Palestine,  and  possibly 
the  same  with  Migdal-el  (Josh.  xix.  38)  in  Napthali.  From  a 
comparison  of  Matt.  xv.  39  (where  alone  the  name  occurs)  with 
Mark  viii.  10,  it  is  obvious  that  Dalmanutha  and  Magdala  were 
either  contiguous  or  identical.  A  small  village  called  Medjil  still 
exists  on  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Gennesareth,  and  this  has 
been  identified  with  Magdala  (see  map  on  p.  79),  but  on  no  cer- 
tain authority.  Into  the  'coasts  {ra  omci)  of  Magdala'  our 
Saviour  came  by  ship,  after  feeding  the  4,000  on  the  eastern  side 
of  Lake  Gennesareth,  and  after  a  discussion  with  the  Pharisees 
and  Sadducees,  as  to  the  sign  which  they  demanded  of  him  from 
heaven,  returned  to  the  same  place  (Matt.  xv.  39;  xvi.  5).  The 
place  is  also  interesting  as  having  given  name  to  Mary  Magdalen 
(M.  >'/  M«yc?a\j;i^//),  the  person  out  of  whom  our  Lord  cast  seven 
devils  (Luke  viii.  2).     For  her  history,  see  under  Marg. 

BSagogr.     See  Gog. 

Malacbi  [''?5^?^  =  messenger  of  Jehovah,  'MaXaxiaq  (LXX.),  Ma- 
lachias'],  the  last  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets.  He  prophesied 
about  420  B.C.,  after  the  second  return  of  Nehemiah  from  Persia, 
and  has  been  supposed  by  some  to  be  identical  with  Ezra  the 
priest.  In  the  New  Testament  his  prophecy  of  Elias  the  prophet, 
as  the  forerunner  of  the  Lord,  is  referred  to  by  (a)  the  angel  who 
announced  to  Zacharias  the  birth  of  John  the  Baptist  (Luke  i.  17); 
(6)  St.  Mark  (Mark  i.  2);  (c)  our  Lord  (Matt.  xi.  10;  Mark  ix. 
11,  12).  Another  prophecy  by  Malachi  (i.  2,  3)  is  also  quoted  in 
Pom.  ix.  13  ('  Jacob  have  I  loved,  but  Esau  have  I  hated  '). 

IVEalchus  [MnXxoQ,  Malchus'].  The  servant  of  the  high-priest 
(most  probably  Caiaphas),  who  was  with  the  multitude  sent  to 
take  Jesus.  Peter,  having  a  sword,  drew  it  and  smote  off  his 
right  ear.  Then  our  Saviour,  saying  '  Suffer  ye  thus  far,'  touched 
his  ear — which  may  not  have  been  entirely  severed — and  healed 
him.  The  incident  is  related  by  all  four  evangelists  (Matt.  xxvi. 
51 ;  Mark  xiv.  47  ;  Luke  xxii.  50 ;  John  xviii.  10)  but  John  alone 
gives  the  name  of  Peter  as  the  aggressor,  and  of  Malchus  as  the 
sufferer.  He  may  have  known  the  name,  through  his  own  intimacy 
with  the  high-priest  (John  xviii.  15). 

I^aleleel  \7^2rp  =  praise  of  God,  MaXiXtifK,  MalaleeT]  an  ante- 


MAGDALA— MAETHA.  409 

diluvian  patriarch,  son  of  Cainan,  called  in  tlie  Old  Testament 
]\tahalaleel  (Gen.  v.  13-17).  In  the  New  Testament  he  only 
appears  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  37). 

XMCanaen  [Mavai'iv,  Manahen],  One  of  the  prophets  and  teach- 
ers in  the  church  at  Antioch.  Acts  xiii.  1,  the  only  passage  which 
mentions  him,  describes  him  as  '  brought  up  with  Herod  the 
tetrarch  ('Hp.  to7'  r.  (rvrrpo(pog).^  The  Herod  here  referred  to  was 
Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  who  beheaded  John  the  Bap- 
tist. It  is  not  easy  to  decide  on  the  nature  of  the  connexion 
indicated  by  the  word  crvvrpocpoc.  It  may  either  mean  that  Manaen 
was  an  intimate  associate  of  Herod,  or  that  Herod  had  been 
brought  up  as  his  foster-brother,  a  supposition  which  receives 
strength  from  a  statement  of  Josephus,  referring  to  the  bring- 
ing up  of  Archelaus  and  Antipas,  the  sons  of  Herod  the  Great, 
by  some  private  person  at  Rome.  The  name  Manaen  is  ihe  same 
with  Menahem  (2  Kings  xv.  14,  16)  and  signifying  consoler. 

Manasseh  [ntJ^jp  =oroe  luho  foi'gets,  Mnvacrcyyjc^  Manasses],  a 
king  of  Judah,  son  of  Hezekiah.  He  reigned  B.C.  699-644,  and  was 
remarkable  for  idolatry  and  sin.  His  history  is  contained  in  2  Kings 
xxi.  1-18,  and  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  1-20.  He  was  for  some  time  a 
captive  in  Babylon,  and  the  Apocrypha  contains  a  prayer  supposed 
to  have  been  there  composed  by  him.  In  the  New  Testament  the 
only  mention  of  Manasseh  is  in  tlie  genealogy  of  Christ  (Matt.  i.  10). 

Marcus  [Map/coc,  Ma7'cus].  Applied  in  Col.  iv.  10;  Philem. 
24 ;  1  Peter  v,  13,  to  designate  the  evangelist  Mark.  See  Mark 
in  Section  1,  p.  9. 

Mark.     See  Mark,  in  Section  1,  p.  9. 

Mars'  Hill.     See  Areopagus. 

Martha  [Mi/pfla,  Martha],  the  sister  of  Lazarus  and  Mary  of  Be- 
thany, possibly  the  wife  or  widow  of  Simon  the  Leper,  and  beloved 
of  Jesus  (John  xi.  5).  She  first  appears  in  Luke  x.  38  as  '  a  certain 
woman,'  who  received  the  Lord  into  her  house,  and  made  him  a 
feast.  Being '  cumbered  with  much  serving  (TrspucrTrdro  -Kepi  -rcoWiiv 
oiaKoviav),'  she  requested  Jesus  to  urge  her  sister  Mary  to  assist  her, 
and  then  received  the  memorable  answer, '  Martha,  Martha,  thou  art 
careful  and  troubled  about  many  things :  but  one  thing  is  needful 
Qvbg  06  lariv  xpda) :  and  Mary  hath  chosen  that  good  part,  which 
shall  not  be  taken  away  from  her.'  At  the  coming  of  Jesus  after 
the  death  of  Lazarus  Martha  is  found  sitting  in  the  house,  sur- 
rounded by  many  of  the  Jews,  but  rises  and  goes  to  meet  the 
Saviour  (John  xi.  19).  In  answer  to  the  Lord's  question,  she 
professes  her  belief  in  the  resurrection,  and  in  his  Messiahship,  and 


410        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY 

then  departs  and  secretly  calls  her  sister.  At  the  gTave,  it  was 
Martha  who  hesitated  to  have  the  stone  removed,  declaring  that 
'  by  this  time  he  stinketh ; '  but  of  her  individual  share  in  the 
other  details  of  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus  nothing  is  said.  The 
only  other  mention  of  Martha  in  the  New  Testament  is  in  John 
xii.  2,  where  she  is  stated  to  have  '  served  (^u]Knvii)'  at  the  supper 
made  at  Bethany,  six  days  before  the  final  passover.  The  actively 
religious  character  of  Martha  well  contrasts  with  the  more  medi- 
tative cast  of  thought  which  distinguishes  her  sister.  Tradition 
asserts  that  she  accompanied  Lazarus  to  Marseilles,  and  there 
founded  a  religious  society. 

Mary  [p\y2  =  their  contumacy,  ^apia^i,  gen.  Mapiac,  dat.  and 
ace.  ^latncif-i  (always  when  applied  to  Mary  the  mother  of  our 
Lord),  but  Mapia  (when  applied  to  other  Maries),  Maiia],  applied 
to  several  persons  in  the  New  Testament,  viz. — 

1.  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus. 

2.  Mary  the  loife  of  Clopas. 

3.  Mary  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses. 

4.  Mary  Magdalene. 

5.  Mary  the  sister  of  Lazarus. 

6.  Mary  the  mother  of  Mark. 

7.  Mary  the  fellow-labourer  of  St,  Paul. 

Of  these  it  will  be  assumed  that  Nos.  2  and  3  are  identical. 

1.  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus,  always  called  3Iariam  (see  above ; 
and  also  see,  for  an  exhaustive  examination  of  the  meaning  of  the 
name.  Bishop  Pearson's  '  Creed,'  Art.  iii.  note),  was  probably  the 
daughter  of  Heli.  This  assumes  the  old-established  view,  that 
the  genealogy  of  Luke  iii.  is  her  genealogy ;  but  Bishop  Hervey 
maintains  a  contrary  opinion;  and  an  anonymous  writer,  whose 
views  are  adopted  and  powerfully  supported  by  Mr.  Gough  C  New 
Testament  Quotations,'  note  203),  maintains  that  the  genealogy  in 
Matthew  is  Mary's  genealogy,  and  that  she  was  the  daughter  of  a 
Joseph  (see  Genealogy  of  Christ,  Section  4).  The  events  of  her 
childhood  are  entirely  unknown,  although  a  series  of  baseless 
fictions  may  be  seen  respecting  them  in  the  Apocryphal  Gospels, 
and  notably  in  the  '  Protevangelium.'  These  legends  make  out 
that  Mary  was  the  daughter  of  Joachim  (  =  Heli)  and  Anna,  both 
pious  persons,  being  born  to  them  after  twenty  years  of  barren 
wedlock.  The  child  thus  granted  was  dedicated  to  the  Lord, 
resided  in  the  Temple,  and  vowed  perpetual  virginity.  Hence, 
when  twelve  or  fourteen   years  old,  and  when   her   companion 


MARY.  411 

maidens  were  given  in  marriage,  Mary  declined  marriage,  but  at 
length  yielded  to  pressure,  and  was  betrothed  to  Joseph,  a  carpenter 
of  Nazareth,  a  widower  with  children.  Then  follow  circumstances 
more  or  less  resembling  the  Scriptural  account,  and  Mary,  still  a 
virgin,  brings  forth  Jesus.  No  reliance  whatever  can  be  placed 
upon  these  stories,  the  earliest  of  these  apocryphal  histories,  the 
'  Protevangelium,'  being  apparently  the  work  of  a  Christian  Jew 
of  the  second  century,  and  never  having  attained  the  slightest 
authority  in  the  church.  Our  real  knowledge  of  the  mother  of 
Jesus  begins  v/ith  the  circumstances  related  in  Luke  i.  26-56, 
which  occurred  probably  in  March,  ^.a  5,  the  traditional  date 
being  March  25.  Here  Mary  appears  as  residing  at  Nazareth,  and 
betrothed  to  Joseph,  of  the  iiouse  of  David,  probably  her  cousin. 
Here  she  receives  the  intimation  from  the  angel  Gabriel  that,  by 
the  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  she  should  conceive  and  bear  a  son, 
whose  name  should  be  called  Jesus.  The  words  used  by  the 
angel  ('  Hail,  thou  that  art  highly  favoured  (x^'Ph  KexapLTwfikvij), 
the  Lord  is  with  thee:  blessed  art  thou  among  women") 
have  occasioned  much  discussion.  X  and  B.  omit  the  spaced 
words,  so  that  they  may  be  dismissed  as  very  doubtful.  But  the 
Vulgate  translates  KsxafjiTujijhi]  by  '  plena  gratia '  ^fuU  of  grace^ 
and  Romanists  have  built  an  edifice  of  superstition  on  this  trans- 
lation. It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  remark  that  the  words  cannot 
be  grammatically  rendered  except  by  regarding  Mary  as  the  ohject 
(>f  Divine  grace  or  favour,  and  not  as  the  cUspejise?-  of  grace  to 
others. 

After  the  annunciation  Mary  visited  her  cousin  Elizabeth,  then 
with  child  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  remained  with  her  three 
months,  probably  until  the  birth  of  the  child.  On  the  occasion  of 
this  visit  she  uttered  the  Maynijkat,  founded  upon  the  Song  of 
Hannah  in  1  Sam.  ii.  1-10.  In  this  Song  occurs  the  words  '  From 
henceforth  all  generations  shall  call  me  blessed'  {fxaKapiovcri  fit  = 
lit.  shall  count  me  happy ;  comp.  ^  fioKapl'Cofxiv  rovg  virofjikvovTac, 
we  count  them  happy  which  endure,'  Jas.  v.  11),  an  expression 
borrowed  from  Leah's  exclamation  on  the  birth  of  Asher  ('  Happy 
am  I,  for  the  daughters  will  call  me  blessed :  and  she  called  his 
name  Asher,'  i.e.  happy,  Gen.  xxx.  13). 

After  this  Mary  returned  to  Nazareth,  and  being  found  with 
child  would  have  been  put  away  by  Joseph,  had  he  not  been 
warned  by  an  angel  not  to  do  so,  and  that  '  that  which  is  conceived 
in  her  is  of  the  Holy  Ghost '  (Matt.  i.  20).  Encouraged  by  this  an- 
gelic direction,  Joseph  took  Mary  to  him,  and  shortly  afterwards, 


412        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

probably  about  December  B.C.  5,  journeyed  with  her  to  Bethlehem, 
in  order  to  be  enrolled  in  the  census  then  being  carried  on  by 
Cyrenius  in  his  first  Presidentship  of  Syria  (Matt.  i.  18-25  ;  Lulce 
ii.  1-5).  At  the  inn  in  Bethlehem  Mary  brought  forth  her  son  j 
here  also  she  received  the  visits  of  the  Shepherds  and  the  Wise 
Men  to  Jesus,  and  here  she  must  have  been  present  at  the  Cir- 
cumcision, eight  days  after  the  birth  (Matt.  ii.  1-13 ;  Luke  ii. 
6-21).  The  solemnity  of  her  feeling  on  these  occasions  is  espe- 
cially noted  ('  Mary  kept  all  these  things  and  pondered  (o-i;/^(/3aA- 
Xiivfra)  them  in  her  heart,'  Luke  ii.  19).  Betvs^een  the  Circum- 
cision and  the  visit  of  the  Wise  Men  also  occurred  the  Presenta- 
tion in  the  Temple  of  the  Child,  and  the  Purification  of  the  mother. 
This  is  related  in  Luke  ii.  22-39,  vv'here  in  the  course  of  the  song 
of  Simeon,  uttered  on  the  occasion,  we  read  that  Simeon  said  of 
Mary,  '  Yea,  a  sword  shall  pierce  through  thine  ow^n  soul  also.' 
Some  refer  this  to  her  future  sufferings  and  sorrows,  if  not  to  her 
martyrdom  (?),  while  others  (as  Alford)  think  the  allusion  is  to 
the  difiiculties  she  would  meet  in  seeking  salvation  through  faith, 
in  One,  who,  according  to  the  flesh,  was  her  son. 

Shortly  after  this  it  became  necessary  to  withdraw  from  Beth- 
lehem, in  order  to  frustrate  the  designs  of  Herod  the  Great,  and 
Joseph  conveyed  Mary  and  her  child  to  Egypt,  where  they  remained 
until  Herod's  death.  Thence  returning,  they  settled  in  Nazareth 
(Matt.  ii.  20-23).  Nothing  more  is  heard  of  Mary  at  this  period 
except  that  her  custom  was  to  accompany  Joseph  annually  to  Jeru- 
salem for  the  Passover,  whither,  when  our  Lord  was  twelve  years 
old,  she  took  Him  wdth  her.  The  circumstances  of  our  Lord's 
remaining  behind  at  Jerusalem,  and  being  found  at  last  in  the 
Temple,  are  related  in  Luke  ii.  40-52.  The  fact  that  on  this 
occasion  his  mother,  and  not  Joseph,  first  addressed  him,,  is 
full  of  meaning;  and  it  is  further  expressly  stated  that  'his 
mother  kept  all  these  sayings  in  her  heart.'  Indeed,  it  has 
been  with  great  propriety  suggested,  that  the  particulars  of  the 
Finding  in  the  Temple,  and  other  incidents  of  the  early  life  of  our 
Lord,  have  been  derived  from  no  other  than  Mary  herself. 

Having  learned  that,  after  being  thus  found  in  the  Temple,  our 
Lord  returned  to  Nazareth  with  Joseph  and  Mary,  and  'was 
subject  unto  them'  (Luke  ii.  51),  we  lose  sight  altogether  of 
Mary  until  after  the  Baptism  and  the  official  commencement  of 
her  son's  ministry.  She  then  appears  as  being  at  Cana  in  Galilee, 
where  there  was  a  marriage,  to  which  Jesus  and  his  disciples 
were  called.     Her  part  in  the  miracle  which  Jesus  then  wrought, 


MARY.  413 

clianging  water  into  wine,  is  thus  described :  '  When  they 
wanted  wine,  the  mother  of  Jesus  saith  unto  him,  They  have 
no  wine.  Jesus  saith  unto  her,  Woman,  what  have  I  to  do  with 
thee?  Mine  hour  is  not  yet  come.  His  mother  saith  unto  the 
servants,  Whatsoever  He  saith  unto  you,  do '  (John  ii.  3-5).  The 
expression  '  woman  (yi>rat)  '  is  not  here  to  be  regarded  as  dis- 
respectful, and  it  is  noticeable  that  our  Lord  never  Himself  uses 
the  expression  '  mother.'  It  would  therefore  seem  that  our  Lord 
desired  that,  while  his  humanity  remained  clearly  manifest,  his 
human  relationships  should  not  be  prominent. 

After  this,  Jesus  went  down  with  'his  mother  and  his  brethren' 
to  Capernaum  (John  ii.  12),  and  this  circumstance,  coupled  with 
the  foregoing  fact  that  his  mother  '  was '  at  Cana,  and  that  Mary 
and  the  brethren  of  Jesus  appear  again  on  several  occEisions, 
whereas  Joseph  is  never  afterwards  mentioned,  leads  to  the 
belief  that  Mary  was  now  a  widow.  It  is  also  quite  consistent 
with  the  Scripture  narrative  to  suppose  that  she  had  ceased  to 
reside  at  Nazareth.  When  our  Lord  visited  that  place  for  the 
first  time  as  a  preacher,  no  mention  whatever  is  made  of  his 
mother ;  and  when  He  visited  it  for  the  second  time,  the  people 
said  '  Is  not  this  the  carpenter's  son  ?  is  not  his  mother  called 
Mary  (Gr.  Mariam)  ?  .  .  .  and  his  sisters,  are  they  not  all  {Trarr,,,) 
with  us?'  Here  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  expression  'with 
us  '  is  onl}^  applied  to  the  sisters  (Matt.  xiii.  55 ;  comp.  also  Mark 
vi.  1-3).  It  would  seem  that  the  sisters  had  married  and  remained 
at  Nazareth,  while  the  brethren  had  gone  elsewhere  with  their 
widowed  mother. 

In  any  case,  Mary  next  appears  at  Capernaum,  standing  out- 
side some  building  (but  some  say,  outside  the  crowd  of  hearers)  in 
which  our  Lord  was  preaching,  and  requesting  to  see  him  ;  on  this 
occasion,  our  Lord  uttered  the  memorable  words,  '  Who  is  my 
mother,  or  my  brethren  ?  .  .  .  Whosoever  shall  do  the  will  of  God, 
the  same  is  my  brother,  and  sister,  and  mother '  (Matt.  xii.  46-50  ; 
JNIark  iii.  31-35  ;  Luke  viii.  19-21).  Whether  Mary  was  among 
the  'friends '  who,  just  previously  to  this  incident,  and  perhaps  as 
a  portion  of  it,  had  gone  out  to  lay  hold  on  our  Lord,  upon  the 
supposition  of  his  being  mad,  is  not  ascertainable  (Mark  iii.  21). 
From  the  saying  above  quoted,  many  writers  have  pointed  out 
that  the  true  blessedness  of  the  Lord's  mother  did  not  consist 
in  having  borne  him,  but  in  believing  on  him.  And  the  truth  of 
this  remark  is  confirmed  by  one  other  incident  in  which  our  Lord's 
mother  is  alluded  to.     On  the  final  journey  towards  JerusaleEi, 


414        ESSENTIALS   OE   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

'■  a  certain  woman  of  the  company  lifted  up  her  voice,  and  said  unto 
him,  Blessed  is  the  womh  that  bare  thee,  and  the  paps  which  thou 
hast  sucked.  But  He  said,  Yea,  rather  {jxtvovvyf)  blessed  are  they 
who  hear  the  word  of  God,  and  keep  it '  (Luke  xi.  27,  28). 

No  notice  of  Mary  now  occurs  again  until,  in  company  with  her 
sister,  Mary  (the  wife  ?)  of  Clopas,  and  Mary  Magdalene,  we  find 
her  at  the  cross  (John  xix.  25  j  on  which  see  Mm-y,  Nos,  2  and  3, 
below).  From  John  xix.  25-27,  we  find  that  the  apostle  John 
now  took  her  to  his  own  home,  and  all  that  we  further  read  of 
her  is  that  she  was  one  of  the  women  who,  after  the  Ascension, 
continued  with  the  apostles  in  the  upper  room  '  in  prayer  and  sup- 
plication '  (Acts  i.  14).  Numerous  traditions,  of  course,  exist  with 
regard  to  her  death,  as  for  instance  that  she  expired  at  Jerusalem 
in  the  arms  of  St.  John,  or  that  she  went  to  Ephesus  with  St. 
John  and  there  died,  or  that  by  the  direction  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
she  was  carried  in  a  coffin  to  Gethsemane  by  the  apostles  (miracu- 
lously brought  from  various  parts  of  the  world),  and  having  there 
lain  three  days,  was  visited  by  the  Lord  Jesus  and  transported  to 
heaven  ! 

The  perpetual  virginity  of  Mary  has  been  asserted  by  the  Greek 
and  Latin  churches.  Bp.  Pearson  defends  this  view.  He  says 
that  the  phrase  ^  Joseph  knew  her  not,  until  she  had  brought  forth 
her  first-born  son '  (Matt.  i.  25)  does  not  necessarily  imply  that 
after  the  nativity  she  ceased  to  be  a  virgin,  but  only  declares  that 
up  to  that  time,  at  any  rate,  such  was  her  condition.  Again,  the 
expression  ^  first-born '  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  second-born  ; 
else,  when  God  said  ^Sanctify  unto  me  all  the  firstborn  '  (Ex.  xiii. 
2)  only-sons  would  have  been  excluded,  whereas,  on  the  contrar}^,  the 
redemption  money  was  to  be  paid  within  a  month,  without  stay- 
ing to  ascertain  whether  a  second  child  should  be  born.  Further, 
the  '  brethren  of  the  Lord '  are  to  be  regarded  either  as  the 
children  of  Joseph  by  a  former  wife,  or  as  our  Lord's  cousins. 
These  arguments  are  certainly  not  calculated  to  produce  convic- 
tion, when  compared  with  the  obvious  fact  presented  by  the 
Scripture  narrative,  that  Joseph  and  Mary  were  husband  and 
wife,  and  that  no  hint  of  the  perpetual  virginity  of  Mary  is 
dropped  in  Scripture. 

The  expression  *  son  of  Mary '  is  not  applied  as  a  vocative  to 
our  Lord  in  the  Gospels.  It  only  occurs  in  Mark  vi.  3  ('  Is  not 
this  the  carpenter,  the  son  of  Mary,  the  brother  of  James,'  &c.). 

Into  the  subject  of  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary  it  is  not  the 
province  of  this  work  to  enter.     The  tradition  of  her  assumption 


MARY.  415 

has  been  already  slightly  entered  into.  This  has  been  largely 
added  to  since  its  first  promulgation.  Mary  has  been  declared 
free,  first  from  all  actual  sin,  then  from  all  original  sin,  next,  to 
have  been  immaculately  conceived.  In  the  Psalter  of  Bona- 
ventura,  and  in  the  works  of  Alphonso  Liguori  (see  especially  The 
Glories  of  Mary)  pretty  nearly  all  the  attributes  of  the  three 
persons  of  the  Trinity  have  been  ascribed  to  her.  Finally,  her 
parents,  Joachim  and  Anne,  have  been  elevated  into  saints,  and 
even  Joseph  her  husband  has  become  the  object  of  extensive 
adoration  (see  the  Glo)ies  of  Josqj/i,  the  Litanies  of  St.  Joseph,  the 
Beads  of  St.  Joseph,  the  Novena  of  St.  Joseph,  &c.).  With  all 
this  the  Scripture  has  nothing  to  do.  Its  simple  statements  on 
the  matter  are  related  above. 

2  and  3.  niary  (thezvife — these  vv^ords  are  not  in  the  Greek — )  of 
Clopas,  or  Mary  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses.  These  two  modes 
of  description  may  be  referred  to  the  same  person,  chiefly  because 
Clopas  and  Alpheus  are  forms  of  the  same  name  (see  under  those 
names),  and  because  the  Apostle  James  is  described  as  the  son  of 
AlphfBus.  Hence  Mary  was  his  father's  wife,  and  must  have  been 
his  mother,  unless  Alpheeus  married  two  Maries  in  succession. 
This  latter  supposition  is  untenable,  because  both  Mary  of  Clopas 
and  Mary,  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses,  were  present  at  the 
Crucifixion. 

This  same  Mary,  with  Mary  Magdalene,  sat  with  other  women 
over  against  the  sepulchre  of  Jesus  (Matt,  xxvii.  61 ;  Mark  xv.  47 ; 
with  which  compare  Luke  xxiii.  5o),  and  early  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week,  accompanied  Mary  Magdalene  and  Salome  to  the  sepulchre 
(Matt,  xxviii.  1  ;  Mark  xvi.  1).  She  was  also  probably  among 
the  women  to  whom  our  risen  Lord  appeared,  saying,  ^  All  hail  ' 
(Matt,  xxviii.  9).  But  no  further  particulars  are  recorded  with 
respect  to  her.  As  her  husband  is  not  mentioned  except  in  con- 
nexion with  her  name,  or  that  of  her  son,  it  seems  probable  that 
she  was  a  widow. 

This  Mary  has  been  identified  by  many  with  the  sister  of  Mary  the 
mother  of  our  Lord.  The  names  of  her  sons,  James  and  Joses,  being 
identical  with  two  of  the  names  of  our  Lord's  brethren  is  one  argu- 
ment for  this  identification.  With  regard  to  this  see  under  James. 
Another  argument  is  drawn  from  a  comparison  of  the  lists  of 
women  present  at  the  Crucifixion.  In  Matt,  xxvii.  55,  we  read, 
'  many  women  were  there  beholding  afar  ofi",  which  followed 
Jesus  from  Galilee,  ministering  unto  him  :  among  which  was 
Mary  Magdalene,  and  Mary  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses,  and 


416        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEAV  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

the  motlier  of  Zebedee's  children.'  In  Mark  xv.  40,  '  There 
were  also  women  looking  on  afar  off:  among  whom  was  Mary 
Magdalene,  and  Mary  the  mother  of  James  the  less  and  of  Joses, 
and  Salome.'  In  both  these  cases  the  time  of  this  group  being 
noticed  is  given  as  3  p.m.  In  John  xix.  25,  we  read,  '  There  stood 
by  the  cross  of  Jesus  his  mother,  and  his  mother's  sister,  Mary  the 
wife  of  Cleophas  (which  should  be  Clopas),  and  Mary  Magdalene.' 
This  took  place  apparently  at  an  early  time  in  the  Cruciiixion,  and 
was  followed  by  the  delivery  of  the  Lord's  mother  to  John,  so 
that  it  could  not  have  taken  place  '  afar  off.'  Hence,  comparing 
the  accounts,  we  have — 


Maithew's  and  Mark's  Group 

'  afar  off,'  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's 

death. 

John's  Group, 

near  the  cross,,  at  the  beginning  of  the 

crucifixion. 

Many  women,  and  notably 

Mary  the  mother  of  James  and 

J OSes  ; 
Mary  Magdalene  ; 
Salome,  or  the  mother  of  Zebedee's 

children. 

Our    Lord's     mother     (who    soon 

withdraws)  ; 
Her  sister ; 
Mary  the  wife  of  Clopas  ; 

Mary  Magdalene. 

It  is  generally  assumed  that  these  groups  were  identical,  and, 
therefore,  that  '  her  sister  '  refers  to  Mary  the  wife  of  Clopas. 
But  it  appears  to  the  writer  that  no  such  identity  can  be  sustained 
after  consideration  of  the  above  table,  but  that  Matthew  and  Mark 
are  speaking  of  a  group  of  three  persons,  and  John  of  a  group  of 
four  persons,  assembled  at  another  time.  In  the  former  group  may 
have  been  two  of  the  persons  who  had  been  in  the  latter,  a  most 
natural  circumstance,  the  soldiers  having  probably  cleared  the 
ground  round  the  cross,  and  driven  the  crowd  back  to  a  distance, 
from  which  the  same  persons,  who  had  been  round  the  cross  at  first, 
continued  to  regard  the  scene.  And  even  if  the  groups  be  considered 
identical,  then  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  Salome  is  regarded  by 
many  as  the  sister  of  our  Lord's  mother.  See  Salome.  On  the 
whole,  therefore,  the  assumption  that  Mary  the  wife  of  Clopas, 
and  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses  (an  identification  which  is 
admitted)  was  the  sister  of  our  Lord  seems  to  the  writer  to  be 
very  doubtful. 

4.  IWCary  I^ag-dalene  [//  kuiXoviufvi]  MayrV/X???^//,  Magdalene']  first 
appears  in  Luke  viii.  2,  as  one  of  the  women  who  accompanied  our 


]\IARY.  417 

Lord  in  Galilee,  Here  it  is  stated  that  she  had  been  delivered  by 
our  Lord  from  a  possession  by  ^  seven  devils  (^aijudvia).^  The 
name  has  been  diversely  interpreted,  but  the  most  reasonable  sup- 
position seems  to  be  that  it  indicates  the  town  of  Magdala,  on  the 
west  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  as  the  place  from  which  she  came. 
No  further  notice  of  her  occurs  until  the  time  of  the  Passion, 
when  she  appears  amongst  the  women  who  came  from  Galilee 
with  our  Lord.  She  was  one  of  the  three  (or  four  ?)  women  at 
the  foot  of  the  cross,  and  afterwards  standing  afar  off  to  see  the 
end  (Matt,  xxvii.  56  -,  Mark  xv,  40  ,•  John  xix.  25 ;  but  see  under 
Mari/,  Nos  2  and  3). 

With  Mary  the  mother  of  Joses,  and  others,  she  afterwards  sat 
over  against  the  sepulchre  (Matt,  xxvii.  61 ;  Mark  xv.  47)  ;  and  she 
was  first  at  the  tornb,  very  early  on  the  resurrection  morning, 
bringing  with  her -sweet  spices  (Matt,  xxviii.  1;  Mark  xvi.  1). 
The  first  appearance  of  our  Lord  after  his  resurrectioD  was  vouch- 
safed to  her,  as  she  wept  at  the  supposed  removal  of  the  body  of 
her  beloved  Lord  (Mark  xvi.  9,  10 ;  John  xx.  11-18 ;  as  to  the 
harmonistic  question  of  the  appearances  see  Sect.  2,  pp.  11.3-115). 
After  this  we  only  read  that  she  went,  as  directed  by  her  Master, 
and  told  the  disciples  of  what  she  had  seen ;  then  her  name 
occurs  no  more.  Various  legends,  confusing  her  with  Mary  of 
Bethany  and  with  the  woman  who  was  a  sinner,  of  course  relate 
an  after  history.  These  fables  declare  her  to  have  accompanied 
Martha  to  Marseilles,  and  thence  to  Aries,  where  on  her  death  a 
church  was  built  in  her  honour,  and  miracles  were  wrought  at  her 
tomb. 

No  valid  reason  exists  for  confounding  Mary  Magdalene  with 
'  the  woman  who  was  a  sinner,'  whose  anointing  of  Jesus  is 
described  in  Luke  vii.  36-50.  Such  a  person,  however  genuine  her 
repentance,  would  hardly  be  admitted  into  the  company  of 
women,  probably  of  position,  and  certainly  of  unblemished  cha- 
racter, such  as  were  Joanna,  Salome,  and  the  mother  of  our 
Lord. 

5,  Mary  the  sister  of  Lazarus,  only  appears  on  three  occasions. 
On  the  first  she  is  associated  with  her  sister  Martha,  when  the 
latter  makes  a  feast  in  her  house  in  '  a  certain  village  '  for  Jesus 
(Luke  X.  38-42 ;  see  Sect.  2,  p.  89),  Here,  while  Martha  attends 
to  '  much  serving,'  Mary  sits  at  Jesus'  feet,  and  hears  his  word, 
receiving  the  commendation,  '  Mary  hath  chosen  that  good  part, 
which  shall  not  be  taken  away  from  her.'  Again,  in  John  xi.,  we 
read   that   ^  Jesus   loved    Martha,  and   her  sister,   and  Lazarus,' 

E   E 


418        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTA3IENT  STUDY. 

and  tliat  when  her  brother  Lazarus  was  sick,  she  sent  to  Jesus, 
sayinf^,  '  Lord,  he  whom  thou  lovest  is  sick.'  When  our  Lord 
arrives  she  sits  still  in  the  house,  while  her  sister  Martha  goes  to 
meet  him ;  but,  on  receiving  a  message  from  Martha,  she  goes  out 
quickly,  and,  meeting  Jesus,  falls  at  his  feet,  saying,  '  Lord,  if 
thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not  died.'  She  is  present  at 
the  grave  and  sees  her  brother  raised.  No  further  statement  is 
made  of  her  individual  conduct  on  this  occasion ;  but  on  the 
Saturday  evening  immediately  preceding  the  crucifixion,  when  our 
Lord  had  finally  arrived  at  Bethany,  and  a  feast  was  made  in  his 
honour  in  the  house  of  Simon  the  leper  (possibly  Martha's  hus- 
band), Mary  took  an  alabaster  box  of  ointment,  and,  having 
broken  it,  poured  its  contents  on  the  head  and  feet  of  Jesus  as  he 
sat  at  meat.  Such  a  proceeding  is  entirely  consistent  with  Eastern 
usage ;  and  our  Lord,  commending  the  action,  which  some  of  his 
disciples  (instigated  by  Judas  Iscariot)  condemned  as  a  waste, 
declared  that  she  had  done  it  in  anticipation  of  his  burial  (Matt, 
xxvi.  6-13 ;  Mark  xiv.  3-9 ;  John  xi.  55- xii,  11 ;  comp.  also  John 
xi.  2). 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  confound  this  anointing  with  the 
anointing  by  the  woman  who  was  a  sinner,  mentioned  in  Luke  vii. 
36-50.  But  many  of  the  details  are  different,  as,  for  instance,  the 
character  of  the  woman,  the  character  of  the  host,  the  place^»  the 
sayings  uttered,  and  the  manner  of  anointing. 

6.  Mary  the  mother  of  Mark,  i.e.  of  the  evangelist.  Being  the 
mother  of  Mark,  she  must  have  been  the  sister  of  Barnabas,  but 
nothing  is  known  of  her  except  that  at  her  house  in  Jerusalem 
*many  were  gathered  together  praying'  for  the  safety  of  Peter, 
when  imprisoned  by  Herod  Agrippa  I. ;  and  that  it  was  to  her 
house  that  the  apostle  betook  himself  after  his  miraculous  de- 
liverance from  prison  (Acts  xii.  12).  Possibly  anxiety  about  her 
may  have  been  one  of  the  causes  which  induced  her  son  to  leave 
Paul  and  Barnabas  and  return  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xiii.  13). 

7.  IVIary  (or  perhaps  Mariain),  saluted  by  St.  Paul  in  Kom. 
xvi.  6  as  '  having  bestowed  much  labour  on  us  {tcoXKci  tKo-Kiaoiv 
tk  vfj^ag).^    Nothing  is  further  known  of  this  Mary 

Matbusala  [n7^-inD=mrtw  of  a  darty  MaOonfraXa,  Mathusale], 
an  antediluvian  patriarch,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Methuselah, 
son  of  Enoch,  and  grandfather  of  Noah.  His  life  is  the  longest 
recorded,  having  reached  nine  hundred  and  sixty-nine  years  (Gen. 
V.  25-27).  In  the  New  Testament  he  only  appears  in  the  gene- 
alogy of  our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  37). 


MATHUSALA— MEDES.  419 

nxattatlia  [^MarraGd,  Mathatha],  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  son 
of  Nathan,  and  father  of  Menan  (Luke  iii.  31).  Nothing  further 
is  known  of  him. 

Mattatbias  [Marra^tag,  MattatJdas],  two  ancestors  of  our  Lord, 
one  the  son  of  Amos,  the  other  the  son  of  Semei  (Luke  iii.  25, 26). 
They  are  otherwise  unknown. 

AXattban  [M.aT9dv,  or  MaQBav,  Mathan],  one  of  the  ancestors 
of  our  Lord,  son  of  Eleazar,  father  of  Jacob,  and  grandfather  of 
Joseph  the  husband  of  Mary.  Bishop  Hervey  considers  him  to  be 
identical  with  Matthat  of  Luke  iii.  24,  who  is  said  to  be  the  son 
of  Levi,  and  that  Matthan  is  called  in  Matthew  *  the  son  of 
Eleazar '  because  the  line  of  Eliakim,  son  of  Juda  or  Abiud  (Matt. 
i.  14 ;  Luke  iii.  26),  had  really  failed  in  Eleazar,  and  the  line  of 
Joseph  his  brother  had  succeeded.  But  see  Genealogy  of  Christy 
in  Section  4. 

nxattliat,  the  name  of  two  ancestors  of  our  Lord.  For  the 
former,  see  Matthan.  The  latter  was  the  father  of  Jorim,  and  son 
of  Levi,  but  nothing  is  known  of  him  (Luke  iii.  29). 

BEattbew.     See  Section  1,  p.  6. 

Z^atthias  [Mar6^tac,  Matthias],  the  disciple  selected  with  Joseph 
called  Barsabas  as  a  candidate  for  the  place  of  Judas.  These  two 
having  been  selected  by  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  disciples, 
prayer  was  offered,  and  ^  they  gave  forth  their  lots ;  and  the  lot 
fell  upon  Matthias  ;  and  he  was  numbered  with  the  eleven 
apostles  '  (Acts  i.  26).  But  no  further  record  occurs  with  respect 
to  him,  and  his  right  to  be  really  considered  an  apostle  has  been 
denied.  If  he  is  to  be  admitted,  then,  certainly,  St.  Paul  must  be 
excluded  fi-om  the  number  of  the  '  twelve  apostles  of  the  Lamb,' 
whose  names  are  in  the  foundations  of  the  walls  of  the  new  Jerusalem 
(Rev.  xxi.  14).  It  may  be  remarked  that  no  instance  of  deciding 
by  lot  occurs  after  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Pentecost. 

XtXedes.     See  Media. 

Media  [only  the  adj.  found  in  the  New  Testament,  Mt/^oj,  Medij 
equivalent  to  Heb.  ''t'P],  a  country  of  undefined  limits  lying  north- 
west of  Persia,  about  midway  between  the  head  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  the  south  end  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Media  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Parthians  in  the  second  century  before  Christ,  and 
in  New  Testament  times  was  still  subject  to  them.  Large  numbers 
of  Jews  were  settled  there,  as  appears  from  the  Books  of  Tobit 
and  Judith  in  the  Apocrypha,  however  much  the  details  there 
related  may  be  doubtful.  Jews  from  Media  appeared  at  the  day 
of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9). 

££2 


420       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Melcbi  [MAx£'  or  MtX^'',  Melchi],  two  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  of 
whom  nothing  further  is  known  (Luke  iii.  24,  28). 

2VIelchisedek  [p'lV"''??^  =  king  of  righteousness,  MeXxtcfCsic, 
MelchisedecK].  All  that  is  to  be  known  of  Melchisedek  from  the 
Old  Testament  is  stated  in  Gen.  xiv.  18-20  {'  Melchizedek  king  of 
Salem  brought  forth  bread  and  wine  :  and  he  was  the  priest  of  the 
most  high  God '  {lit.  the  Cohen,  or  sacrificing  priest,  of  the  most 
high  Divinity):  'and  he  blessed  him'  (Abram,  on  returning  from 
the  slaughter  of  the  five  kings),  '  and  said,  Blessed  he  Abram  of 
the  most  high  God,  possessor  of  heaven  and  earth :  and  blessed  be 
the  most  high  God,  which  hath  delivered  thine  enemies  into  thy 
hand.  And  he  gave  him  tithes  of  all'),  and  in  Ps.  ex.  4  (^The 
LoED  hath  sworn,  and  will  not  repent,  Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever 
after  the  order  of  Melchizedek ').  This  Psalm  is  the  Psalm  from 
which  our  Lord  confounded  the  scribes  by  quoting  its  first  verse, 
'  Jehovah  said  imto  my  Lord,  Sit  thou  on  my  right  hand,  till  I 
make  thine  enemies  thy  footstool '  (Matt.  xxii.  44),  and  it  was  be- 
cause Jewish  interpreters  referred  it  to  the  Messiah,  that  the  Scribes 
found  the  expression  '  my  lord,'  which  it  applies  to  the  Messiah, 
impossible  on  their  theory  to  harmonise  with  the  fact,  which  they 
also  admitted,  that  the  Messiah  must  be  David's  son. 

In  Hebrews  (v.  6,  10 ;  vi.  20 ;  vii.  1-25)  this  necessity  that  the 
Messiah  should  be  a  priest  '  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec '  is 
enlarged  upon.  It  is  first  shown  that  the  Aaronic  priesthood, 
notwithstanding  its  excellency,  is  inferior  to  the  priesthood  after 
the  order  of  Melchisedec,  seeing  that  Levi,  being  yet  in  the  loins 
of  Abram,  paid  tithes  to  Melchisedec,  and  was  blessed  by  him, 
and  ^  without  contradiction  the  less  is  blessed  of  the  greater.' 
Then  the  nature  of  the  priesthood  of  our  Lord  is  shown  to  corre- 
spond to  the  priesthood  of  Melchisedek,  and  to  be  its  antitype. 
This  correspondence  between  Melchisedek  and  Jesus  is  drawn  out 
in  vii.  1,  2,  3  ('  This  Melchisedec,  to  whom  also  Abraham  gave  a 
tenth  part  of  all ;  first  being  by  interpretation  King  of  righteous- 
ness, and  after  that  also  King  of  Salem,  which  is.  King  of  peace 
(Di?^  =  peace  or  completion)  ;  without  father,  without  mother, 
without  descent  (marg.  pedigree)^  having  neither  beginning  of 
days,  nor  end  of  life ;  but  made  like  unto  the  Son  of  God ;  abideth 
a  priest  continually).'  This  teaches  us  that  (1)  our  Lord  unites  the 
kingly  and  priestly  characters,  and  exercises  them  in  righteousness 
and  peace ;  (2)  unlike  the  Levitical  priesthood,  which  was  exer- 
cised in  right  of  the  priest's  descent  from  Aaron,  the  priesthood  of 


MELCHI— MELITA.  421 

our  Lord  is  a  personal  one,  inherent  in  the  person  exercising  it, 
and  underived  from  father  and  mother;  (3)  unlike  that  of  Aaron, 
the  heginning  and  end  of  whose  official  course  are  recorded,  whereas 
those  of  Melchisedek  are  not,,  our  Lord's  priesthood  is  continuous 
and  eternal,  not  received  from  a  predecessor,  nor  handed  to  a 
successor :  (4)  Melchisedek  was  made  like  in  certain  points  to  the 
Son  of  God,  and  so  fitted  to  represent  Him  who  was  from  all 
eternity ;  hut  not  that  the  Son  of  God  was  made  like  to  Melchi- 
sedek. This  remark  is  necessary,  because  some  have  objected  that 
Melchisedek,  being  prior  in  point  of  time  to  our  Lord,  could  not 
have  been  made  like  unto  Him ;  whereas  it  is  not  said  that 
Melchisedek  is  made  like  Jesus,  but  like  unto  *  the  Son  of  God,' 
who  existed  from  all  eternity. 

It  may  here  be  further  noticed  that  some  have  attempted  to 
identify  Melchisedek  with  Shem,  the  son  of  Noah.  Undoubtedly, 
Shem  did  not  die  until  Abraham  was  148  years  old,  and  it  is 
highly  probable  that  they  may  have  met.  But  as  to  the  suggested 
identity,  it  must  be  always  a  matter  of  mere  conjecture ;  the  Scrip- 
ture narrative  itself  not  in  the  slightest  degree  suggesting  it. 

As  to  the  comparatively  unimportant  question  of  where  Salem 
was,  Kalisch's  remarks  are  good.  '  As  everything  is  significant  in  this 
remarkable  event,  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  the  town,  where 
Abraham  received  the  prophetic  blessing,  and  where  he  was  to  ap- 
pear in  a  new  and  striking  light,  should  be  without  its  anticipatory 
meaning.  It  is  therefore  extremely  improbable  that  Salem  is  the 
obscure  little  town  eight  miles  south  of  Scythopolis  or  Bethshan, 
which,  in  Jerome's  times,  was  called  Salumias.  We  can  see  no 
reason  whatever  to  understand  Salem  as  any  other  town  but  that 
which  the  Old  Testament  elsewhere  mentions  with  the  same 
name,  namely,  Jerusalem.'  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  allowed 
that  several  good  authorities,  including  Dean  Stanley,  incline  to 
the  opinion  deprecated  by  Kalisch,  and  regard  Mount  Gerizim  as 
the  place  of  meeting  between  Melchisedek  and  Abram. 

IMCelea  [MtXffT-j  Melea\  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  father 
of  Eliakim,  and  son  of  Menan  (Luke  iii.  31).  He  is  otherwise 
unknown,  and  some  critics  suppose  his  name  to  be  spurious. 

Mellta  [ATsXt'r?/,  3Ielita'],  the  island  upon  which  St.  Paul  was 
wrecked  on  his  voyage  to  Rome,  and  where,  in  consequence,  he 
wintered.  It  has  been  pretty  well  established  beyond  controversy 
by  Mr.  Smith  ('Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St  Paul '),  whose 
views  are  given  at  length  by  Conybeare  and  Howson,  that  the 
island  is  that  now  known  as  Malta.     Malta  at  present  belongs  to 


422        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

tlie  English,  and  lies  about  fifty-six  miles  south  of  Cape  Pasaro, 
the  south  promontory  of  Sicily.  At  the  time  of  St.  Paul's  ship- 
wreck it  belonged  to  the  Roman  province  of  Sicily,  and  was  go- 
verned by  a  deputy  called  by  the  title  ascribed  to  him  in  Acts 
xxviii.  7,  'the  chief  man  (o  TrpuJrog).'  The  scene  of  the  ship- 
wreck is  now  known  by  the  name  of  St.  Paul's  bay,  and  lies  on 
the  north-east  of  the  island. 

The  circumstances  of  the  shipwreck,  and  of  St,  Paul's  subsequent 
stay  in  the  island,  are  detailed  in  Acts  xxvii.  27-xxviii.  10. 
Two  points  only  require  notice :  1.  The  sea  in  which  the  ship 
was  tossed  previously  to  its  v^reck  is  called  '  Adria,'  and  this  has  led 
to  an  island  far  up  the  present  Gulf  of  Venice  having  been  taken  by 
some  to  represent  Melita.  But  it  has  been  satisfactorily  shown 
that  the  term  Adria  in  New  Testament  times  included  all  the  sea 
between  Crete  and  Sicily.  2.  The  people  of  Melita  are  called 
'barbarians,'  This  simply  means  that  they  did  not  speak  Latin 
or  Greek.  The  probability  is  that  they  spoke  a  dialect  of  Phoe- 
nician. 

Malta  is  a  mass  of  rocky  limestone,  its  highest  point  having  an 
elevation  of  590  feet.  Its  area  is  ninety-eight  square  miles,  and 
its  population  in  1869  was  143,003.  The  island  is  highly  culti- 
vated, producing  cotton,  corn,  oranges,  and  figs,  and  supporting  a 
large  number  of  cattle.  Its  chief  town  is  called  Valetta,  where 
there  is  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world.  Previously  to 
the  English  occupation  in  1800,  Malta  belonged  to  the  French, 
who  took  it  from  the  Knights  Templar  of  St.  John  in  1798. 

IMEenan  [Mewa,  Menna],  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  son  of  Mat- 
tatha,  and  father  of  Melea  (Luke  iii.  31).  Nothing  further  is 
known  of  him,  and  his  name  is  by  some  writers  considered  to  be 
spurious. 

HKercurlus  ['Eo//?)c,  Mercurius'],  one  of  the  deities  of  the, 
Roman  and  Greek  mythology.  He  was  reckoned  the  god  of 
music  and  language,  and  was  also  supposed  to  be  the  messenger  and 
interpreter  of  his  father  Jupiter.  He  was  also  worshipped  under 
the  names  of  Phoebus,  Apollo,  and  Hermes.  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament we  read  in  Acts  xiv.  12,  that  the  people  of  Lystra  '  called 
Barnabas,  Jupiter  ;  and  Paul,  Mercurius '  (for  the  detail  see  under 
Jupiter).  In  Acts  xvi.  16,  we  also  read  of  a  damsel  possessed  with 
a  spirit  of  Pytho  or  Python  (A.V.  '  a  spirit  of  divination ').  Thia 
Pytho  was  another  title  of  Apollo,  considered  as  the  revealer  of 
secrets  by  means  of  an  oracle ;  and  the  priestess  of  Delphi,  where 
his  chief  oracle  was,  was  hence  called  Pythia. 


MENAN— MICHAEL.  423 

IVIesopotainia  [Mtao-rroraixln  =the  country  betiveen  the  rivers, 
Mesopotamia'],  the  Greek  and  Latin  equivalent  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment D'''!)riyD'1¥?  (  =  Syria  of  the  two  rivers,  Gen.  xxiv.  10  ;  Deut. 
xxiii.  4 ;  Judg.  iii.  8),  the  plain  country  lying  between  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates.  In  New  Testament  times  it  still  belonged  to  the 
Parthians,  but  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Romans  in  a.d.  115, 
and  formed  into  a  Roman  province.  Jews  from  Mesopotamia 
were  present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9),  and  if  the 
^  Babylon '  of  1  Pet.  v.  13  is  to  be  taken  literally,  then  it  seems 
probable  that  these  Jews  carried  back  a  knowledge  of  the  gospel 
to  their  own  country,  and  founded  a  church  there. 

Micali  [rp"'p  =  wAo  is  like  unto  Jehovah,  Mix"t«c,  MichcBas\  a. 
prophet,  not  mentioned  by  name  in  the  New  Testament,  but  whose 
prophecy  that  the  Messiah  should  come  out  of  Bethlehem-Judah 
(v.  2)  is  quoted  in  Matt.  ii.  5,  6 ;  John  vii.  42,  and  whose  saying 
(^  The  son  dishonoureth  the  father,  the  daughter  riseth  up  against 
her  mother,  the  daughter-in-law  against  her  mother-in-law ;  a 
man's  enemies  are  the  men  of  his  own  house,'  vii.  6)  is  alluded  to 
in  Matt.  x.  35,  36  ;  Mark  xiii.  12 ;  Luke  xii.  53.  Micah  prophe- 
sied in  the  reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah  (b.c.  758-698), 
and  is  called  the  '  Morasthite,'  i.e.  an  inhabitant  of  Moresheth  (?), 
a  small  town  near  Eleutheropolis, 

lUCicbael  [p'^y^'O  =  loho  is  like  unto  God,  Mt^a^/X,  Michael],  'the 
archangel.'  He  is  described  in  Daniel  as  '  one  (but  marg., 
although  very  doubtfully,  ^  first ')  of  the  chief  princes  '  (x.  13),  as 
*  your  prince'  (x.  21),  and  as  '  the  great  prince  which  standeth  for 
the  children  of  thy  people  '  (xii.  1).  The  Jewish  tradition  is 
that  there  were  seven  archangels,  of  whom  Michael  was  one,  but 
the  statements  of  Scripture  are  opposed  to  this  notion,  only  one 
'archangel'  being  therein  mentioned.  Whether  Michael  the 
archangel  be  identical  with  the  Uncreated  Angel  who  is  variously 
called  the  Anyel  of  Jehovah  (Gen.  xvi.  7,  &c.  &c.),  the  Angel  of  God's 
presence  (Is.  Ixiii.  9),  the  Angel  of  the  Covena^it  (Mai.  iii.  1),  and 
the  Captain  of  the  Lord^s  Host  (Josh,  v,  14,  15),  and  who  may  be 
identical  with  the  second  person  of  the  Trinity,  is  impossible  to 
determine.  If  the  description  in  Dan.  x.  6  refer  to  Michael  (as 
certainly  seems  likely),  then  it  singularly  coincides  with  the  de- 
scription of  the  Son  of  Man  in  Rev.  i.  13-15.  It  may  be  further 
remarked  that  Rabbinical  tradition  always  opposes  Michael  to  Sam- 
mael,  the  great  spirit  of  evil,  while  it  regards  his  appearance  as  equi- 
valent to  the  appearance  of  the  Shekinah  or  visible  glory  of  God, 


424       ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

and  Michael  himself  as  a  type  of  the  Messiah.  Nor  does  any  serious 
objection  to  this  identification  arise  from  1  Thess.  iv.  16  ('  The 
Lord  himself  shall  descend  from  heaven  with  a  shout,  with  the  voice 
of  the  archangel  (Jv  <piov?j  apxayy? Aov),  and  the  trump  of  God ') 
which  is  the  only  passage,  except  Jude  9  and  Rev.  xii.  7,  in  which 
the  New  Testament  mentions  Michael ;  for  it  is  evident  that  the 
Greek  does  not  necessarily  indicate,  as  A.  V  appears  to  do,  that '  the 
Lord '  and  '  the  archangel '  are  distinct  persons,  but  rather  that 
they  are  one  and  the  same. 

In  Rev.  xii.,  Michael  appears  fighting  with  his  angels  against 
the  dragon  and  his  angels,  conquering  them,  and  casting  the  dragon 
out  of  heaven  into  the  earth.  This  event  has  been  well  interpreted 
t(*t  signify  that,  up  to  the  time  of  Christ,  Satan  could  yet  appear  in 
heaven  as  the  accuser,  although  deprived  of  his  former  glorious 
position  there ;  but  that  since  our  Redeemer's  death  he  has  no 
place  in  heaven,  although  permitted  for  a  while  to  harass  the  earth. 
Thias  we  read,  '  I  beheld  Satan  as  lightning  fall  from  heaven ' 
(Luke  X.  18),  and  again,  '  Who  shall  lay  anything  to  the  charge 
of  God's  elect  ? '  (Rom.  viii.  33). 

In  Jude  9  ('Michael  the  archangel  when,  contending  with 
the  devil,  he  disputed  about  the  body  of  Moses,  durst  not 
bring  against  him  a  railing  accusation,  but  said,  The  Lord  re- 
buke thee '),  the  exact  circumstance  referred  to  is  difiicult  to  de- 
termine. Josephus  (Ant.  4.  8.  49)  declares  that  Moses  never 
died,  but  was  withdrawn  by  God  in  a  certain  valley,  and  only 
wrote  that  he  died  out  of  humility,  lest  the  people  should  say  that 
for  his  excellency  of  virtue  he  was  taken  to  God.  This  is  not 
entirely  inconsistent  with  the  Scripture  account ;  '  So  Moses  the 
servant  of  the  Lord  died  there  in  the  land  of  Moab  .  .  .  and  he 
buried  him  in  a  valley  .  .  .  but  no  man  knoweth  of  his  sepulchre 
unto  this  day '  (Dent,  xxxiv.  5,  6).  Hence  the  tradition  which  St. 
Jude  adopts  (either  as  an  historical  fact,  or  as  an  illustration  of 
his  argument  against  speaking  evil  of  dignities)  that  Michael  and 
Satan  strove,  the  latter  to  have  the  body  of  Moses  revealed,  that 
it  might  be  made  an  object  of  idolatrous  worship,  and  the  former 
to  prevent  such  a  consummation.  Others  take  a  mystical  view  of 
the  subject,  taking  Moses  to  represent  the  law  (as  Enoch  repre- 
sented the  antediluvian  dispensation,  and  Elijah  the  prophetic), 
and  considering  that  Satan,  striving  vainly  for  the  body  of  Moses 
against  Michael,  indicates  the  vain  attempt  of  the  Great  Enemy  to 
destroy  the  Church  of  God,  preserved  by  the  power  of  the  Un- 
created Angel.     Others,  again,  take  an  exceedingly  limited  view 


MILETUS— MITYLENE.  425 

of  the  matter,  and  regard  the  efforts  of  Satan  a3  vainly  directed 
against  the  translation  of  the  body  of  Moses  to  Paradise,  where  it 
is  found  in  the  history  of  the  Transfiguration,  on  the  ground  of 
his  sins,  and  especially  the  sin  of  murder. 

The  argument  of  St.  Jude  in  the  passage  under  discussion  is 
plain  enough,  whatever  difficulty  may  attend  the  illustration.  The 
apostle's  object  is  to  warn  against  want  of  reverence  to  lawful 
authorities  ('dignities').  Now  the  devil  himself  had  once  been 
a  principal  angel  of  God,  and  hence7  ^"^sn  when  fallen,  MichaeJ. 
the  archangel  respected  his  former  honourable  position  (comp. 
2  Pet,  ii.  10,  11,  and  see  also  Angel  and  Devil  in  Sect.  4). 

Miletiun.     See  Miletus. 

iMCiletus  [M/\7jrot:,  Miletus'],  a  city  of  Caria,  in  Asia  Minor,  but 
included  in  New  Testament  times  in  the  Roman  province  of  Asia. 
Its  site  is  now  covered  with  ruins,  and  is  ten  miles  from  the  sea, 
but  it  was  formerly  a  considerable  sea  port  town,  with  four  har- 
bours. Its  distance  from  Ephesus  is  about  twenty  miles,  and 
hence  St.  Paul  on  his  last  journey  from  Greece  to  Jerusalem 
stopped  for  a  short  time  at  Miletus,  and  summoned  the  elders  of 
the  Ephesian  church  to  meet  him  there.  The  substance  (if  not 
the  very  words)  of  his  address  to  them  on  their  arrival  is  given  in 
Acts  XX.  18-35,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  the  impression  pro- 
duced upon  all  parties  that  the  interview  was  to  be  a  final  one. 
^  And  now,  behold,  I  know  that  ye  all,  among  whom  I  have  gone 
preaching  the  kingdom  of  God,  shall  see  my  face  no  more '  (ver.  25),. 
and  '  they  all  wept  sore  .  .  .  sorrowing  most  of  all  for  the  words 
which  he  spake,  that  they  should  see  his  face  no  more'  (ver.  37,  38). 
But  this  expectation  was  probably  not  realised,  and  there  is  much 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  apostle  again  visited  Ephesus  and  the 
vicinity  (see  '  Life  of  St.  Paul,'  p.  35).  Accordingly,  in  2  Tim. 
iv.  20,  written  from  Rome  just  before  St.  Paul's  death,  we  find 
him  saying,  '  Trophimus  have  I  left  at  Miletum  (which  ahould  be 
Miletus)  sick.'  No  particulars  of  this  second  visit  are  recorded, 
uor  have  we  any  information  as  to  the  circumstances  under  which 
Trophimus  was  left  as  described. 

Mitylene  [MtruXr/v?;,  Mitylene\  only  mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  14, 
as  a  temporary  halting-place  during  St.  Paul's  last  journey  from 
Greece  to  Jerusalem  ('  We  took  him  (Paul)  in,  and  came  to  Mity- 
lene ;  and  we  sailed  thence,  and  came  the  next  day  over  against 
Chios  ').  Mitylene  or  Mytilene  {}lvTi\i)vr])  is  the  chief  city  of  the 
island  of  Lesbos,  lying  on  the  east  side  of  the  island,  opposite  the 


426       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY, 

coast  of  Asia  Minor,  from  wHcli  it  i?  separated  by  a  strait  of  no 
great  breadth.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Komans  after  the 
Mithridatic  war  (ended  B.C.  68),  and  belonged  to  them  when  St. 
Paul  visited  it.  It  was  famous  as  the  birthplace  of  the  Greek 
lyrical  poets,  Alcseus  and  Sappho,  the  statesman  Pittacus,  and  the 
philosopher  Theophrastus.  It  still  exists  under  its  ancient  name 
(now  given  to  the  whole  island),  but  is  at  present  only  a  village. 

IVInason  \_Mva(T(or,  Mnason'\,  only  mentioned  in  Acts  xxi.  16,  as 
a  jcompanion  of  St.  Paul  on  his  last  journey  from  Greece  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  his  host  at  Jerusalem  (^  There  went  with  us  also  certain  of 
the  disciples  of  Cesarea,  and  brought  with  them  one  Mnason  of 
Cyprus,  an  old  (apxawc  =  ancient  in  point  of  discipleship,  not  ne- 
cessarily in  point  of  years)  disciple,  tvith  whom  we  should  lodge 
{ayovTtQ  Trap''  (^  ^svi<r6rofiiv)J  But  some  translate,  ^  Bringing  us  to 
Mnason,  as  one  with  whom  we  should  lodge.'  Nothing  further  is 
known  of  Mnason,  and  as  Paul  does  not  appear  to  have  been  per- 
sonally acquainted  with  him,  he  is  hardly  likely  to  have  been  one 
of  that  apostle's  own  Cyprian  converts. 

XWolocli  [MoXox,  Moloch'],  a  heathen  deity,  called  in  the  Old 
Testament  Molech.  He  is  referred  to  by  St.  Stephen  (quoting 
Amos  V.  26)  in  his  speech  before  the  Sanhedrim,  as  one  of  the 
'  host  of  heaven '  worshipped  by  idolatrous  Israel  ('  Yea,  ye  took 
up  the  tabernacle  of  Moloch,  and  the  star  of  your  god  Pemphan, 
figures  which  ye  made,  to  worship  them,'  Acts  vii.  43).  This  par- 
ticular idolatry  was  expressly  forbidden  in  Lev.  xviii.  21 ;  xx.  2-5, 
from  which  it  appears  that  the  offering  of  one's  own  children  by 
fire  was  regarded  by  the  heathen  as  an  appropriate  sacrifice.  This 
abomination  appears  to  have  been  actually  practised  by  Ahaz, 
king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xvi.  3),  and  generally  by  the  nation 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  10 ;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  3 ;  Ps.  cvi.  37, 38 ;  Jer.  vii.  31 ; 
xxxii.  35 ;  Ezek.  xxiii.  37 ;  and  possibly  2  Sam.  xii.  31,  where 
A.  V.  translates  '  brick-kiln,'  but  others  '  place  of  Molech ').  The 
particulars  of  the  horrible  rite  (which  took  place  in  the  valley  of 
Hinnom,  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem)  are  supplied  by  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, to  the  effect  that  the  image  of  Molech  was  of  hollow  brass, 
with  extended  arms.  The  image  (which  had  the  head  of  an  ox) 
having  been  heated  from  within,  the  child  to  be  sacrificed  was 
placed  in  the  arms  of  the  idol,  and,  of  course,  destroyed.  Its  cries 
were  rendered  inaudible  by  the  beating  of  drums  and  other  instru- 
ments and  the  shouts  of  the  idolatrous  priests. 

It  is  not  clear  what  the  '  tabernacle '  of  Moloch  was.  Some 
think  it  was  an  ark,  in  which  the  image  was  carried  or  '  taken  up ' 


MNASON— MOSES.  427 

in  processions ;  others  that  it  was  a  moveable  tent,  which  was  em- 
ployed as  a  temple. 

Of  the  nations  bordering  on  Palestine  who  practised  the  worship 
of  Moloch,  the  Ammonites  were  the  principal,  but  he  was  also 
worshipped  by  the  Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  Cretans,  and 
Rhodians,  and  (if  Adrammelech  and  Anammelech  of  2  Kings 
xvii.  31  be  the  same  as  Moloch,  which  seems  probable)  by  the 
Sepharvites,  who  came  from  Assyria  and  occupied  Samaria. 

nioses  [T\^T^  =  clraivn  out  (i.e.  from  the  water  of  the  Nile) 
either  from  the  verb  "^^9?  ^^  dreiv,  or  from  Egyptian  words  7no 
(water)  and  oiisje  or  (according  to  Josephus)  uses  (to  deliver), 
given  by  Josephus  (Ant.  2.  9.  6),  Mojaijc;  (but  LXX  and  Josephus, 
Mwt)(T>'/c),  Moi/ses],  the  great  leader  and  lawgiver  of  the  Jews.  His 
life  and  teaching  occupy  the  four  last  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  the 
whole  of  which  is  sometimes  called  the  '  law  of  Moses '  (Ezra 
iii.  2,  &c.),  or  '  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses  '  (Josh,  xxiii.  6,  &c.), 
or  '  the  book  of  Moses '  (2  Chron.  xxv.  4,  &c.).  He  was  the  son 
of  Amram  and  Jochebed,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  was  probably 
born  B.C.  1571.  At  this  time  the  Israelites  were  suffering  great 
oppression  in  Egy^t,  and  an  edict  of  the  king  (supposed  to  be  of  the 
eighteenth  dynasty)  had  commanded  the  destruction  of  all  male 
children.  Moses  was  preserved  by  his  mother  for  three  months, 
and  then  exposed  in  an  ark  of  bulrushes,  covered  with  pitch  or 
bitumen,  by  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  Here  he  was  rescued  by  the 
daughter  of  Pharaoh  (traditionally  named  Thermuthis),  and  by 
her  educated  as  her  own  child.  But  the  oppressions  to  which  his 
fellow-countrymen  were  exposed  weighed  heavily  on  his  mind. 
Seeing  an  Egyptian  smiting  a  Hebrew,  he  slew  him  and  hid  his 
body  in  the  sand.  The  next  day,  seeing  two  Israelites  at  variance, 
he  sought  to  set  them  at  one.  Then  he  which  was  the  wrong- 
doer said,  '  Who  made  thee  a  judge  over  us  ?  Wilt  thou  kill  me, 
as  thou  didst  the  Egyptian  yesterday  ? '  Hearing  this^  and  fearing 
also  the  king,  Moses  fled  away  to  Midian,  at  the  age  (only  stated 
traditionally,  but  confirmed  by  the  speech  of  Stephen,  in  Acts  vii. 
23)  of  forty  years. 

This  early  period  of  Moses'  life  is  filled  up  by  many  Jewish 
traditions.  One  is,  that  when  quite  an  infant  he  accidentally 
overthrew  Pharaoh's  crown,  on  which  the  monarch  ordered  him 
to  be  instantly  put  to  death.  The  bystanders,  however,  interceded, 
and,  to  show  that  the  child  was  as  yet  incapable  of  distinguishing, 
brought  two  dishes,  one  containing  gold  and  silver,  and  the  other 
coals  of  fire.     The  infant  Moses  at  once  stretched  his  hand  to  the 


428        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

coals,  and  having  put  one  to  his  lips,  produced  a  permanent  defect 
of  speech.  Other  legends  make  him  to  have  become  a  priest,  by 
the  name  of  Osarsiph  or  Tisithen,  and  others  to  have  victoriously 
conducted  a  war  in  Ethiopia. 

In  Midian,  Moses  became  the  servant  and  son-in-law  of  Jethro 
or  Reuel,  a  priest,  and  here  God  revealed  Himself  to  him  as 
Jehovah,  and  commissioned  him  to  return  to  Egypt,  and  bring  out 
the  Israelites.  Accompanied  by  Aaron  his  brother,  he  therefore 
returned  to  Pharaoh  (not  the  same  king  as  the  one  from  whom  he 
had  fled),  and  there  demanded  deliverance  for  his  compatriots. 
Pharaoh  at  first  utterly  refused,  but  the  series  of  miracles  known 
as  the  Ten  Plagues  of  Egypt  gradually  altered  his  determination. 
These  Ten  Plagues  were:  1.  The  river  turned  into  blood.  2.  The 
plague  of  frogs.  3.  The  plague  of  lice.  4.  The  plague  of  flies. 
5.  The  murrain.  6.  The  plague  of  boils.  7.  The  hail.  8.  The 
locusts.  9.  The  darkness.  10.  The  death  of  the  firstborn.  Over- 
whelmed by  these  indications  of  God's  presence  and  power,  and 
especially  by  the  last  plague,  Pharaoh  agreed  to  let  the  people  go. 
The  Israelites  accordingly  left  Egypt,  under  the  guidance  of 
Moses,  and  crossed  the  Red  Sea,  which  miraculously  opened  to 
give  them  passage.  In  commemoration  of  their  departure  and  the 
circumstances  which  accompanied  it,  the  feast  of  the  Passover  was 
instituted.  Pharaoh,  repenting  of  having  permitted  their  de- 
parture, pursued  them  into  the  sea,  and  with  his  host  was  drowned 
in  its  returning  waters. 

The  next  important  event  in  the  history  of  Moses  is  the  giving 
of  the  law  through  him  at  Mount  Sinai,  where  he  remained  forty 
days  in  private  communion  with  God.  After  this,  he  spent  the 
remaining  forty  years  of  his  life  as  the  leader  of  the  people  in  the 
desert.  Through  him  a  complete  system  of  law,  both  as  regards 
religious  observances  and  social  and  domestic  rights  and  duties, 
was  promulgated.  According  to  '  a  pattern  showed  him  in  the 
Mount,'  he  constructed  a  Tabernacle,  the  prototype  of  the  future 
Temple,  of  the  services  in  which  Aaron  was  consecrated  high 
priest,  with  his  family  for  priests,  and  his  tribe  (the  Levites)  for 
assistant  ministers.  Many  miracles  were  also  performed,  and  the 
authority  of  Moses  had  on  several  occasions  to  be  confirmed  by 
a  visible  manifestation  of  the  divine  glory. 

Moses  himself,  however,  did  not  enter  the  land  to  which  he  led 
the  people.  This  he  was  forbidden  to  do,  as  a  punishment  for  his 
conduct  at  Meribah  (Num.  xx.  12).  Arrived,  after  forty  years' 
wandering,  at  the  eastern  borders  of  Palestine,  he  was  led  by  God 


MYKA.  429 

up  into  the  mountains  of  Nebo,  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,  and  having- 
been  permitted  to  survey  the  land  of  promise,  there  died  at  the  ag-e 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty  years.  Of  the  pLace  of  his  burial,  no 
information  was  allowed  to  transpire,  probably  with  the  view  of 
preventing  an  idolatrous  veneration  being  paid  to  it. 

Many  of  the  historical  incidents  of  the  life  of  Moses  are  referred 
to  in  the  New  Testament.  The  speech  of  Stephen  (Acts  vii.)  includes 
a  very  complete  sketch  of  his  life ;  and  as  to  the  alleged  inac- 
curacies in  this,  see  under  Stephen.  In  Heb.  xi.  23-28,  several 
important  actions  of  his  life  are  ascribed  to  the  power  of  faith. 
The  appearance  of  Jehovah  to  Moses  in  the  bush  is  referred  to  by 
our  Lord  in  an  argument  on  the  resurrection  (Matt.  xxii.  32 ; 
Mark  xii.  26 ;  Luke  xx.  37).  The  brightness  of  his  face  when 
descending  from  Mount  Sinai  is  referred  to  and  allegorised  in 
2  Cor.  iii.  13-15.  Jannes  and  Jambres  are  named  as  two  of  the 
Egyptian  magicians  who  resisted  Moses  before  Pharaoh  (2  Tim. 
iii.  8).  Michael  and  Satan  are  represented  as  disputing  about  his 
body  in  Jude  9.  The  song  which  he  sang  at  the  close  of  his 
career  is  to  be  sung  by  the  redeemed  in  the  heavenly  kingdom, 
coupled  with  the  new  song  of  the  Lamb  (Ptev.  xv.  3).  Finally, 
he  appears  in  glory  with  Elias  at  the  Transfiguration,  and  talks 
with  Jesus  (Matt.  xvii.  3 ;  Mark  is.  4 ;  Luke  ix.  30). 

^  Moses' is  also  used  in  the  New  Testament  as  a  synonym  for 
the  Law  of  Moses  (Mark  x.  3,  &c.)  ;  and  '  Moses  and  the  prophets' 
is  used  as  a  short  description  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures 
(Luke  xvi.  29 ;  xxiv.  27,  &c.).  And  continually  a  contrast  is 
drawn  between  Moses,  as  the  servant  of  God  and  giver  of  the 
Law,  and  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God  and  preacher  of  the  Gospel 
(John  i.  17,  &c.,  especially  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews). 

In  Deut.  xxxiv.  10  we  read,  '  There  arose  not  a  prophet  since  in 
Israel  like  unto  Moses,  whom  the  Lord  knew  face  to  face.'  But 
although  this  was  undoubtedly  the  case  when  these  words  were 
written,  Moses  himself  had  especially  taught  the  people  to  expect 
another  prophet  like  himself  (Deut.  xviii,  15-18).  That  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  is  that  prophet  is  clear  from  many  considerations  -, 
and  independently  of  all  general  resemblances,  especial  points  of 
similarity  may  be  observed  by  comparing  Ex.  xiv.  21  and  Matt, 
viii.  27 ;  Num.  xii.  1  and  John  vii.  5 ;  Num.  xii.  3  and  Matt.  xi. 
29 ;  Num.  xx.  11  and  John  iv.  14 ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  10  and  John  i. 
17  ;  X.  15  ;  Heb.  xi.  24  and  Matt.  iv.  8-11. 

IVIyra  [Mupo,  Lystra,  which  is  evidently  an  error,  derived  from  A. 
Many  other  curious  readings  also  occur,  which  ALford  explains  by 


430        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

saying,  '  The  various  readings  merely  show  that  the  copyists  were 
unacquainted  with  the  place '],  a  town  of  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor, 
only  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  5,  as  the  place  where  St.  Paul  and 
his  companions  were  transferred  by  Julius  the  centurion  from  one 
ship  to  another  ('  we  came  to  Myra,  a  city  of  Lycia ;  and  there 
the  centurion  found  a  ship  of  Alexandria  sailing  into  Italy  ;  and  he 
put  us  therein ').  Nothing  but  the  name,  and  very  many  splendid 
ruins,  remain  at  the  present  time ;  but  in  New  Testament  times 
Myra  must  have  been  a  large  and  magnificent  city.  It  was  more 
than  two  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the  river  Andriace,  which  was 
navigable  to  the  town,  and  the  mouth  of  which  formed  the  har- 
bour. In  after  times  it  became  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of 
Lycia,  and  ruins  of  a  splendid  Byzantine  cathedral  still  exist, 

IMCysia  \j\  Myfi('«,  Mysia'],  a  district  of  undefined  limits,  occupy- 
ing (together  with  Troas)  the  north-west  corner  of  Asia  Minor. 
In  it  was  situated  Assos,  visited  by  St.  Paul  on  his  third  mission- 
ary journey  (Acts  XX.  14),  and  Adramyttium.  The  country  is  for 
the  most  part  mountainous,  including  the  terminal  spurs  of  the 
great  Taurus  range,  with  the  peaks  of  Ida  and  Olympus.  Mysia 
itself  is  only  mentioned  cursorily  in  Acts  xvi.  7,  8,  where  it  is  said 
(speaking  of  St.  Paul's  second  missionary  journey)  that  *  after 
they  (Paul  and  Timothy)  were  come  to  Mysia,  they  assayed  to 
go  into  Bithynia :  but  the  Spirit  (so  the  Received  Text,  but 
many  good  MSS.  add  '  of  Jesus ')  suffered  them  not.  And  they 
passing  by  (irapEXOuvTs,^)  Mysia  came  down  to  Troas.'  The  mean- 
ing of  Trap,  is  disputed,  some  taking  it  to  mean  '  passing  by '  in  the 
sense  of  deferring  a  formal  visitation,  others  *  passing  by  '  in  the 
sense  of  leaving  on  one  side  in  order  to  go  direct  to  Troas.  In 
this  case  they  must  have  passed  through  the  province  of  Asia. 

sraaman  []DVX=  pleasantness,  Nsf/xav,  but  several  good  MSS. 
'}iatfidv,Naa7)ian'],  a  name  attributed  in  the  Old  Testament  to  several 
persons  (see  Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num.  xxvi.  40),  of  whom  the  only 
one  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  is  '  Naamanthe  Syrian.'  His 
story  is  given  in  2  Kings  v.  From  this  it  appears  that,  although 
general  of  the  Syrian  army,  he  was  a  leper.  From  this  leprosy  he 
was  healed  by  washing,  at  the  direction  of  Elisha  the  prophet, 
seven  times  in  Jordan.  His  cure  and  his  nationality  are  the  facts 
which  are  laid  hold  of  in  the  New  Testament,  and  our  Lord,  in 
his  discourses  at  the  synagogue  of  Nazareth,  illustrated  the  Naza- 
renes'  rejection  of  Himself  by  pointing  out  that  although  there 
was  no  want  of  Israelitish  lepers  in  Elisha's  days,  a  Syrian  leper 
was  the  only  one  to  be  cured  (Luke  iv.  27).    The  point  of  this 


MYSIA—NAECISSUS.  431 

comparison  is  rendered  more  striking  by  taking-  into  account  the 
parallel  between  leprosy  and  sin,  which  the  Scriptures  continually 
suggest,  and  the  consequent  comparison  between  Elisba  and  the 
Great  Healer  himself  (see  Leprosy^  in  Sect.  4). 

In  2  Kings  v.  1,  Naaman  is  stated  to  have  been  '  honour- 
able, because  by  him  the  Lord  hath  given  deliverance  {marg. 
victory)  imto  Syria.'  Josephus  explains  this  to  mean  that  in 
the  battle  at  Ramoth  Gilead,  in  which  Ahab  king  of  Israel  wa: 
killed,  and  the  Syrians  were  victorious,  the  man  who  '  drew  a 
bow  at  a  venture,'  and  shot  Ahab,  was  Naaman  (*  a  young  noble- 
man belonging  to  king  Benhadad,  named  Naaman,  drew  his  bow 
against  the  enemy,  and  wounded  the  king  through  his  breast- 
plate, in  his  lungs,'  Ant.  15.  5.  5). 

For  the  term  Syrian,  applied  to  Naaman,  see  under  Syria. 

XTaasson  [jltJ'nJ  =  enchanter,  Naacrawj^,  Naasson'],  one  of  the 
ancestors  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  4 ;  Luke  iii.  32).  He  was  the  son 
of  Aminadab,  father  of  Salmon,  and  grandfather  of  Boaz.  In  the 
Old  Testament  he  is  called  Nahshon  (Num.  vii.  12 ;  x.  14  j  Ruth 
iv.  20  J  1  Chron.  ii.  10,  11),  but  nothing  further  is  recorded 
of  him. 

STaclior  \_'-\'\n':i=  snorting,  ^nx^jp,  Nacho)-'],  the  father  of  Terah, 
and  grandfather  of  Abraham,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Nahor 
(Gen.  xi.  22,  24).  He  is  mentioned  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord 
(Luke  iii.  34),  but  nothing  further  is  recorded  of  him.  He  must 
be  carefully  distinguished  from  Nahor  the  brother  of  Abram. 

ZTagge  [Nayyat  or  Nayn/,  Nagge,  probable  Heb.  form  rljj  = 
splendour^,  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  father  of  Esli,  and  son 
of  Maath  (Luke  iii.  25).     Nothing  further  is  known  of  him. 

ITain  [Notr,  Nairn,  mod.  name  JVein'],  a  town  of  Galilee,  only 
mentioned  in  Luke  vii.  11,  where  we  read  that  our  Lord  there 
raised  from  the  dead  a  young  man,  the  only  son  of  a  widowed 
mother.  It  is  now  an  insignificant  village,  lying  on  the  slope  of 
a  hill,  some  seven  miles  to  the  south  of  Nazareth.  Traces  remain 
of  former  walls,  which  are  peculiarly  interesting  when  it  is 
remembered  that  it  was  at  the  *  gate '  of  the  city  that  our  Lord 
performed  his  miracle.     See  p.  72,  note. 

ITarcissus  [Nnp/ciWoc,  Narcissus'],  a  person  the  Christian 
members  of  whose  household  are  saluted  in  Rom.  xvi.  11  ('  Greet 
them  that  be  of  the  household  of  Narcissus,  which  are  in  the  Lord 
(tovq  tK  Tutv  N.,  Tovg  ovrag  h'  Kvpio^j) '.  The  form  of  the  expression 
seems  to  leave  it  doubtful  whether  Narcissus  was  a  Christian  himself, 


432        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

and  some,  accordingly,  identify  him  with  the  secretary  to  the 
emperor  Claudius.  This  Narcissus  died  in  the  first  year  of  Nero, 
about  three  years  before  this  epistle  was  written  (a.d.  57-58),  but 
his  household  and  family  may  still  have  been  referred  to. 

XTathan  []T)^  =  whom  (God)  gave,  ^ a9 a v,  Nathan],  an  ancestor 
of  our  Lord,  son  of  David,  and  father  of  Mattatha  (Luke  iii.  31). 
From  2  Sam.  v.  14  and  1  Chron.  iii.  5 ;  xiv.  4,  we  learn  that  Nathan 
was  one  of  the  four  sons  whom  Bathsheba  bore  to  David;  and 
from  Zech.  xii,  12  the  '  family  of  Nathan '  appears  to  have  been 
regarded  as  distinct  as  late  as  the  time  of  Ezra  (b.c.  457).  Nothing 
further  is  known  concerning  Nathan.  Bishop  Hervey  regards  this 
introduction  of  his  line  as  having  been  caused  by  the  failure  of 
Solomon's  line  in  Jechonias,  but  this  assumption  appears  very 
doubtful.     See  Genealogy  of  Christ,  in  Sect.  4. 

XJathanael  [Nnf^avn/jX,  Nathanael,  Heb.  form  VtsJHp  =  wAow 
God  gave\  one  of  the  earliest  disciples  of  our  Lord.  He  was 
brought  to  Jesus  by  Philip,  soon  after  our  Lord's  baptism,  and  at 
first  doubted,  quoting  the  proverbial  expression,  '  Can  there  any 
good  thing  come  out  of  Nazareth  ? '  But  when  our  Lord  dis- 
played a  supernatural  knowledge  of  his  private  actions,  he  at  once 
acknowledged  him,  in  the  words,  '  Rabbi,  thou  art  the  Son  of 
God ;  thou  art  the  King  of  Israel'  (John  i.  43-51).  In  the  course 
of  this  interview  our  Lord  declared  Nathanael  to  be  '  an  Israelite 
indeed,  in  whom  there  is  no  guile.' 

Nathanael  appears  again  in  John  xxi.  2,  as  one  of  the  seven 
disciples  to  whom  Jesus  showed  himself  after  his  resurrection  at 
the  Sea  of  Galilee.  He  is  there  called  '  Nathanael  of  Cana  in 
Galilee,'  and  this  of  course  suggests  that  it  may  have  been  through 
connection  with  him  that  our  Lord  visited  Cana  so  soon  after  the 
commencement  of  his  ministry,  and  wrought  his  first  miracle 
there.  Tradition  even  declares  that  he  was  the  bridegroom  of 
the  occasion. 

Several  good  reasons  may  be  alleged  for  identifying  Nathanael 
with  the  apostle  Bartholomew  ( =  Bar-Tolmai,  i.e.  the  son  of 
Tolmai).  St.  John  never  mentions  Bartholomew,  but  mentions 
Nathanael ;  while  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  never  mention  Na- 
thanael, but  mention  Bartholomew.  Again,  Nathanael  was  brought 
to  Jesus  by  Philip,  and,  in  the  lists  of  the  apostles,  Philip  and 
Bartholomew  are  always  coupled.  Again,  in  John  xxi.  Nathanael 
is,  at  least,  named  with  apostles,  and  is  found  in  close  and  intimate 
conj  unction  with  them ;  and  yet,  almost  immediately  afterwards, 


NATHAN— NAZARETH.  433 

he  is  not  named  as  a  probable  successor  to  Judaa.  On  the  sup- 
position that  he  was  already  an  apostle,  of  course  this  is  perfectly 
explicable. 

XTaum  [Naowju,  Nahum\  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  son  of  Esli,  and 
father  of  Amos  (Luke  iii.  25).  Nothing  further  is  known  of 
him. 

ITazarene.     See  under  the  same  word  in  Sect.  4. 

ITazareth  [Na^aper  and  NaKixpeO,  Nazareth,  Heb.  form  1V;i  = 
a  hrancli],  the  name  of  a  town  in  Galilee,  not  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  but  the  residence  of  our  Lord's  parents,  Joseph 
and  Mary,  and  the  place  in  which  He  spent  his  life  from  infancy 
to  the  age  of  thirty.  It  is  now  called  en-Kdsirah,  and  is  situated 
in  a  rich  and  well-cultivated  valley  among  the  southern  slopes  of 
Lebanon,  about  eighteen  miles  due  west  of  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  has  a  population  of  between 
3,000  and  4,000,  chiefly  Latin  and  Greek  Christians,  and  now  pos- 
sesses a  Protestant  church.  Above  the  town  are  rocky  hills,  with 
precipices  of  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  high. 

Nazareth  is  first  mentioned  as  the  place  where  the  Virgin  Mary 
was  when  the  angel  Gabriel  was  sent  to  her  to  announce  the  coming 
birth  of  the  Saviour  (Luke  i.  26).  Tradition  declares  that  this 
event  took  place  at  the  fountain,  from  which  the  town  is  supplied 
with  water,  and  which  is  still  called  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin, 
but  little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  this  statement.  We  then  read 
that,  after  their  return  from  Egypt,  Joseph,  Mary,  and  the  child 
Jesus  '  came  and  dwelt  in  a  city  called  Nazareth'  (Matt.  ii.  23),  and 
St.  Luke  (ii.  39)  calls  it  '  their  own  city.'  We  also  read  that,  after 
the  finding  in  the  Temple,  Jesus  went  down  with  his  parents  to 
Nazareth,  and  was  subject  unto  them  (Luke  ii.  51)  ;  and  further, 
that  when  He  was  thirty  years  old  and  commenced  his  ministiy, 
He  came  from  '  Nazareth  of  Galilee '  (Mark  i.  9).  Here,  there- 
fore, our  Ix)rd  resided,  exercising  the  trade  of  a  carpenter,  or 
mason  (rkrwr),  the  latter  being  possibly  his  real  trade,  as  stone 
is  much  more  largely  employed  in  the  district  than  wood.  To 
Nazareth  He  also  returned  soon  after  the  commencement  of  his 
ministry,  and  there  commenced  his  mission  by  reading  Isa.  Ixi. 
1,  2  in  the  synagogue  on  the  Sabbath-day,  and  declaring  that  the 
prophecy  there  given  was  fulfilled  in  Himself.  The  people  of 
Nazareth,  however,  were  indisposed  to  allow  this,  at  any  rate 
without  an  exhibition  of  miraculous  power,  which  He  refused 
to  give.  Seizing  Him,  therefore,  as  a  blasphemer,  they  hurried 
Him  to  the  brow  of  the  hill,  on  the  slopes  of  which  their  town 


434       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

was  built,  in  order  to  cast  Him  down  and  destroy  Him,  and  would 
Lave  thus  killed  Him  but  for  the  exertion  on  his  part  of  a  mira- 
culous power,  by  which  He  passed  through  them  and  so  went  his 
way  (Luke  iv.  14-30). 

A  second  visit  was  paid  to  Nazareth  at  a  later  period  in  our 
Lord's  ministry.  On  this  occasion  the  reception  accorded  was  not 
accompanied  with  any  overt  act  of  violence,  but  the  indisposition 
to  accept  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  was  perhaps  more  marked  than 
before.  The  people  inquired  sarcastically,  '  Is  not  this  the  car- 
penter's son  ? '  and,  *  He  could  do  there  no  mighty  work,  because 
of  their  unbelief  (Matt.  xiii.  53-58;  Mark  vi.  1-6). 

After  this,  we  hear  nothing  more  of  Nazareth  except  in  the 
phrase  'Jesus  of  Nazareth'  (but  in  Acts  iii.  6;  iv.  10,  'Jesus 
Christ  of  Nazareth '),  by  which  our  Lord  was  distinguished  from 
many  others  who  bore  the  same  name  of  Jesus; 

It  would  appear  from  the  question  of  Nathanael  of  Cana  of 
Galilee  ('  Can  there  any  good  thing  come  out  of  Nazareth  ? '  John 
i.  46),  that  Nazareth  was  not  merely  regarded  as  despicable  be- 
cause in  Galilee  (see  under  Galilee),  but  was  even  despised  by  the 
inhabitants  of  other  Galilean  towns.  The  reasons  of  this  con- 
tempt are  not  known,  but  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  simply 
arose  from  the  extreme  insignificance  of  the  place,  which  was  so 
unimportant  as  to  be  left  unnoticed  by  both  the  Old  Testament 
and  Josephus, 

For  the  term  JSazarene,  see  under  that  word  in  Sect.  4. 

Neapolis  [NtaTroXtc,  Neapolii],  only  mentioned  in  Acts  xvi.  11, 
as  the  place  at  which  St.  Paul  first  landed  in  Europe,  on  his 
journey  from  Troas  to  Philippi.  Philippi  itself  was  distant  about 
ten  miles  from  the  sea,  and  Neapolis  formed  its  harbour,  being 
separated  from  it  by  a  ridge  of  hills.  It  lies  on  a  promontory, 
with  a  small  bay,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  ^gean,  and  still 
exists  as  a  small  village  under  the  name  of  Cavallo.  Remains  of 
an  aqueduct  and  many  Latin  inscriptions  are  still  found  there. 

ITeplitlialim  [ vJ^2^  =  my  strife,  ^npQaKuix,  Hephthalifn'],  one  of 
the  tribes  of  Israel,  only  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  in 
Rev.  vii.  6,  among  the  144,000  sealed,  and  in  Matt.  iv.  13-16 
('  He  came  and  dwelt  in  Capernaum,  which  is  upon  the  sea  coast, 
in  the  borders  of  Zabulon  and  Nephthalim  :  that  it  might  be 
fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  Esaias  the  prophet,  saying,  The 
land  of  Zabulon,  and  the  land  of  Nephthalim,  .  .  .  saw  great 
light').  The  prophecy  quoted  occurs  in  Isa.  ix.  1,  2,  and  the  New 
-  Testament  Greek  of  it  is  a  free  rendering  from  the  Hebrew.    Alford 


NEAPOLIS— NICODEMUS.  435 

suggests  that,  coming  after  quotations  from  the  LXX,  this  quo- 
tation marks  a  new  portion  in  the  original  Gospel  history.  For 
the  topography  of  Naphthali,  see  under  Galilee. 

XTereus  [Nj/jOtvc,  Nereus],  a  Christian  saluted  together  with  his 
sister  and  others,  Rom,  xvi.  15.  Nothing  whatever  is  certainly 
known  of  him,  but  from  a  comparison  of  ver.  14  and  ver.  15  he 
seems  to  have  formed  one  of  a  gToup  of  Christians,  connected 
together  by  some  particular  tie. 

Neri  [Ni;p(,  Heb.  form  T\l'\^_  =  lamp  of  Jehovah  (Jer.  xxxii.  12)], 
an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  son  of  Melchi,  and  father  of  Salathiel 
(Luke  iii,  27).  St.  Matthew  gives  Salathiel  as  the  son  of  Jecho- 
nias;  and  Bishop  Hervey  considers  that,  Solomon's  line  having 
failed  in  Jechonias,  Salathiel,  who  was  really  son  of  Neri  and  of 
the  house  of  Nathan,  succeeded.  On  this  point  see  Genealogy  of 
Christ  in  Sect.  4.     Of  Neri  himself  nothing  is  known. 

STicanor  [Nt/carojp,  Nicanor],  one  of  the  seven  deacons  (Acts 
vi.  5).  Nothing  further  is  certainly  known  of  him,  but  tradition 
declares  him  to  have  been  one  of  the  seventy  disciples,  and  to 
have  died  about  the  time  of  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen. 

UTicodemus  [Niko^jj^uoc,  Nicoderrms],  a  Pharisee,  and  'ruler  of 
the  Jews,' i.e.  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrim.  He  first  appears  in 
John  iii.  1-21,  where  he  is  described  as  coming  to  Jesus  by  night 
and  holding  a  deeply  interesting  conversation  with  Him  on  the 
nature  of  our  Lord's  mission,  and  on  the  New  Birth.  A  deep 
impression  appears  to  have  been  made  upon  him,  but  not  sufficient 
to  induce  him  to  acknowledge  himself  as  a  follower  of  Christ. 
Hence,  in  John  vii.  50-52,  when  the  Sanhedrim  was  debating  as  to 
the  character  of  oiu:  Lord,  we  read  that,  *  Nicodemus  saith  unto 
them  (he  that  came  to  Jesus  by  night,  being  one  of  them).  Doth 
our  law  judge  any  man,  before  it  hear  him,  and  know  what  he 
doeth  ?  They  answered  him,  Art  thou  also  of  Galilee  ?  Search, 
and  look:  for  out  of  Galilee  ariseth  no  prophet.'  Further  on, 
however,  Nicodemus  appeared  more  publicly.  When  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  had  obtained  the  body  of  our  Lord  for  burial,  '  there 
came  also  Nicodemus,  which  at  the  first  came  to  Jesus  by  night, 
and  brought  a  mixture  of  myrrh  and  aloes,  about  an  hundred 
pound  weight  (Joad  Xl-pac  i'/c«r6j')'    (John  xix.  39). 

Further  than  these  circumstances,  the  New  Testament  relates 
nothing  concerning  Nicodemus,  but  tradition  states  that  he  became 
an  avowed  disciple,  for  which  he  was  punished  by  the  Jews  with 
expulsion  from  his  office  and  banishment  from  Jerusalem.    Gama- 


436        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

liel,  however,  protected  him,  and  at  his  death  procured  him 
honourable  burial  near  the  body  of  Stephen. 

A  Nicodemus  Ben  Gonon,  or  Bonai,  is  described  in  the  Talmud 
as  a  wealthy  and  pious  Pharisee,  and  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrim, 
and  he  is  said  to  have  lived  until  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  "Whether 
this  Nicodemus  and  the  Nicodemus  of  St.  John  are  identical,  is 
impossible  to  determine.     A  spurious  Gospel  of  Nicodemus  exists. 

Uicolaitanes.     See  Nicolas. 

KTicolas  [NiKoXftoc,  Nicolaus],  one  of  the  seven  deacons.  He  is 
described  as  '  a  proselyte  of  Antioch.'  Nothing-  further  is  related 
of  him  in  the  New  Testament,  but  in  Rev.  ii.  6,  '  the  deeds  of  the 
Nicolaitanes  (NtKoXaiVwr),  which  thing  I  hate,'  are  spoken  of  as 
being  hated  by  the  angel  of  the  church  of  Ephesus ;  and  in  Rev. 
ii.  15,  '  the  doctrine  of  the  Nicolaitanes,  which  thing  I  hate,'  is 
declared  to  be  existing  in  the  church  in  Pergamos.  Several  early 
Christian  writers  speak  also  of  a  sect  of  Nicolaitanes,  who  com- 
bined Gnostic  doctrines  with  impurity  of  life.  Two  questions, 
therefore,  arise  :  1.  Are  these  later  Nicolaitanes  the  same  as  those 
of  Ephesus  and  Pergamos  ?  and  2.  Did  the  Nicolaitanes  in  any 
way  owe  their  origin  to  Nicolas  the  deacon  ?  To  these  questions 
it  is  impossible  to  give  any  certain  reply.  As  to  the  former  point, 
Michaelis  and  others  identify  the  Nicolaitanes  of  Rev.  ii.  6,  15 
with  the  followers  of  Balaam,  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii.  14,  regarding 
Bala-am  as  =  destroyer  of  the  people  =  Nicolans,  and  supposing 
that  the  Nicolaitanes  were  professing  Christians,  who  gave  way 
to  sensual  indulgences.  As  to  the  latter  point,  the  Nicolaitanes 
themselves  declared  themselves  to  have  derived  their  views  from 
Nicolas  the  deacon,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  tradition  describes 
Nicolas  as  a  man  of  purity  of  life. 

xricopolis  [NiKOTToXtc,  Nicopolis],  only  mentioned  in  Titus  iii.  12 
('  When  I  shall  send  Artemas  unto  thee,  or  Tychicus,  be  diligent 
to  come  unto  me  to  Nicopolis :  for  I  have  determined  there  to 
winter').  If  the  epistle  to  Titus  was  written  in  a.d.  67,  and  at 
Ephesus  (see  p.  36),  then  this  wintering  at  Nicopolis,  if  it  took 
place,  must  have  occurred  in  the  winter  immediately  preceding 
St.  Paul's  martyrdom.  Many  indeed  suppose  that  the  apostle  was 
arrested  there,  and  thence  conveyed  to  Rome  for  the  last  time. 
As  to  the  position  of  Nicopolis,  some  dilEculty  occurs,  there  being 
three  cities  of  that  name,  one  in  Thrace,  near  the  borders  of  Mace- 
donia, another  in  Cilicia,  and  a  third  in  Epirus.  But  it  is  pretty 
generally  conceded  that  the  last-named  is  the  Nicopolis  referred 
to.     It  is  now  entirely  in  ruins,  but  was  once  a  splendid  city.     It 


NICOLAITANES— KOE.  437 

was  founded  by  Augustus,  and  was  situated  in  the  swamps  sur- 
rounding the  bay  of  Actium,  on  the  site  occupied  by  the  forces  of 
Augustus  previous  to  his  victory  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  of  which 
the  city  was  intended  to  be  a  permanent  memorial. 

lirigrer  [Nt'ytp,  Niger'],  the  surname  of  Simeon,  a  minister  of  the 
church  at  Antioch,  mentioned  with  four  others  in  Acts  xiii.  1.  Some 
have  supposed  that  the  name  ( =  black)  points  to  his  being  an 
African,  but  nothing  further  is  certainly  known  of  him.  It 
is  quite  possible  that  the  name  was  simply  given  to  distinguish  this 
Simeon  from  the  apostle  Peter,  also  called  Simeon  in  Acts  xv.  14. 

lO'ineveb  [n.'li''^,  Nu'a'i,  adj.  T^ivtvlrat,  Ninevitce\  the  ancient 
metropolis  of  Assyria.  It  was  situated  opposite  Mossel,  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Upper  Tigris,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
ancient  and  most  splendid  cities  in  the  world.  It  is  said  to 
have  occupied  a  space  of  150  stadia  by  90  (i.e.  18  miles  by 
11  miles),  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  large  open  spaces  were 
included  within  the  walls,  and  Dean  Eawlinson,  in  his  ^  Ancient 
Monarchies,'  disputes  this  measurement  altogether.  Its  walls  are 
said  to  have  been  100  feet  high,  and  broad  enough  for  three  chariots 
to  drive  along  them  abreast.  We  read  of  its  foundation  in  Gen. 
X.  11  ('  Out  of  that  land — Shinar — went  forth  Asshur,  and  builded 
Nineveh'),  and  of  its  greatness  in  the  book  of  the  prophet  Jonah, 
who  was  commissioned  to  foretell  its  destruction.  After  this, 
various  predictions  of  its  ruin  occur,  especially  in  Nahum,  and  in 
B.C.  606  the  city  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  Medes  and  Baby- 
lonians. For  many  centuries  even  the  site  remained  unknown,  but 
the  researches  of  Dr.  Layard,  M.  Botta,  Major  Rawlinson,  and 
others,  have  recently  thrown  a  flood  of  light  not  only  upon  its 
true  locality,  but  upon  its  history,  language,  and  antiquities.  For 
a  full  account  of  these,  see  Layard's  '  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,' 

In  the  New  Testament  the  only  mention  of  Nineveh  occurs  in 
the  reference  made  by  our  Lord  to  Jonah  as  a  type  of  Himself  in 
his  mission  to  the  people  of  Nineveh.  Their  repentance  '  at  the 
preaching  of  Jonas '  is  referred  to,  and  it  is  declared  that  they  will 
rise  at  the  last  day  to  judge  the  generation  who  refused  to  listen 
to  one  '  greater  than  Jonas  '  (Matt.  xii.  41  -,  Luke  xi.  30,  32). 

ITinevites.     See  Nineveh. 

XToali.     See  No'e. 

Iffoe  {}y\^=rest,  Nwe,  iVbe],  a  patriarch,  called  in  Old  Test.  Noah, 
and  so  translated  also  in  Heb.  xi.  7 ;  1  Pet.  iii.  20  and  2  Pet. ii.  5.  His 
history  occupies  Gen.  v.  28-ix.  29,  from  which  we  learn  that  in  his 
days  the  wickedness  of  mankind  had  risen  to  such  a  height  that  God 


438       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

determined  to  cut  them  off,  and  did  cut  them  off,  by  an  overwhelm- 
ing- flood.  The  extent  of  this  flood  has  been  a  subject  of  much 
discussion.  Some  regard  it  as  having  extended  over  all  the  earth, 
but  to  this  must  be  opposed  extreme  physical  difliculties,  (1)  as 
to  the  reception  into  the  ark  and  maintenance  of  the  animals  of 
the  whole  globe ;  (2)  as  to  the  continuance  on  the  earth  of  vege- 
table life,  which  must,  on  this  supposition,  have  been  submerged 
in  salt  water  for  eleven  months ;  and  (3)  as  to  the  preservation 
of  fresh- water  fishes  and  other  natantia.  Others,  on  the  contrary, 
look  upon  the  deluge  as  having  been  limited  to  the  restricted  area 
within  which  the  human  race  was  then  living,  probably  the  valleys 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  On  this  suppo&ition  no  physical 
difficulties  are  necessarily  interposed,  and  the  strong  expressions 
of  Gen.  vii.  4,  15,  23,  &e.  may  be  paralleled  by  Gen.  xli.  57 ; 
1  Kings  iv.  21;  Joel  ii.  28 ;  Luke  ii.  1,  and  many  other  places, 
where  the  expressions  '  all  countries,'  '  all  nations,'  '  all  flesh,'  '  all 
the  world,'  are  used  with  an  obviously  limited  meaning. 

From  this  flood  of  waters  Noe  was  preserved  with  his  wife, 
his  three  sons,  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet,  and  their  wives,  in  an  ark 
or  vessel  300  cubits  long  by  50  broad  and  30  high,  or  (taking  the 
cubit  at  20  inches)  500  feet  long  by  83  feet  broad  and  50  feet  high. 
It  has  been  shown  that  such  proportions  involve  perfect  stability 
and  great  capacity,  and  the  dimensions  have  been  exceeded  by  the 
'  Great  Eastern,'  which  is  692  feet  long  by  83  feet  broad.  With 
Noe  and  his  family,  two  of  each  unclean  (i.e.,  probably,  imfit  for 
eating)  beast,  and  seven  of  each  clean  beast,  were  shut  in,  and  so 
remained  for  eleven  months.  After  his  exit  from  the  ark  Noe 
received  the  covenant  of  the  rainbow,  that  an  entirely  destructive 
deluge  should  not  again  take  place,  and  certain  precepts  of  cosmo- 
politan application.  After  this  he  lived  three  hundred  and  fifty 
years,  and  finally  died  at  the  age  of  nine  hundred  and  fifty  years. 

Dr.  Kalisch  {^  Comm.entary  on  Exodus,'  note  to  chap,  viii.)  has 
collected  Chaldaean,  Indian,  Greek,  American,  and  other  tradi- 
tions of  a  deluge,  and  says  that  '  there  is  scarcely  a  single  feature 
in  the  Biblical  account  which  is  not  discovered  in  one  or  several 
of  the  heathen  traditions.' 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  man  to  judg- 
ment is  likened  by  our  Lord  to  the  days  of  Noe  ('  As  the  days  of 
Noe  were,  so  shall  also  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  man  be.  For  as 
in  the  days  that  were  before  the  flood  they  were  eating  and 
drinking,  marrying  and  giving  in  marriage,  until  the  day  that  Noe 
entered  into  the  ark  {ki[5u)t6q),  and  knew  not  until  the  flood  came, 


NYIMPHAS— MOUNT  OF  OLIVES.  439 

and  took  them  all  away ;  so  shall  also  the  coming  of  the  Son  of 
man  be,'  Matt.  xxiv.  37-39 ;  cf.  Luke  xvii.  26).  '  The  longsuiFer- 
ing  of  God/  which  '  waited  in  the  days  of  Noah,  while  the  ark  was 
a  preparing  (i.e.  for  one  hundred  and  twenty  years),  wherein  few,  that 
is,  eight  souls  were  saved  by  water,'  is  referred  to  in  1  Pet,  iii.  20, 
and  the  saving  of  Noah  by  the  water,  which  drowned  unbelievers 
but  buoyed  up  the  ark,  is  taken  as  a  type  of  baptism.  In  2  Pet. 
ii.  5,  the  fact  that  God  '  spared  not  the  old  world,  but  saved  Noah 
the  eighth  person,  a  preacher  of  righteousness,  bringing  in  the  Hood 
upon  the  world  of  the  ungodly/  is  taken  as  an  instance  of  the 
power  of  God  ^  to  deliver  the  godly  out  of  temptations,  and  to 
'reserve  the  unjust  unto  the  day  of  judgment  to  be  punished.' 
Finally,  in  Heb.  xi.  7,  Noah  (who  is  numbered  in  Ezek.  xiv.  14,  20 
with  Daniel  and  Job  as  tlie  pre-eminently  righteous  men)  is  shown 
to  have  been  '  an  heir  of  the  righteousness  which  is  by  faith.' 

ITymphas  [^ivfKiac^  Nymphas],  a  Christian  saluted  together 
with  '  the  church  in  his  house,'  in  Col.  iv.  15.  Some  MSS.  read 
'  her  house,'  making  Nymphas  a  woman,  and  from  the  words  im- 
mediately preceding,  it  may  be  assumed  that  Nymphas  was  a  resi- 
dent of  Laodicaea. 

Obed  [*liy  =  luor shipping,  'Q/3r/^,  Obed],  the  son  of  Boozby  Ruth, 
and  father  of  Jesse.  Nothing  but  the  circumstances  of  his  birth 
is  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  respecting  him,  and  in  the  New 
Testament  he  only  appears  in  the  genealogies  of  Christ  (Matt.  i.  5  ; 
Luke  iii.  32). 

Olives,  Mount  of  [ro  opog  tmv  iXaiibv,  Mons  Olivarum,  or  to  6pog 
TO  KoXovfitvov  'EXcnCji',  qui  vocatur  Oliveti  (Luke  xix.  29  ;  xxi.  37), 
or  opoc  TO  KaXovfxfvov  kXauovoQ  (Acts  i.  12,  A.  v.,  '  The  mount 
called  Olivet,'  Vulg.  qui  vocatar  Oliveti),  modern  name,  Jehel-eU 
Tui-],  the  mountain  overlooking  Jerusalem  from  the  east,  and 
separated  from  it  by  the  valley  of  the  Kidron.  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, it  is  called  ^  the  ascent  of  Mount  Olivet '  (2  Sam.  xv.  30), '  the 
mount '  (Neh.  viii.  15),  '  the  hill  that  is  before  Jerusalem '  (1  Kings 
xi.  7),  ^  the  mount  which  is  on  the  east  side  of  the  city'  (Ezek. 
xi.  23).  Its  principal  ridge  runs  north  and  south,  with  four  prin- 
cipal summits,  of  which  the  highest  (those  on  the  north,  called 
Viri  Galilcei  and  the  Mount  of  Ascension  respectively),  rise  to 
2,724  feet ;  while  the  lower  two,  which  are  adjacent  to  each  other, 
go  by  the  name  of  the  Mount  of  Corruption  or  Offence,  on  the  sup- 
position that  Solomon  here  erected  idolatrous  shrines  for  his 
wives.  Between  the  two  pairs  of  summits,  runs  the  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Bethany  and  Jordan.     The  olive  trees,  from  which 


440        ESSENTIALS   OE   NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

the  hill  originally  took  its  name,  have  now  almost  entirely  dis- 
appeared. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  Mount  of  Olives  is  referred  to  as  the 
place  in  which  was  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane,  and  to  which  our 
Lord  resorted  *  as  he  was  wont '  immediately  after  the  Last  Sup- 
per (Matt.  xxvi.  30;  Mark  xiv.  26;  Luke  xix.  37:  comp.  John 
xviii.  1).  Here,  just  hidden  from  Jerusalem  by  the  ridge  of  the 
hill,  was  the  village  of  Bethany,  where  Lazarus  and  his  sisters 
dwelt,  and  where  our  Lord  apparently  resided  during  his  visit  to 
Jerusalem  at  the  Feast  of  Dedication  (Luke  xxi.  37 ;  John  viii. 
1),  and  certainly  during  the  early  portion  of  the  Passion  week. 
Here,  also,  was  Bethphage,  an  unidentified  site,  but  possibly  near 
the  Mount  of  Offence,  where  ruins  of  tanks  and  buildings  have 
been  discovered  (Matt.  xxi.  1 ;  Mark  xi.  1).  Here,  also,  sitting  in 
some  retired  spot,  our  Lord  answered  his  disciples'  euquiries 
respecting  the  end  of  all  things,  and  delivered  the  discourse  of 
Matt.  xxiv.  1-51 ;  Mark  xiii.  1-37  ;  Luke  xxi.  5-36,  concerning  the 
End,  followed  by  the  parables  of  the  Ten  Virgins  and  the  Talents. 
Here  was  the  barren  fig-tree  cursed,  as  our  Lord  passed  on  his  road 
from  Bethany  to  Jerusalem  (Matt.  xxi.  18-22 ;  Mark  xi.  12-14). 
Along  the  path  from  Bethany  to  Jerusalem,  between  the  crests  of 
this  mountain,  our  Lord  made  his  Triumphal  Entry  into  Jerusa- 
lem, and  from  a  spot  probably  well  identified  (see  p.  94),  He 
beheld  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  wept  over  it  (Matt.  xxi.  1-11; 
Mark  xi.  1-11 ;  Luke  xix.  28-44  ;  John  xii.  12-19).  Finally,  it  was 
from  Mount  Olivet,  and  probably  from  some  spot  near  Bethany,  that 
our  Lord  ascended  into  heaven  (Luke  xxiv.  50  ;  Acts  i.  12) ;  and 
if  reliance  is  to  be  placed  upon  a  common  interpretation  of  Zech. 
xiv.  4,  to  this  spot  shall  He  return  again  when,  as  He  went  into 
heaven,  so  shall  He  return.  The  traditional  site  of  the  Ascen- 
sion is  one  of  the  northern  summits,  and  the  Church  of  the  Ascen- 
sion, there  erected,  now  commemorates  the  event.  But  little 
reliance  can  be  placed  upon  this  tradition.     See  map  on  p.  376. 

Olivet.     See  Olives,  Moimt  of. 

Oiympas  ['OXv/^/Trac;,  Oli/mjyias'],  a  Roman  Christian  saluted  by 
St.  Paul  in  Rom.  xvi.  15.  Nothing  further  is  certainly  known  of 
him,  but  tradition  declares  him  to  have  been  martyred. 

Onesixxius  ['Oj//}(Ttjuo'-,  Onesimus],  the  slave  of  a  Colossian  Chris- 
tian, named  Philemon.  He  appears  to  have  run  away  from  his 
master,  but  whether  after  the  commission  of  a  theft  or  not  is 
doubtful  (Philem.  18).  St.  Paul  then  encountered  him,  and  having 
been  made  the  means  of  his  conversion,  sent  him  back  to  his 


OLIVET— OSEE.  441 

master,  with  a  letter  now  known  as  the  Ejnstle  to  Philemon.  In 
this  the  apostle  deprecates  punishment,  and  earnestly  requests  for- 
giveness for  Onesimus,  as  a  personal  favour  to  himself. 

The  date  of  these  circumstances  is  manifest  from  the  fact  that 
Onesimus,  on  his  return  to  Colossae,  is  joined  with  Tychicus  as  one 
of  the  bearers  of  the  epistle  to  the  Colossian  church  ('AH  my 
state  shall  Tychicus  declare  imto  you.  .  .  whom  I  have  sent.  .  . 
with  Onesimus,  a  faithful  and  beloved  brother,  who  is  one  of  you,' 
Col.  iv.  7-9).  Besides  this,  in  both  the  epistle  to  the  Colossians 
and  the  Epistle  to  Philemon,  Paul  is  spoken  of  as  a  prisoner.  The 
return  of  Onesimus  may  therefore  be  supposed  to  have  occurred 
from  the  place  where,  and  at  the  time  when,  the  Epistle  to  the 
Colossians  was  written,  viz.,  from  Rome  during  St.  Paul's  first 
imprisonment,  A.D.  62  (see  p.  39). 

The  Greek  word  'Ovr](yijjiO(:  =  helpful,  and  to  this  in  Philem.  11  St. 
Paul  appears  to  allude,  when  he  says,  '  Onesimus,  which  in  time 
past  was  to  thee  unprofitable,  but  now  profitable  to  thee  and  to  me.' 

Tradition  further  states  that  Onesimus  was  emancipated  by  his 
master,  and  afterwards  became  a  bishop  (either  of  Berea  or  Ephe- 
sus)  and  martyr. 

Onesiphdrus  [^Ovimcfopoc,  Onesiphoi'iis],  only  mentioned  in  2  Tim. 
i.  16-18  ('The  Lord  give  mercy  to  the  house  of  Onesiphorus ;  for  he 
oft  refreshed  me,  and  was  not  ashamed  of  my  chain ;  but,  when  he 
was  in  Rome,  he  sought  me  out  very  diligently,  and  found  me. 
The  Lord  grant  unto  him  that  he  may  find  mercy  of  the  Lord  in 
that  day :  and  in  how  many  things  he  ministered  unto  me  at 
Ephesus,  thou  knowest  very  well '),  and  2  Tim.  iv.  19  ('  Salute  .  . , 
the  household  of  Onesiphorus').  Some,  including  Archdeacon 
Paley,  have  from  these  verses  supposed  that  Onesiphorus  was 
dead,  but  it  is  just  as  likely  that  he  was  known  to  be  absent  from 
his  family  at  the  season  when  St.  Paul  wrote,  and  might  even 
have  been  with  the  apostle  in  Rome,  the  Greek  fashion  of  writing 
letters  about  present  events  from  the  receiver's  point  of  view  not 
at  all  excluding  that  supposition,  and  the  words  '  when  he  was  in 
Rome  (ytvojiivoc)^  lit.  =' being  in  Rome.'  He  was  evidently  an 
Ephesian  Christian,  but  nothing  further  is  known  of  him.  The 
imprisonment  referred  to  is  St.  Paul's  second  imprisonment. 

Osee  [yt?:'iri  =  salvation,' 0<Tri'i,Osee'],  one  of  the  minor  (?)  prophets, 
called  in  the  Old  Testament  Hosea.  He  prophesied  in  the  days 
of  Uzziah  (b.c.  810-758),  Jotham,  Ahaz,  andHezekiah  (b.c.  726). 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  personal  history  except  that  stated  by 
himself,  viz.  that  he  was  the  son  of  Beeri,  and  at  the  divine  com- 


442       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

inand  married  a  wife,  who  afterwards  (not  necessarily  before  mar- 
riage, as  some  seem  to  think)  fell  into  unchastity.  His  prophecies 
are  frequently  referred  to  in  tlie  New  Testament;  i.  10  and  ii.  23 
in  Rom.  ix.  25,  26  ;  vi.  6  quoted  by  our  Lord  Himself,  as  referring 
to  the  character  of  his  own  mission,  in  Matt.ix.  18  and  xii.  7  ;  x,  8 
in  Luke  xxiii.  30 ;  xi.  1  ('When  Israel  was  a  child  then  I  loved 
him,  and  called  my  Son  out  of  Egypt')  declared  in  Matt.  ii.  15  to 
refer  to  our  Lord's  return  as  an  infant  from  Egypt;  and xiii.  14  in 
1  Cor.  XV.  55. 

Ozias  [n*-Ty  —pozver  of  Jehovah,  '0^art•,  Ozias\  a  king  of  Judab, 
called  in  the  Old  Testament  Uzziah  or  Azariah.  He  was  the  son  of 
Amaziah,  and  reigned  B.C.  810-758,  but  during  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  was  removed  from  the  actual  exercise  of  the  kingly  office, 
on  account  of  leprosy.  This  leprosy  had  been  inflicted  as  a 
punishment  for  burning  incense  upon  the  altar  of  incense,  an  office 
reserved  for  the  priests.  His  history  is  contained  in  2  Kings  xiv. 
21,  22;  XV.  1-7;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  1-23;  and,  except  in  the  matter 
above  mentioned,  be  was  a  godly  and  able  prince.  In  the  New 
Testament  he  only  appears  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  in  Matt, 
i.  8,  9,  where,  by  the  omission  of  Ahaziah,  Joash,  and  Amaziah, 
he  is  called  the  son  of  Joram. 

Pampliylia  [flo/^t^uXio,  Pamphylia],  a  Roman  province  on  the 
south  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  having  Cilicia  on  the  east,  Lycia  on  the 
west,  and  Pisidia  on  the  north.  The  country  is  for  the  most  part 
mountainous,  but  a  plain  of  about  eight  miles  wide  intervenes 
between  the  mountains  and  the  sea.  Pamphylia  v.as  the  scene  of 
St.  Paul's  labours  during  his  first  missionary  journey  in  company 
with  Barnabas  and  Mark.  He  reached  the  province  from  Cyprus, 
probably  landing  at  Perga,  which  was  some  little  distance  up  the 
river  Cestius,  and  here  Mark  left  him  and  returned  to  Jerusalem 
(Acts  xiii.  18).  From  Perga  the  apostle  proceeded  on  a  further 
journey  to  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Derbe,  Lystra,  and  Iconium,  and  then 
returning  through  Pamphylia  to  Attaleia,  one  of  its  sea  ports,  took 
shipping  for  Antioch. 

The  '  sea  of  Pamphylia  (jb  trkXayog  Kara  rrfv  UaficpvXlav)  '  is  also 
referred  to  as  having  been  sailed  over  in  St.  Paul's  voyage  to 
Rome  (Acts  xxvii.  5),  but  no  record  of  any  further  visit  to  this 
district  occurs.  Pamphylia  is  also  mentioned  amongst  the  places 
from  which  Jews  were  present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts 
ii.  10). 

Paphos  [nd<poc,  Paphus\  the  name  of  two  towns  on  the  west 
coast  of  Cyprus,  about  seven  miles  from  each  other,  and  distiu- 


OZIAS— PATAEA.  443 

guished  from  each  other  as  Old  Paphos,  now  Baffa,  and  New 
Paphos,  now  Kukla.  A  splendid  religious  procession  took  place 
annually  from  the  new  to  the  old  city,  in  honour  of  Aphrodite,  or 
Venus,  who  was  worshipped  in  the  island.  When  Cyprus  became 
a  Roman  province,  New  Paphos  was  the  capital  of  one  of  the 
four  districts  into  which  the  island  was  divided,  and  hither  the 
apostle  Saul  came  from  Salamis,  on  his  first  missionary  journey, 
accompanied  by  Barnabas  and  Mark.  Here  they  found  Sergius 
Paulus,  the  deputy  or  proconsul,  and  Elymas,  a  sorcerer,  who  had 
much  influence  over  him.  Here,  also,  when  Sergius  was  attracted 
by  the  preaching  of  Saul,  and  Elymas  resisted  his  conversion, 
Saul  struck  Elymas  with  temporary  blindness  (Acts  xiii.  6-12). 
This  miracle  had  the  efifect  of  completing  the  conversion  of  Sergius 
Paulus  ;  and  as  Saul  is  after  this  always  called  Paul,  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  Saul  took  the  deputy's  name,  as  a  memorial 
of  the  event.  Soon  afterwards,  the  apostle  left  Paphos  and  pro- 
ceeded by  ship  to  Perga  in  Pamphylia,  on  the  opposite  coast  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Parmenas  [Uapntvac,  Parmenas],  one  of  the  seven  men  selected 
to  relieve  the  apostles  of  secular  business  (Acts  vi.  5).  Nothing 
fijirther  is  certainly  known  of  him ;  but  he  is  said  to  have  been 
martyred  at  Philippi  in  the  reign  of  Trajan. 

Parthians  [UdpQoi,  Parthi],  the  inhabitants  of  a  district  with 
ill-defined  boundaries,  lying  to  the  south  of  the  Caspian,  and  having 
Media  on  the  west,  Hyrcania  on  the  north,  Sagartia  on  the  south, 
and  Asia  on  the  east.  The  Parthians  became  independent  about 
B.C.  250,  and  in  the  New  Testament  times  still  formed  a  powerful 
empire.  They  were  an  exceedingly  warlike  people,  and  were  cele- 
brated for  their  skill  as  equestrians  and  bowmen.  Their  district 
at  present  forms  part  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  is  but  thinly 
populated,  but  it  was  formerly  densely  peopled,  and  many  ruins  of 
magnificent  cities  still  testify  to  its  former  greatness.  In  the  New 
Testament,  Parthians  only  appear  in  the  list  of  persons  who  were 
at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9).  Here  of  course 
the  word  designates  only  Jews  who  had  settled  in  Parthia. 

Patara  [rd  Uctrapa,  but  Patara,  gen.  cs]  only  mentioned  in  Acts 
xxi.  1,  as  a  sea-port  where  St.  Paul,  on  his  last  journey  to  Jerusa- 
lem, changed  into  another  ship  ('  we  came  .  .  .  the  day  following 
unto  Rhodes,and  from  thence  unto  Patara :  and  finding  a  ship  sailing 
over  unto  Phenicia,  we  went  aboard,  and  set  forth').  It  was  a 
flourishing  city  of  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  situated  on  a  pro- 
montory about  seven  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Xanthus.     The 


444       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

city  was  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Apollo,  and  a  famous  oracle  of 
that  heathen  deity  was  established  there.     It  is  now  in  ruins. 

Patiuos  [rior/xof,  Patm  OS  J  jRodevn  nsiTiie,  Pat77io^,  only  mentioned 
in  Rev.  i.  9,  as  the  place  where  St.  John  received  the  Revelation 
('I  John  .  .  ,  was  in  the  isle  that  is  called  Patmos').  It  is  one 
of  the  group  of  islands  at  the  south  of  the  JEgean,  called  Sporades. 
The  island  is  entirely  rocky  and  bare,  and  about  fifteen  miles  in 
circumference.  It  now  contains  only  one  small  town;  but  an 
important  convent,  and  a  church  built  over  a  cave,  commemorate 
the  remarkable  event  above  referred  to.  St.  John  is  said  to  have 
been  exiled  to  Patmos  during  the  persecution  under  Domitian,  and 
at  the  accession  of  Nerva  (a.d.  96),  to  have  returned  thence  to 
Ephesus,  where  he  died  (see  the  life  of  St.  John,  p.  19). 

Patrdbas  [naTp6(3ac,  Patrohas],  one  of  a  group  of  Christians 
saluted  in  Romans  xvi.  14.     Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  him. 

Paul.     See  pp.  27-36. 

Paulus  [nauAof,  Pauliis\  or  more  fully  Serf/ius  Paulus,  the 
deputy  or  proconsul  (cwdvTraroQy  of  Cyprus  when  Saul  and  Barnabas 
visited  that  island,  a.d.  48-49.  Cyprus,  although  at  first  an  im- 
perial province,  had  been  restored  to  the  Senate  by  Augustus. 
Its  governor  was  therefore  rightly  styled  Proconsul  (see  'Pro- 
vince ')  and  Cyprian  coins  have  also  been  found  which  confirm 
the  accuracy  of  this  title  being  assigned  to  him  in  the  Acts.  Sergius 
Paulus  is  described  as  'aprudentman(<Tiij/fr/)c)'andone  who'desired 
to  hear  the  word  of  God.'  When,  therefore,  Saul  and  Barnabas 
arrived  at  Paphos,  where  he  resided,  he  sent  for  them,  and  eagerly 
attended  to  their  teaching.  In  this  efibrt  he  was  hindered  by 
Elymas  or  Bar-jesus,  a  sorcerer  in  his  suite,  who  sought  'to  turn 
him  away  from  the  faith.'  Hereupon  Saul,  fixing  his  eyes  on 
Elymas,  struck  him  with  temporary  blindness.  '  Then  the  deputy, 
when  he  saw  what  was  done,  believed,  being  astonished  at  the 
doctrine  (cwcVt^'/)  of  the  Lord.'  These  circumstances  are  related  in 
Acts  xiii.  6-12.  Nothing  is  known  of  Sergius  Paulus  from  other 
sources,  but  it  is  remarkable  that  from  this  time  Saul  took  the  name 
of  Paul,  and  many  have  supposed  that  he  did  so  in  commemoration 
of  the  conversion  of  Sergius  Paulus. 

Perg-a  [Ukpyri,  Perge],  an  important  city  of  Pamphylia,  but  now 
in  ruins.  It  was  situated  about  seven  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the 
river  Cestius,  and  was  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Diana  or  Artemis. 
At  this  city  Paul  and  Barnabas  arrived  by  ship  from  Paphos  in 
Cyprus,  and  here  John*  Mark  left  them  to  return  to  Jerusalem 
(Acts  xiii.  13).     The  apostles  appear  to  have  made  no  lengthened 


PATMOS— PHAEAOH.  445 

stay  in  the  city  on  this  occasion,  but  to  have  pushed  on  into  the 
region  beyond ;  but  on  their  return,  we  read  that '  they  preached 
the  word  in  Perga'  (Acts  xiv.  25)^  before  their  departure  for 
Attaleia,  on  the  way  to  Antioch. 

Pereramos  [//  nipyafxoc,  but  more  usually,  in  classical  Greek,  rb 
nkfjycifiov,  Pergamus],  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus, 
which  was  bequeathed  to  the  Romans  by  Attalus  III.  in  B.C.  133. 
It  then  became  the  chief  city  of  the  province  of  Asia,  and  Pliny 
calls  it  'longe  clarissimum  Asise.'  It  was  situated  in  a  lovely 
valley  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  Caicus,  about  twenty  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  extensive  ruins  still  attest  its  former  magnifi- 
cence. Among  the  most  prominent  of  these  ruins  is  the  Ascle- 
pieum,  or  Temple  of  Asclepius  or  ^sculapius,  the  patron  god  of 
the  city.  The  symbol  of  this  god  was  the  serpent,  and  this  is  sup- 
posed to  be  referred  to  in  the  phrases,  '  where  Satan's  seat  is,'  and 
^  where  Satan  dwelleth,'  used  by  St  John  (Rev.  ii.  13)  as  descrip- 
tive of  Pergamos.  Another  interesting  characteristic  of  Pergamos 
was  its  splendid  library,  which  was  considered  nearly  equal  to  that 
of  Alexandria,  to  which  it  was  united  by  Cleopatra.  It  was  for 
the  exigencies  of  this  library  that  parchment,  called  cliarta  Per- 
gamena,  was  first  invented. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Pergamos  only  appears  as  the  seat  of 
one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  addressed  in  the  Apocalypse 
(Rev.  i.  11 ;  ii.  12-17).  From  the  epistle  addressed  to  it,  we  learn 
that  a  martyr  named  Antipas  had  suffered  there,  and  that  the 
doctrines  of  Balaam  (possibly  a  tendency  to  idolatrous  practices), 
and  of  the  Nicolaitanes  (gee  in  Sect.  4)  were  among  the  temptation* 
of  the  early  church  in  this  city. 

Persis  [Uipaic,  gen.  Uspaidoi:,  Persis],  a  woman  saluted  in  Rom, 
xvi.  12,  as  ^  the  beloved  Persis,  who  laboured  much  in  the  Lord.' 
Peter.     See  pp.  44-50. 

Pharaoh  [ny"!?,  ^apaoj,  Pharao,  gen.  -onis.  Gesenius,  following 
Josephus,  explains  the  name  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Egyptian 
ouro,  'rulmg,'  with  the  signjt?  of  the  masc.  gender  prefixed,  so  that 
pouro  =  King.  But  a  more  recent,  and  more  probable,  explanation 
is  that  the  title  =  Phra,  the  Egyptian  word  for  •  sun,'  of  which  the 
king  was  considered  the  earthly  representative].  A  title  common  to 
all  the  Egyptian  kings,  until  the  Persian  invasion.  Several  Pha- 
raohs are  spoken  of  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment the  only  Egyptian  monarchs  referred  to  are  (1)  the  sovereign 
before  whom  Joseph  was  brought,  (2)  the  sovereign  whose  daughter 
rescued  Moses  and  brought  him  up,  and  (3)  the  king  who  refused 


446       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

to  let  the  Israelites  depart.  (1)  The  Pharaoh  before  whom 
Joseph  was  brought  is  twice  referred  to  in  the  speech  of  St. 
Stephen  before  the  Sanhedrim  ('  God.  .  .  gave  him  (Joseph)  favour 
and  wisdom  in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt ;  and  he  made 
him  governor  over  Egypt  and  all  his  house/  Acts  vii.  10 ;  '  and 
Joseph's  kindred  was  made  known  unto  Pharaoh,'  Acts  vii.  13.) 
He  has  been  identified  with  Apophis,  the  last,  or  last  but  one,  of 
the  Shepherd  Kings,  a  Phoenician  dynasty  which  probably  ruled 
in  Egypt  from  about  e.g.  2080  to  B.C.  1786.  (2)  The  Pharaoh 
whose  daughter  preserved  Moses  is  also  referred  to  in  Stephen's 
speech  ('  When  he  (Moses)  was  cast  out,  Pharaoh's  daughter  took 
him  up,  and  nourished  him  for  her  own  son,'  Acts  vii.  21),  and  in 
Heb.  xi.  24  ('By  faith  Moses,  when  he  was  come  to  years,  refused 
to  be  called  the  son  of  Pharaoh's  daughter').  This  Pharaoh  has 
been  supposed  to  be  Amenophis,  and  his  daughter  (whom  Josephus 
calls  Thermuthis)  to  have  married  Chenephres,  sovereign  of  Upper 
Egypt,  but  any  identification  at  all  is  beset  with  innumerable  diffi- 
culties. (3)  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  is  only  referred  to, 
in  the  New  Testament,  as  an  instance  of  judicial  hardening,  after 
continual  opportunities  of  repentance  ('  the  scripture  (i.e.  Ex.  ix. 
16)  saith  unto  Pharaoh,  Even  for  this  same  purpose  have  I 
raised  thee  up,  that  I  might  show  my  po-wer  in  thee,  and  that 
my  name  might  be  declared  throughout  all  the  earth,'  Rom. 
ix.  17).     This  Pharaoh  is  entirely  unidentified. 

Pharez  lY'!)^  =  a  breach,  ^ap^Q,  Phares],  the  fourth  sou  of  the 
patriarch  Judah  :  Er,  Onan,  and  Shelah  being  his  elder  brothers. 
Er  and  Onan  having  died,  Pharez  succeeded  in  the  place  of  Er, 
being  the  son  of  his  widow  Tamar  (Gen.  xxxviii.).  No  particulars 
of  his  life  are  related,  but  his  descendants  were  so  numerous  that 
for  his  house  to  be  '  as  the  house  of  Pharez '  was  a  common  wish 
expressed  for  a  newly  married  man  (Ruth  iv.  12).  In  the  New 
Testament,  Pharez  only  appears  in  the  genealogies  (Matt.  i.  3 ; 
Luke  iii.  33). 

Phet>e  [4>o//3//,  Phcehe],  only  mentioned  in  Rom.  xvi.  1,  2  ('I 
commend  unto  you  Phebe  our  sister,  which  is  a  servant  (ovaav 
h.a.Kovov)  of  the  chm'ch  which  is  at  Cenchrea :  that  ye  receive  her 
in  the  Lord,  as  becometh  saints,  and  that  ye  assist  her  in  what- 
soever business  she  hath  need  of  you :  for  she  hath  been  a  sue- 
courer  of  many,  and  of  myself  also ').  It  has  been  argued  from 
this  passage  that  Phebe  was  a  regular  official  of  the  church,  and  in 
further  support  of  the  existence  of  a  female  diaconate  1  Tim.  iii. 
11  is  adduced  ('Even  so  must  their  (i.e.  the  deacon's)  wives  (jwai- 


PHAREZ— PHENICE.  447 

Kac)  be  grave,  not  slanderers,  sober,  faithful  in  all  tilings '),  and  it 
is  contended  that  not  the  wives  of  deacons,  but  female  deacons  are 
here  intended.  That  such  officials  did  exist  in  the  early  Christian 
Church  is  plain  from  Pliny's  letter  to  Trajan  (a.d,  110),  and  from  the 
Apostolical  Constitutions  :  and  the  state  of  society  almost  demanded 
it.  Bat,  as  Brown  and  Fausset  well  say,  '  Modern  attempts  to 
revive  this  office  have  seldom  found  favour,  either  from  the  altered 
state  of  society,  or  the  abuse  of  the  office,  or  both,' 

Phenlce  [(PoipiKr]  in  Acts  xi.  19;  xv.  3;  xxi.  2;  but  Oon/t  in 
Acts  xxvii.  12,  Phcenice].  Two  distinct  places  are  mentioned 
under  this  name,  although  our  A.  V.  does  not  mark  the  distinction. 

1.  A  tract  of  country  enclosed  between  the  western  slopes  of 
Lebanon  and  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  probably 
deriving  its  name  from  the  Phcenix  or  palm-tree,  which  once 
abounded  there.  Its  native  name  was  Canaan  (see  p.  80,  note  2), 
and  it  included  the  cities  of  Tyre,  Sarepta,  Sidon,  and  Berytus.  It 
was  sometimes  called  Syrophcenicia,  to  distinguish  it  from  Liby- 
phoenicia  in  Africa.  The  inhabitants  of  this  district  were  an 
active,  seafaring,  and  mercantile  people,  and  from  them  sprang  the 
Carthaginians. 

Our  Lord  came  privately  into  the  borders  of  Phoenicia,  even  if 
he  did  not  actually  visit  Sidon,  and  there  performed  a  remarkable 
miracle  on  the  daughter  of  a  native  woman  (Matt.  xv.  21-28; 
Mark  vii.  24-30).  The  only  other  New  Testament  references  to 
the  country  are  in  ilcts  xi.  19  ('  they  which  were  scattered  abroad 
upon  the  persecution  which  arose  about  Stephen  travelled  as  far 
as  Phenice,  &c.'),  in  Acts  xv.  3  ('they  (i.e.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
on  their  way  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch)  passed  through  Phe- 
nice and  Samaria,  declaring  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles :  and 
they  caused  great  joy  unto  all  the  brethren  '),  a  passage  from  which 
it  may  be  inferred  that  the  seed  sown  by  the  dispersed  Christians 
had  already  borne  fruit,  and  in  Acts  xxi.  2  ('  Finding  a  ship  sailing 
over  unto  Phenicia,  we  (i.e.  Paul  and  his  companions)  went 
aboard,  and  set  forth.').  From  the  continuation  of  the  last  passage, 
describing  the  apostle's  arrival  at  Tyre,  it  appears  that  brethren, 
endued  with  much  Christian  faith  and  love,  were  then  to  be  found 
in  Phoenicia. 

The  political  relations  of  Phoenicia  to  the  dominions  of  Herod 
Agrippa  1.  are  touched  upon  in  Acts  xii.  20,  whence  we  learn  that, 
as  might  be  expected  of  a  district  chiefly  commercial,  '  their 
country  was  nourished  (rpiC'tntiai)  by  the  king's  counfff/.' 

2.  A  harbour  on  the  south  coast  of  Crete,  identified  by  Cony- 


448        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

beare  and  Howson  with  Lutro.  It  is  only  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii. 
12,  as  an  haven  'which  lieth  toward  ((cara)  the  south-west  and 
north-west/  and  which  the  ship  that  carried  Paul  to  Rome  en- 
deavoured to  attain  from  the  Fair-havens,  but  did  not  succeed  in 
attaining-. 

PMladelpliia  \J^iKa5t\<;,tin,  Philadeljihia],  only  mentioned  in 
Rev.  i.  11 ;  iii.  7,  as  one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  addressed 
in  the  Apocalypse.  It  was  a  small  city  of  Lydia,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Tmolus.  It  was  the  centre  of  a  wine  and  sugar  producing 
district,  but  was  so  much  troubled  by  earthquakes  that  in  New 
Testament  times  it  had  greatly  declined.  Its  site  is  now  called 
Allah  Sliehr.  Its  poverty  may  perhaps  be  alluded  to  in  the  ex- 
pression of  Rev.  iii.  8,  'Thou  hast  a  little  strength,'  and  the 
promises  of  final  establishment  as  a  '  pillar  in  the  temple '  may 
have  had  a  peculiar  force  to  persons  whose  city  had  been  frequently 
almost  destroyed  by  earthquakes, 

Philemon  [<tJ(X//juwi',  Philemon],  a  Colossian  Christian  to  whom 
one  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  is  addressed.  That  he  was  a  resident  at 
Colossce  is  argued  from  his  being  united  in  the  salutation  of  the 
epistle  with  Archippus,  which  Archippus  appears  from  Col.  iv.  17  to 
have  then  been  at  Colossse.  Again,  Onesimus,  who  is  sent  back  to 
Philemon,  is  the  bearer  with  Tychicus  of  the  letter  to  the  Colossian 
church  (Col.  iv.  7-9).  From  the  epistle  sent  to  him,  he  appears  to 
have  been  the  master  of  Onesimus,  and  to  have  been  of  a  singularly 
gracious  and  tender  character.  St.  Paul  also  reminds  him  that  he 
owed  unto  him  even  himself  (ver,  19),  by  which  it  is  generally 
understood  that  he  was  converted  under  the  apostle's  ministry. 
When  or  where  this  took  place  does  not  appear.  For  the  Epistle  to 
Phileynon,  see  p.  40,  and  for  further  details  as  to  the  connexion  of 
Philemon  and  Onesimus,  see  Onesmius. 

Philetus  [^(XjjTor,  Philetus\  mentioned  only  in  2  Tim.  ii.  17, 
in  companionship  with  Hymenaeus  ('  of  whom  is  Hymeneus  and 
Philetus;  who  concerning  the  truth  have  erred,  saying  that  the 
resurrection  is  past  already  ;  and  overthrow  the  faith  of  some  '). 
Nothing  further  is  known  of  Philetus,  but  as  regards  his  errors, 
see  under  Kijmmceus. 

Philip  [$(Xj7r7roc,  Philippus],  the  name  of  four  different  persons. 

1.  Herod  Philip.  Two  persons  bore  this  name.  See  under 
Herod. 

2.  Philip  the  Apostle.  Very  little  information  is  given  in 
the  New  Testament  with  respect  to  this  apostle.  He  appears  first 
in  John  i.  43-48,  where  we  read  that  immediately  after  his  baptism 


PHILADELPHIA— PHILIP.  449 

Jesus  called  him  with  the  words,  'Follow  me,'  and  that  soon 
afterwards  he  found  Nathanael,  and  brought  him  to  Jesus  as  the 
One  'of  whom  Moses  in  the  law,  and  the  prophets,  did  write.'  It  is 
here  also  stated  that  he  was  of  Bethsaida,  the  city  of  Andrew  and 
Peter.  In  the  Gospel  lists  of  the  apostles,  the  name  of  Philip  ap- 
pears in  conjunction  with  that  of  Bartholomew  (Matt.  x.  3  ;  Mark 
iii.  18 ;  Luke  vi.  14),  but  Acts  i.  13,  names  him  next  after 
Andrew,  with  whom  also  he  appears  connected  in  John  vi.  7-8 ; 
xii.  21-22.  The  former  circumstance,  coupled  with  the  bringing 
of  Nathanael  to  Jesus  by  Philip,  is  one  of  the  arguments  for  con- 
sidering Nathan ael  =  Bartholomew  (see  under  those  names). 

No  other  circumstance  peculiar  to  Philip  is  related  by  the 
synoptics,  but  St.  John  mentions  three  others.  The  first  occurred 
at  the  feeding  of  the  5,000,  on  which  occasion  our  Lord  asked 
Philip,  'Whence  shall  we  buy  bread,  that  these  may  eat  ?'  Philip's 
answer  was,  '  Two  hundred  pennyworth  of  bread  is  not  sufficient 
for  them,  that  every  one  of  them  may  take  a  little.'  We  are 
further  told  that  om-  Lord  made  this  enquiry  'to  prove  (TTHoa^wr)' 
Philip,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  reason  for  Philip's  being  selected 
to  have  the  enquiry  addressed  to  him  was  because  he  would  have 
a  personal  knowledge  of  the  locality,  being  of  Bethsaida  (John  vi. 
5-7). 

The  next  occasion  on  which  Philip  individually  appears  is  in 
John  xii.  20-22  ('There  were  certain  Greeks  ("EXXrivfg)  among 
them  that  came  up  to  worship  at  the  feast'  (the  passover  of  a.d. 
30)  and,  '  the  same  came  therefore  to  Philip,  which  was  of  Beth- 
saida of  Galilee,  and  desired  him,  saying.  Sir,  we  would  see  Jesus. 
Philip  Cometh  and  telleth  Andrew :  and  again  Andrew  and  Philip 
tell  Jesus').  These  Greeks  were  probably  proselytes  of  the  gate; 
but  why  Philip  was  selected  by  them  does  not  appear.  His  name 
is  indeed  of  Greek  origin  (=  horse-lover),  but  this  seems  to  throw 
little  or  no  light  on  the  transaction. 

Again,  in  John  xiv.  8,  9,  Philip  (at  the  Last  Supper)  addresses 
our  Lord  with  the  demand, '  Lord,  show  us  the  Father,  and  it  suffic- 
eth  us.  Jesus  saith  unto  him.  Have  I  been  so  long  time  with  you, 
and  yet  hast  thou  not  known  me,  Philip  ?  he  that  hath  seen  me 
hath  seen  the  Father.' 

Except  as  one  of  the  apostolate,  Philip  does  not  appear  further 
in  the  New  Testament,  but  tradition  relates  many  incidents  of  his 
after  history,  to  which  little  credence  can  be  given.  According  to 
these  stories  he  preaches  and  works  many  wonderful  miracles  at 
Hierapolis,  and  is  there  joined  by  St.  John.  The  people,  however, 


450       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

proceeding-  to  attack  the  apostles,  Philip  curses  the  city,  and  it 
is  swallowed  up.  For  this  wicked  yielding  to  anger,  our  Lord 
condemns  Philip  to  banishment  from  Paradise  for  forty  days,  and 
restores  the  city  to  its  former  place.  Other  stories  relate  his 
preaching  at  Athens,  attended  with  many  wonderful  incidents,  and 
ultimately  a  mission  to  the  Parthians, 

3.  Pbilip  the  Evangrelist,  one  of  the  seven  men  '  of  honest  re- 
port, full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  wisdom/  chosen  for  the  distri- 
bution of  alms  amongst  the  widows  of  the  early  Christian  church 
(Acts  vi.  3-5).  Philip  stands  second  in  the  list  of  those  appointed, 
Stephen  being  first,  and,  shortly  after  his  appointment  to  the  office, 
he  is  found  engaged,  like  Stephen,  in  preaching,  and  in  the  per- 
formance of  miracles.  A  'city  of  Samaria'  was  the  scene  of  his 
work,  which  was  followed  with  large  success,  and  with  '  great  joy.' 
So  remarkable,  indeed,  were  the  results,  that  the  sorcerer  Simon 
Magus  himself  professed  to  believe,  and  the  apostles  Peter  and 
John  came  down  from  Jerusalem,  and,  having  laid  their  hands  on 
the  converts,  prayed  successfully  for  the  outpouring  upon  them  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  viii.  5-25).  For  the  further  career  of 
Simon  Magus,  see  under  Simon.  Philip  now  left  Samaria,  by  the 
direction  of  an  Angel,  and  was  brought  into  contact  with  an 
eunuch,  the  treasurer  of  Candace,  queen  of  the  Ethiopians,  who 
was  returning  from  Jerusalem.  The  particulars  of  this  interview, 
which  resulted  in  the  conversion  of  the  eunuch,  are  related  in  Acts 
viii.  26-40.  At  the  close  of  it,  'the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  caught 
away  (Jip-Kani)  Philip,'  and  he  was  subsequently  found  at  Azotus, 
or  Ashdod,  where  he  preached  for  some  time,  and  then  went  down 
to  CjBsarea. 

The  New  Testament  is  entirely  silent  as  to  Philip's  further 
history  for  many  years  after  this.  The  meeting  with  the  eunuch 
probably  occurred  in  a.d.  36,  but  Philip  is  not  again  encountered 
until  A.D.  58,  when  he  is  found  residing  with  his  four  daughters, 
'virgins,  which  did  prophesy,'  at  Csesarea.  Here  the  apostle  Paul, 
going  up  to  Jerusalem  for  his  final  journey,  was  entertained  by 
him  many  days.  At  his  house,  probably,  the  prophet  Agabus 
foretold  symbolically  the  imprisonment  and  sufi'erings  of  the  apostle 
at  Jerusalem.  Here,  also,  his  title  of  '  evangelist  {diayyt\iaTr]Q)  ' 
is  first  used,  but  he  is  further  distinguished  as  '  one  of  the  seven.' 

Nothing  further  is  certainly  known  of  Philip,  but  several  un- 
trustworthy traditions  confound  him  with  Philip  the  apostle.  The 
house  where  he  lived  at  Csesarea  was  still  pointed  out  in  the  time 
of  Jerome. 


PHILIP— PHILIPPI.  451 

Pbilippl  [*i\in-7roj.  Philippi],  a  city  of  Macedonia,  on  the  river 
Gangas,  and  between  the  rivers  Xestus  and  Strymon.  It  lay  about 
ten  Riiles  inland,  and  was  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  ridge  of 
precipitous  hills.  The  town  was  very  ancient,  and  existed  imme- 
morially  under  the  name  of  Crenides  (Ko7]viStg  =  '>veIls),  but  Philip 
of  Macedon  erected  a  new  city  on  the  site,  to  which  he  gave  his 
own  name,  with  the  view  of  commemorating  the  addition  of  a  new 
province  to  his  kingdom.  Many  years  later,  the  extensive  plain 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  became  the  scene  of  a  decisive 
victory  of  Octavianus  (afterwards  the  emperor  Augustus)  over 
Brutus  and  Cassius  (b.c.  42)  and  hence  Augustus  granted  Philippi 
the  privileges  of  a  colonia  (see  p.  156),  and  altered  its  name  to 
Cdonia  Augusta  Julia  Philijjjjensis.  Under  the  empire  it  long 
continued  an  important  and  flourishing  city,  but  its  site  is  now 
only  marked  by  ruins,  near  the  village  of  Bereketli. 

Philippi  is  peculiarly  interesting  in  the  New  Testament  history, 
as  the  first  place  where  the  gospel  was  preached  in  Europe.  The 
circumstances  under  which  this  occurred  are  related  in  Acts  xvi. 
12-40.  Here  we  read  that  Paul  and  Silas,  accompanied  by  Timo- 
theus  and  Luke,  crossed  from  Troas  to  Neapolis,  a  port  about  ten 
miles  distant,  and  thence  went  up  immediately  to  Philippi.  Here 
there  was  a  small  Proseuche,  or  prayer-house  (A.V.  says  '  a  place 
where  prayer  was  wont  to  be  made,'  but  Greek  has  '  ov  tvoixt'Cero 
-Trpontvxnv  dvai,^  which  may  either  mean  (so  Biscoe,  followed  by 
Conybeare  and  Howson)  'where  there  was  a  place  used  as  a  prayer- 
house,'  or  (so  Alford)  'where  there  was  a  meeting  for  prayer  j'  in 
either  case  it  is  generally  conceded  that  the  structure,  if  any  struc- 
ture existed,  was  open  to  the  sky)  by  the  bank  of  the  river.  To 
this  place  resorted  some  pious  women,  among  whom  was  Lydia, 
a  purple-seller  of  whom  it  is  declared  that '  the  Lord  opened  her 
heart,  that  she  attended  to  the  things  which  were  spoken  of  Paul.' 
Lydia  and  her  household  having  been  baptised,  Paul  and  his  company 
became  inmates  of  her  house,  from  which  we  may  judge  that,  like 
other  persons  in  her  trade,  she  was  in  comfortable  circumstances. 
How  long  they  remained  there  does  not  appear,  but  as  they  '  went 
to  prayer '  (or,  '  to  the  Proseuche ')  a  slave-girl,  afilicted  with  an 
evil  spirit  (see  under  Devils  in  Sect.  4),  followed  and  annoyed 
them,  until  at  length  Paul  turned  and  commanded  the  spirit  to 
come  out  of  her.  This  event  caused  great  commotion.  The 
afilicted  girl  had  been  employed  by  her  masters  as  a  fortune-teller, 
and  they,  when  the  hope  of  their  gains  was  gone,  at  once  arrested 
Paul  and  Silas,  and  brought  them  before  the  magistrates  (^arparrjyol 

gg2 


452        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

^pi'CBtores,  i.e.,  military  authorities,  as  would  befit  a  colony),  aad 
accused  them  of  introducing  new  and  unlawful  customs  in  religion. 
The  magistrates,  without  hearing  a  defence,  caused  Paul  and  Silas 
to  be  at  once  beaten,  and  then  had  them  thrust  into  the  inner  pri- 
son of  the  common  jail,  where  they  were  further  tortured  by 
havinof  their  limbs  made  fast  in  the  stocks.  From  this,  however, 
they  were  miraculously  delivered.  Probably  unable  to  sleep  from 
pain,  Paul  and  Silas  consoled  themselves  with  singing  and  prayer, 
so  that  the  prisoners  (in  the  outer  prison)  heard  them,  and  while 
they  were  so  occupied  at  midnight,  an  earthquake  suddenly  oc- 
curred, all  the  prison  doors  were  opened,  and  the  fetters  of  all  were 
miraculously  loosened.  The  jailer,  or  keeper  of  the  prison  (Seafio- 
^vXat),  awakened  out  of  sleep  by  the  crash,was  for  killing  himself; 
but  being  reassured  by  the  cry  of  Paul  and  Silas,  and  finding  that 
the  prisoners -were  still  safe,  he  chang'ed  his  mind,  sprang  in  tremb- 
ling before  Paul  and  Silas,  and  asked  the  important  question, 
'  What  must  I  do  to  be  saved  ?'  to  which  Paul  gave  the  equally 
important  answer,  '  Believe  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  thou 
shalt  be  saved,  and  thy  house.'  On  this  it  may  be  remarked,  (1)  that 
the  jailer  was  probably  to  some  extent  already  conversant  vrith  the 
teaching  of  Paul,  and  (2)  that  this  answer  was  given  before  any 
of  Paul's  epistles  were  written,  so  that  the  simple  evangelic  cha- 
racter of  the  apostle's  teaching  at  the  earliest  date  is  manifest,  and 
the  idea  that  salvation  by  faith  was  a  doctrine  gradually  developed 
is  clearly  to  be  set  aside. 

The  result  of  all  this  was  the  immediate  conversion  and  baptism 
of  the  jailer  and  his  household.  In  the  morning  the  magistrates 
sent  the  sergeants  (pa/3^ovxoi  =  lictors)  with  orders  to  free  the 
prisoners.  But  Paul  refused  to  go  without  reparation  being  to 
some  extent  made  for  the  indignities  they  had  sufifered.  '  They  have 
beaten  us  openly  uncondemned,  being  Romans  ' — a  thing  utterly 
unlawful ;  '  and  now  do  they  thrust  us  out  privily  ?  nay,  verily  ;  but 
let  them  come  themselves  and  fetch  us  out.'  This,  in  fact,  the 
magistrates — fearful  lest  their  illegal  proceedings  should  call  down 
upon  them  the  censure  of  the  imperial  government — actually  had 
to  do.  On  which,  Paul  and  Silas  '  went  out  of  the  prison,  and 
entered  into  the  house  of  Lydia.'  Shortly  afterwards  they  left  the 
city,  Timotheus  and  Luke  remaining  behind.  Timotheus  rejoined 
Paul  at  Berea  (Acts  xvii.  13),  but  Luke's  movements  are  not  clear. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  he  remained  at  Philippi  in  charge  of  the 
infant  church,  as  he  again  joins  St.  Paul  at  Philippi  (Acts  xx.  6) 
about  five  years  after.     In  the  meantime  the  Philippians  had 


PHILOLOGUS— PHRYGIA.  453 

collected  funds  for  St.  Paul's  assistance,  and  this  more  than  once 
(Phil.  iv.  14-16). 

The  indignities  which  St.  Paul  received  on  this  first  visit  to 
Philippi  seem  to  have  made  a  deep  impression  upon  his  mind. 
References  to  them  are  frequently  found  in  his  epistles;  and, 
especially,  see  2  Cor.  xi.  2-5 ;  1  Thess.  ii.  2. 

No  doubt  St.  Paul  visited  Philippi  again  v^hen,  after  leaving 
Ephesus,  he  went  '  into  Macedonia '  (Acts  xx.  1).  The  Second 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  is  considered  to  have  been  written 
thence  on  the  occasion  of  this  second  visit  (see  p.  38).  A  third 
visit  was  also  probably  made  by  the  apostle  on  his  return  from 
Greece  to  Jerusalem  for  the  last  time  (a.d.  57).  But  no  parti- 
culars of  these  visits  are  recorded  (Acts  xx.  6),  nor  is  it  certain 
(although  possible — see  1  Tim.  i.  3)  that  the  apostle  ever  revisited 
the  city.  The  Philippians,  however,  did  not  forget  the  founder  of 
their  church.  During  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rcme  (a.d.  61-62) 
they  sent  Epaphroditus  to  him,  with  alms  and  personal  service,  and 
by  him,  on  his  return,  they  received  the  letter  known  as  the  '  Epistle 
to  the  Philippians.' 

Trustworthy  tradition  carries  on  the  history  of  the  Philippian 
church  for  some  period,  and  shows  that  for  many  years  it  was  dis- 
tinguished by  steadfastness  of  devotion,  and  sympathy  with  those 
who  sufiered  for  Christ's  sake.  Thus  Ignatius,  on  his  way  to  mar- 
tyrdom at  Rome,  visited  Philippi  (a.d.  107),  and  an  epistle  of 
Polycarp  to  the  Philippians  still  exists,  in  reply  to  a  request  from 
them  for  a  copy  of  aU  the  letters  of  Ignatius  to  the  church  of 
Smyrna. 

With  regard  to  the  '  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  see  pp.  40,  41. 

Philologus  [^iKoXoyoc,  Philologiis],  a  Roman  Christian  saluted 
in  Rom.  xvi.  15  ;  possibly  the  husband  of  Julia,  in  conjunction 
with  whom  he  is  mentioned. 

Phlegon  [f^Xiywv,  Phlegon^  gen.  Phlegontis],  a  Roman  Christian, 
saluted  in  Rom.  xvi.  14,  possibly  one  of  a  group  of  Christians, 
connected  for  purposes  of  worship  or  charity.  Tradition  declares 
him  to  have  been  martyred. 

Phoebe.     See  Phehe. 

Phoenicia.     See  Phenice. 

Phrygia  [?';  ^pvyia,  Phrrjgia],  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  and  oc- 
cupying the  western  part  of  its  central  table-land.  It  originally 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamos,  and  passed  under  the  will 
of  King  Attains  (see  Pergamos)  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans, 
when  it  became  part  of  the  province  of  Asia.     Many  Jews  lived 


454       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

there,  and  Jews  from  Phrj-gia  were  present  on  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost (Acts  ii.  10).  St.  Paul  preached  there  at  two  separate  times 
(Acts  xvi.  6 ;  xviii.  23),  and  made  *  many  disciples/  but  no  details 
of  his  work  are  given. 

Pbygellus  [<i>y)'f\Aoc;  or  ^vytXog,  Phi(jeUus]  only  mentioned  in 
2  Tim.  i.  15  ('  they  which  are  in  Asia  are  turned  away  from  me, 
of  whom  is  Phygellus  and  Hermogeues  ').  The  circumstances 
under  which  the  desertion  referred  to  took  place  are  entirely 
unknown. 

Pilate  \Jl6vTioQ  TTiXaroc,  Pontius  Filatus],  the  sixth  Roman  pro- 
curator of  Judaea,  under  whose  government  our  Lord  suffered  and 
died.  He  was  appointed  Procurator  a.d.  25,  and  at  once  aroused 
the  hatred  of  the  Jews  by  proposing  to  transfer  the  Roman  garrison, 
with  their  idolatrous  rites  and  standards,  from  Caesarea  to  Jerusa- 
lem. This  intention  he  did  not  carry  out,  but  in  many  other  ways 
he  excited  the  irritable  feelings  of  the  Jews,  and  nearly  drove  them 
to  revolt.  On  one  occasion  he  appears  to  have  slain  some  Galilseans, 
and  caused  their  blood  to  be  mingled  with  the  sacrifices  (Luke 
xiii.  1). 

With  the  exception  of  the  passing  allusion  just  referred  to, 
Pilajte  does  not  appear  in-  the  Gospel  history  until  the  passion  of 
our  Lord.  He  then  comes  prominently  forward.  It  was  usual 
for  the  Roman  procurator  to  reside  at  Jerusalem  during  the  great 
festivals,  in  order  to  control  the  populace,  and  hence  Pilate  was 
resident  in  Jerusalem  during  the  passover  of  a.d.  30,  when  our 
Lord  was  arrested,  and  it  was  before  him  that  the  priests  neces- 
sarily brought  Jesus,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  sentence  of  death. 
The  question  of  whether  they  might  have  themselves  inflicted 
death,  is  discussed  under  the  word  Council,  p.  157 ;  and  the  inci- 
dents of  our  Saviour's  trial  and  condemnation  are  minutely  detailed 
and  examined  at  pp.  107-111. 

After  the  condemnation  of  our  Lord,  Pilate  appears  as  the  one 
who  wrote  the  title  for  the  cross,  '  This  is  Jesus,  the  King  of  the 
Jews,'  and  afterwards  declined  to  change  it,  saying,  '  What  I  have 
written  I  have  written '  (John  xix.  22).  He  also  gave  orders  to 
the  soldiers  to  break  the  legs  of  those  who  had  been  crucified 
(John  xix.  31),  and  permission  to  Joseph  of  Arimathaea  to  have  the 
body  cf  our  Lord  for  burial  (Matt,  xxvii.  57,  58  ;  Mark  xv.  43-45 ; 
Luke  xxiii.  50-52  J  John  xix.  38).  After  this  he  further  gave 
permission  to  the  priests  to  set  a  watch  at  the  sepulchre,  and  some 
think  that  he  even  provided  the  men  for  the  purpose  (Matt,  xxvii, 
62-66).     That  the  guard  was  composed  of  Roman  soldiers  appears 


PHYGELLUS— PONTUS.  455 

probable  from  the  remarks  of  the  priests,  after  tlie  resurrection, 
recorded  in  Matt,  xxviii.  14  ('  If  this  come  to  the  governor's  ears, 
we  will  persuade  him,  and  secure  you  '). 

Further  than  two  references  to  our  Lord's  trial  before  him  by 
St.  Peter  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  (Acts  iii.  13),  and  by  St.  Paul 
(1  Tim.  vi.  13),  no  subsequent  mention  is  made  of  Pontius  Pilate  in 
the  New  Testament.  What  is  said,  however,  is  sufficient  to  show 
that,  although  not  destitute  of  feelings  of  mercy  and  justice,  he 
was  weak  and  vacillating,  and  preferred  what  he  considered  policy 
to  truth.  As  to  his  further  history,  Josephus  (Ant.  18.  4.  1)  tells 
us  that,  having  attacked  the  Samaritans,  he  was  complained  of  to 
Vitellius,  the  president  of  Syria,  who  sent  him  to  Rome,  where 
he  found  Tiberius  dead,  and  Caligula  on  the  throne.  After  this, 
tradition  says  that  he  was  banished  to  Vienne,  on  the  Rhone,  and 
there  died  by  his  own  hand.  Many  spurious  Acta  Pilati  still 
exist,  one  of  which  puts  forth  the  legend  that  his  body  was  thrown 
into  the  lake  of  Lucerne,  whence  the  mountain  which  overhangs 
the  lake  (Mons  Pilatus)  has  derived  its  name. 

Pisidia  [Uiaiciu,  Pisiclia\  a  district  of  Asia  Minor  lying  north 
of  Pamphylia,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Taurus  range.  St.  Paul 
passed  through  it  during  his  first  missionary  journey  (a.d.  48,  49), 
spending  some  time  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  then  passing  onwards  to 
Iconium,  Lystra,  Derbe,  and  so  back  to  Antioch  (Acts  xiii.  14- 
xiv.  24).  The  country  was  rough  and  lawless,  and  it  is  probable 
enough  that,  as  Conybeare  and  Howson  suggest,  it  was  while 
journeying  here  that  the  apostle  met  with  the  ^perils  of  robbers' 
referred  to  in  2  Cor.  xi.  26. 

Pontius  Pilate.     See  Pilate. 

Pontus  [iTovroc,  Ponttis],  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  lying  to  the 
north-east,  and  having  the  Black  Sea  for  its  northern  boundary. 
Through  this  district  Xenophon  effected  his  famous  retreat  with 
the  10,000  Greeks,  and  here  afterwards  a  powerful  kingdom  arose, 
until  under  Mithridates  VI.  (b.c.  120-63)  it  threatened  the  Roman 
power  in  Asia.  The  Romans  then  attacked  and  conquered  it,  and 
after  the  death  of  Pharnaces,  the  nominal  successor  of  JNIithridates, 
Pontus  became  a  Roman  province,  which  was  its  condition  in  New 
Testament  times.  Large  numbers  of  Jews  dwelt  there.  Jews 
from  Pontus  were  at  Jerusalem  at  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9),  and 
Christian  Jews  of  Pontus  are  addressed  in  1  Pet.  i.  1.  Aquila,  the 
husband  of  Priscilla,  and  the  friend  of  Paul,  was  a  native  of  Pontus ; 
and  Bernice,  the  sister  of  Agrippa  II.,  before  whom  Paul  was 


456        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAilENT  STUDY. 

brought,  married  Polemo,  who  had  been  invested  with  the  nominal 
sovereignty  of  this  province. 

Porcius  Festus.      See  Festiis. 

Prisca  =  PriscUla,  in  2  Tim.  iv.  19.     See  Priscilla. 

Priscilla  [UpiaiciWa,  Priscilla;  but  in  2  Tim.  iv.  19,  UpiaKaj 
Prisca  ;  and  in  Rom.  xvi.  3,  Vulgate  has  Prisca],  the  diminutive  of 
Prisca,  and  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Aquila  (Acts  xviii.  2).  For  her 
history,  see  under  Aquila.  Here  it  may  be  further  noticed  that  in 
three  out  of  the  five  places  where  the  names  of  Aquila  and  Pris- 
cilla are  mentioned,  the  wife's  name  stands  first.  This  has  been 
commented  on,  as  indicating  the  greater  strength  of  her  character 
as  compared  with  her  husband's.  Priscilla  has  also  been  rightly 
proposed  as  a  model  for  the  man-ied  Christian  woman,  just  as 
Phebe  may  be  regarded  as  a  model  for  the  unma7'ried. 

Procliorus  [jlpoxopoq^  Prochorus\  one  of  the  seven  generally 
called  deacons.  He  stands  third  on  the  list,  but  nothing  further  is 
certainly  known  of  him  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Ptolemais  [U.ro\enaic,  Ptolemaidam,  ace],  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  of  Phoenicia,  lying  at  the  bottom  of  a  bay  formed  by 
the  northern  extremity  of  Mount  Carmel,  on  the  coast  of  Palestine. 
In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  called  Acco,  and  still  exists  as  Acre,  or 
Accah.  Ptolemy  I.  strengthened,  enlarged,  and  improved  it,  and 
changed  its  name  to  Ptolemais.  In  New  Testament  times  it  had 
become  a  Koman  colony,  and  belonged  to  Galilee.  It  is  only  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament  as  the  place  to  which  Paul  sailed 
from  Tyre,  and  where  he  landed  and  remained  one  day  with  the 
brethren,  on  his  final  journey  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi.  7). 

Publius  [iToTrXioc,  Pidtlius']  the  chief-man  (6  Trpojroc)  of  the 
island  of  Melita,  when  Paul  and  his  companions  were  wrecked 
there.  He  acted  with  great  courtesy,  and  lodged  the  shipwrecked 
company  three  days.  His  father  being  ill  of  dysentery,  was  cured 
by  St.  Paul.  These  circumstances  are  narrated  in  Acts  xxviii.  7, 
8,  and  inscriptions  have  been  recently  found  in  Malta,  in  which 
the  title  TrpCJTOQ  MeXiraiiov  (  =  chief-man  of  the  Maltese)  occurs,  as 
apparently  the  official  designation  of  the  governor.  In  New  Testa- 
ment times  Melita  belonged  to  the  province  of  Sicily,  and  Publius 
was  probably  the  deputy  of  the  praetor  of  that  province. 

Pudens  \_novSrjQ,  Pudens],  only  occurring  in  2  Tim.  iv.  21 
('  Eubulus  greeteth  thee,  and  Pudens,  and  Linus,  and  Claudia,  and 
all  the  brethren ').  A  special  interest  attaches  to  the  name,  since 
the  poet  Martial,  who  lived  at  Eome  about  a.d.  66-100,  mentions 
the  marriage  of  a  Pudens  and  a  Claudia  ('  Claudia,  Rufe,  meo  nubit 


POECIUS   FESTUS-EACHAB.  457 

peregrina  Pudenti,'  = '  O  Rufus,  a  foreign  lady  named  Claudia  is 
marrying  my  friend  Pudens,'  Ep.  iv.  13).  The  same  Pudens  is 
further  mentioned  in  i.  32,  iv.  29,  v.  48,  vi.  58,  vii.  11,  97,  from 
which  it  appears  that  he  was  a  soldier,  sometimes  on  active  service, 
a  person  of  good  private  property  in  Umbria,  and  of  licentious 
habits.  Claudia,  whose  full  name  is  Claudia  Rufina,  is  mentioned 
in  viii.  60,  xi.  53,  and  there  stated  to  be  of  British  birth,  and 
admirable  both  for  stature  and  beauty.  Further  than  this,  a  Latin 
inscription  was  found  at  Chichester  in  1723,  in  which  a  British 
king,  Tiberius  Claudius  Cogidubnus,  sanctions  the  erection  of  a 
temple  to  Neptune  and  Minerva,  '  (Pud)ente,  Pudentini  filio,'  i.e. 
'  (Pud)ens,  son  of  Pudentinus,'  giving  the  site.  The  letters  in  a 
parenthesis  have  been  broken  off,  and  it  is  therefore  only  a  suppo- 
sition that  the  giver  of  the  site  was  called  Pudens.  If  he  were,  then, 
since  Cogidubnus  reigned  from  a.d.  o2-76  (Tac.  Agr.  14),  he  may 
have  been  the  Pudens  of  Martial,  and  Claudia,  whom  Pudens 
married,  may  have  been  the  daughter  of  Cogidubnus.  If  so,  the 
Pudens  and  Claudia  of  2  Tim.  iv.  21  (written  from  Ptome  about 
A.D.  68)  may  also  have  been  the  Pudens  and  Claudia  of  Martial, 
and  Claudia  was  a  British  Christian.  Looking  to  the  immoral 
character  of  Pudens,  this  certainly  seems  unlikely,  but  the  coinci- 
dence is  at  least  interesting  and  worthy  of  notice. 

The  name  of  Pudens  has  been  also  found  in  a  list  of  the  members 
of  the  imperial  household  of  Tiberius  or  Claudius. 

Puteoli  [UoTioXoi,  PuteoW],  the  Italian  harbour  at  which  St, 
Paul  and  his  companions  disembarked  on  their  voyage  to  Rome. 
It  was  the  '  Liverpool '  of  Italy  and  lay  near  the  northern  extre- 
mity of  the  Bay  of  Naples.  Close  to  it  was  Baise,  the  fashionable 
Roman  watering  place,  but  Puteoli  was  devoted  to  trade,  especially 
with  Egypt,  whence  came  the  corn  ships  by  which  Rome  was 
supplied.  Puteoli  still  exists  as  a  small  Italian  town  under  the 
name  of  Pozzuoli,  and  remains  of  its  ancient  harbour  are  yet  dis- 
cernible. In  the  New  Testament,  it  is  only  mentioned  in  Acts 
xxviii.  13,  14  ('  We  came  the  next  day  to  Puteoli :  where  we 
found  brethren,  and  were  desired  to  tarry  with  them  seven  days '). 

Quartus  \_KovapToc,  Quartus]  a  Corinthian  'brother  (o  adtXcjoq), ' 
who,  through  St.  Paul,  salutes  the  brethren  at  Rome  (Rom. 
xvi.  23). 

Racbab  [2Tr\  =  largeness  (?),  'Pax«/3,  Jia/iab'],  a  woman  of 
Jericho,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  Heb.  xi.  31  and  Jas. 
ii.  '25,  Rahab.  Her  history  is  given  in  Josh,  ii.,  vi.  22-25.  She 
received  the  spies  sent  by  Joshua,  concealed  them  on  the  roof  of 


458        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

her  liousej  and  then  facilitated  their  escape.  In  recompense,  they 
gave  her  a  scarlet  line  to  bind  in  the  window  of  her  house  (which 
was  on  the  town  wall),  and  promised  that  if  the  line  should  be 
seen  in  her  window  when  the  city  should  be  taken,  no  injury  should 
be  done  to  the  inmates  of  the  house,  Rachab  took  advantage  of 
this  offer,  bound  the  scarlet  line  at  once  in  the  window,  and  when 
the  city  was  taken  by  Joshua  was  duly  protected  and  preserved, 
along  with  her  father,  mother,  brethren,  and  all  that  she  had.  She 
then  married  Salmon  (traditionally  said  to  have  been  one  of  the 
spies),  and  by  him  became  the  mother  of  Boaz,  and  ancestor  of  our 
Lord,  in  whose  genealogy  she  is  especially  noticed  ('  Salmon  begat 
Boaz  of  Rachab,'  Matt.  i.  5).  In  the  New  Testament,  in  addition 
to  the  mention  of  her  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ,  she  is  twice 
referred  to  ('  by  faith  the  harlot  Rahab  perished  not  with  them  that 
believed  not,  when  she  had  received  the  spies  with  peace,'  Heb.  xi. 
31 ;  and  '  Was  not  Rahab  the  harlot  justified  by  works,  when  she 
had  received  the  messengers,  and  had  sent  them  out  another 
way  ?  '  Jas.  ii.  25). 

The  application  of  the  term  n^lT  =  Tropvr)  =  harlot  (Josh.  ii.  1)  to 
Rachab  has  occasioned  considerable  perplexity.  Some  have  ineffec- 
tually endeavoured  to  represent  the  Hebrew  term  as  =  hostess,  and 
we  are  thrown  back,  so  far  as  regards  her  marriage  with  Salmon, 
on  the  supposition  that  in  those  times  her  trade  was  not  regarded 
as  altogether  debasing.  Further,  it  may  be  fairly  argued  that  the 
point  selected  by  St.  Paul  and  St.  James  is  not  her  general  charac- 
ter, but  her  actions  on  a  very  particular  occasion  ;  and  even  if  this  be 
not  conceded,  her  marriage  with  Salmon  shows  that  her  line  of 
conduct  was  effectually  and  entirely  altered  in  her  later  life.  Such 
women,  when  repentant,  were  on  several  occasions  the  objects  of 
our  Lord's  peculiar  notice  (Luke  vii.  44 ;  John  viii.  3).  With  regard 
to  the  insertion  of  the  name  of  Rachab  in  our  Lord's  genealogy, 
the  obvious  explanation  is  that  all  the  four  women  there  men- 
tioned (Thamar,  Rachab,  Ruth,  and  Bathsheba)  were  very  remark- 
able women. 

Rachel  [7^'^  =  a  e?w,  'Paxn^,  RacheT],  one  of  the  wives  of  Jacob, 
called  in  Jer.  xxxi.  15,  '  Rahel,'  but  in  the  Old  Testament  gene- 
rally Rachel.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Laban,  the  yoimger  sister 
of  Leah,  and  the  mother  of  Joseph  and  Benjamin,  in  giving  birth 
to  the  latter  of  whom  she  died  (Gen.  xxxv.  18).  Her  history  is 
related  in  Gen.  xxix.  6-xxxv.  20.  She  was  a  woman  of  great 
beauty,  but  she  appears  to  have  been  deceitful  and  idolatrous.  In 
the  New  Testament,  she  is  only  referred  to  in  the  quotation  from 


EACHEL— REMPKAN.  459 

Jer.  xxxi.  15-17  (^In  Rama  was  there  a  voice  heard,  lamenta- 
tion, and  weeping,  and  great  mourning,  Rachel  weeping /or  her 
children,  and  would  not  be  comforted,  because  they  are  not '),  ap- 
plied, in  Matt.  ii.  18,  to  the  sorrow  experienced  at  Bethlehem  at 
the  slaughter  of  the  children  by  Herod's  orders.  In  Jer.,  the  text 
seems  to  refer  to  the  sorrow  felt  as  it  were  by  the  buried  Rachel  at 
being  deprived  of  her  people,  gone  into  exile  to  Egypt  or  slain  by 
the  Assyrians.  The  expression  probably  had  become  almost  a  prover- 
bial one  for  any  deep  affliction  experienced  by  Israelites,  especially 
those  resident  near  Bethlehem,  close  to  which  Rachel  is  buried, 
and  near  which  her  tomb  is  still  shown.  Her  burial  at  Bethlehem 
is  recorded  in  Gen.  xxxv.  19.  Some  difficulty  has  occurred  as  to 
the  identification  of  '  Rama,'  but  considering  that  the  word  Rama 
=  any  Tiigh  place ^  and  occurs  many  times  either  alone  or  in  compo- 
sition, the  real  difficulty  is  very  slight.  A  '  Ramah '  is  indeed  said 
to  have  been  lately  discovered  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
Rachel's  sepulchre. 

Ragau  [-lyi  =^ friend  (i.e.  of  God),  'Vayav,  Magau],  the  son  of 
Peleg,  and  father  of  Serug  (Gen,  xi.  18-21),  called  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, Reu.  In  the  New  Testament,  he  only  appears  in  the  Genea- 
logy of  our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  35). 

Rabab.     See  RacJiah. 

Rama.     See  Rachel. 

Rebecca  [ni^^T  =  ensnarer,  '  Pe(3iKKn,  Rebecca'],  the  daughter  of 
Bethuel,  wife  of  Isaac,  and  mother  by  him  of  Esau  and  Jacob, 
after  nineteen  years  of  childless  marriage.  Her  history  is  recounted 
in  Gen.  xxiv.  15-67;  xxv.  20-28 ;  xxvi.  6-11;  xxvii. ;  xlix.  31. 
She  was  remarkable  for  her  beauty,  but  was  apparently  of  a  deceit- 
ful character,  and  her  partiality  for  Jacob  over  Esau  was  the  cause 
of  much  domestic  sorrow.  The  time  and  manner  of  her  death  are 
not  stated,  but  in  Gen.  xlix.  31,  her  burial  by  the  side  of  her  hus- 
band Isaac  in  the  cave  at  Machpelah  is  recorded.  In  the  New 
Testament  she  only  appears  in  Rom.  ix.  10-12  ('  When  Rebecca  also 
had  conceived  by  one,  even  by  our  father  Isaac ' — i.e.  her  children, 
Jacob  and  Esau,  were  not,  like  Isaac  and  Ishmael,  the  children  of 
one  father  but  two  mothers,  but  were  the  children  of  one  father 
by  one  mother — '  ....  it  was  said  unto  her,  The  elder  shall 
serve  the  younger '). 

Rempban  ['  Peix<pdv,  but  a  great  variety  of  readings,  of  which 
the  best  seems  'P8(pdv,  Retnphain'],  only  mentioned  in  the  speech  of 
Stephen  before  the  Sanhedrim,  quoting  Amos  v.  25,  26  ('  Ye  took 
up  the  tabernacle  of  Moloch,  and  the  star  of  your  god  Remphau, 


400        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

figures  which  ye  made  to  worship  them  '  (Acts  vii.  43').  The  text 
in  Amos  is,  '  Ye  have  borne  the  tabernacle  of  your  Moloch  {piarg. 
Siccuth  your  king)  and  Chiun  (j-I^S)  your  images,  the  star  of  your 
god,  which  ye  made  to  yourselves.'  Of  this,  two  explanations  are 
proposed.  (1)  Chiun  =  Saturn  ;  and  Rephan  is  either  a  Coptic 
word  which  also  stands  for  Saturn,  or  a  Greek  equivalent  for  the 
name  of  the  Egyptian  god  Renpu,  who  was  worshipped  in  con- 
junction with  Ken,  an  Egyptian  representative  of  Venus.  (2) 
Rephan  (in  Hebrew  letters  |in)  is  another  reading  for  Chiun  (jl'^D), 
the  two  words,  utterly  unlike  in  English,  being  exceedingly  simi- 
lar in  Hebrew.  It  adds  to  the  probability  of  this,  that  the  LXX. 
translation  of  Amos  v.  26,  also  gives  '  VaKpav  as  the  equivalent  of 
Chiun.  Some  have  further  supposed  that  the  '  Chiun '  was  the  car- 
riage or  frame  on  which  the  star  or  image  of  the  god  was  carried. 

Reuben  [p-lts"],  'Pov(3i}v,  Hubert],  the  eldest  son  of  Jacob, 
although  deprived  of  the  rights  of  primogeniture.  He  gave  his 
name  to  one  of  the  Israelitish  tribes,  located  on  the  east  of  Jordan, 
and  of  this  tribe  12,000   are  sealed  in  Rev.  vii.  5. 

Rbegrium  ['Fijywv.  Rhegium'],  only  mentioned  in  Acts  xxviii. 
13,  as  a  place  off  which  the  ship  carrying  Paul  and  his  companions 
to  Rome  waited  for  the  south  wind  ('We  fetched  a  compass  and 
came  to  Rhegium  (^ireptiki^ovTtQ  Kartp'rijcjafitv  elg  'P.)  ;  and  after  one 
day  the  south  wind  blew ').  Rhegium,  now  called  Reggio,  stands 
on  the  Italian  side  of  the  straits  of  Messina,  which  are  here  about 
six  miles  wide.     It  was  originally  a  Greek  colony. 

Rhesa  ['P/;cro,  Resa],  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  sonof  Zorobabel, 
and  father  of  Joanna  (Luke  iii.  27).  Bishop  Hervey  endeavours 
to  show  that  tov  'Pijod,  rov  Zopol3af3i\  really  =  son  of  Zorohabel  the 
Rrince,  Rhesa  being  =  ^^^''T  (a  Chaldee  word)  =  a  prince  of  the 
captivity.  However,  no  authority  is  given  for  this  statement, 
neither  does  the  word  i^^''T!  occur  in  the  Scriptures,  the  Chaldee 
word  in  Daniel  for  '  prince '  or  '  princes '  being  totally  different.  See 
Genealogy  of  Christ  in  Section  4. 

Rhoda  [  "Po^t),  Rhode],  the  name  of  the  damsel  (ttojc^iV/c?;)  who 
came  to  the  gate  of  the  house  of  John  Mark  in  Jerusalem,  when 
Peter,  having  escaped  from  prison,  knocked  for  entrance.  All  we 
further  know  of  her  is  that  stated  in  Acts  xii.  13-15,  that  '  when 
she  knew  Peter's  voice  she  opened  not  the  gate  for  gladness,  but 
ran  in,  and  told  how  Peter  stood  before  the  gate.  And  they  said 
unto  her,  Thou  art  mad.  But  she  constantly  affirmed  that  it  was 
even  so.'     Rhode  =  our  English  name  Rose. 


REUB  EN— EOBO  AM.  461 

Rhodes  ['Po^oc,  RJiodus],  a  small  island  in  the  -^gean,  about 
thirty-six  miles  long  by  eighteen  broad,  off  the  coast  of  Caria. 
Although  thus  territorially  insignificant,  Rhodes  took  an  important 
part  in  the  various  contests  of  the  Greek  nation,  and  possessed 
for  many  years  an  extensive  commerce,  many  colonies,  and  great 
maritime  power.  Originally  three  cities,  named  Lyndus,  lalysus, 
and  Camirua,  divided  the  authority  of  the  island  between  them,  but 
in  B.C.  408,  a  new  capital  was  built,  bearing  the  same  name  as  the 
island  itself.  In  New  Testament  times,  the  Rhodians  were  still  inde- 
pendent, having  given  great  naval  assistance  to  the  Romans  in  the 
Mithridatic  war ;  but  they  were  deprived  of  their  independence  by 
theemperor  Claudius,  and  an  earthquake  which  destroyed  the  city  in 
A.D.  loo,  completed  their  ruin.  After  this,  Rhodes  became  incor- 
porated in  the  Roman  empire,  and  shared  the  fortunes  of  its 
eastern  provinces,  falling  alternately  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks 
and  Saracens.  In  1310,  it  again  acquired  an  independent  position, 
the  order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  making  it  their  residence, 
and  defending  it  with  the  greatest  valour  against  all  comers  until 
1522.  The  grand  master  of  the  order,  ViUiers  de  Lisle  Adam, 
then  honourably  capitulated  to  the  Turks,  and  abandoned  the  island 
for  Malta.  Since  that  date,  Rhodes  has  belonged  to  the  Turkish 
empire.  It  still  retains  its  ancient  name,  and  has  a  population  of 
about  30,000,  chiefly  employed  in  shipbuilding. 

Rhodes  has  had  a  social  and  artistic  history  as  well  as  a  political 
one.  In  ancient  times  it  was  the  resort  of  learned  men  of  all. 
countries,  and  its  city  was  famous  for  its  regularity  and  beauty, 
and  for  the  number  of  statues  by  which  it  was  adorned.  Of  these 
the  Colossus  was  most  renowned,  being  regarded  as  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  This  was  a  brazen  statue  of  Phoebus,  con- 
structed by  Chares,  and  erected  about  B.C.  300.  Its  height  was 
105  feet,  and  twelve  years  were  employed  in  making  it. 
After  standing  for  fifty-six  years,  it  was  thrown  down  by  an 
earthquake,  and  its  fragments  remained  on  the  ground  vmtil  a.d. 
672,  when  they  were  sold  to  a  Jew,  who  employed  900  camels  in 
carrying  them  away. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Rhodes  is  only  mentioned  as  a  place  at 
which  St.  Paul  touched  on  his  final  journey  to  Jerusalem  (Acts 
xxi.  1). 

Roboam  [DJ^5n")  =  Ae  loho  enlarges  tliepeojjle,  'VofSoa/u,  Rohoam\ 
the  son  and  successor  of  Solomon,  called  in  the  Old  Testament 
Rehoboam.  He  came  to  the  throne  in  B.C.  975,  and  by  an  ill- 
advised  severity  precipitated  the   threatened   disruption   of  his 


462        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

father's  kingdom.  Under  the  leadership  of  Jeroboam,  ten  tribes 
revolted  from  his  authority,  taking  the  name  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  and  leaving  him  with  the  government  of  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin only,  as  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  He  was  also  engaged  in  a 
disastrous  conflict  with  Shishak  king  of  Egypt.  His  history  is 
related  in  1  Kings  xii.  1-19 ;  xiv.  21-31 ;  2  Chron.  x.-xii.  In 
the  New  Testament,  he  only  appears  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord 
(Matt.  i.  7). 

lR,onxe  [Pw/v??,  adj.  'PwjuoToc,  Homa,  adj.  liomanus'],  once  the  capi- 
tal of  the  whole  western  world,  and  now  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Italy  and  the  residence  of  the  Pope,  is  situated  on  the 
Tiber,  fifteen  miles  from  the  sea,  in  41°  54'  N.  Lat,  and  12°  28' 
E.  Long.  The  present  city  extends  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  but 
with  the  exception  of  a  comparatively  small  suburb,  ancient  Rome 
stood  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  on  seven  eminences,  sometimes 
called  hills,  but  of  which  the  highest  point  does  not  exceed  200 
feet  above  the  Tiber.  In  B.C.  300,  Rome  was  entirely  destroyed 
by  the  Gauls,  and  on  their  departure  the  city  was  rebuilt  without 
any  regard  for  regularity  or  convenience.  As  wealth  was  acquired 
by  the  conquest  of  Carthage,  Macedonia,  and  Syria,  the  city  began 
to  be  embellished  with  handsome  buildings,  and  under  the  second 
emperor  Augustus,  so  many  improvements  had  been  made  that  he 
was  said  to  have  found  Rome  brick  and  left  it  marble.  In  a.d. 
64,  a  great  fire  destroyed  two-thirds  of  the  city,  and  the  emperor 
Nero  availed  himself  of  this  opportunity  to  rebuild  it  on  a  more 
definite,  convenient,  and  stately  plan.  Succeeding  emperors  added 
to  his  work,  and  constructed  bridges,  baths,  theatres,  palaces,  tem- 
ples, triumphal  arches  and  columns,  basilicae  or  law-courts, 
aqueducts  and  sewers,  with  the  greatest  profusion  and  magnificence. 
To  these  Christian  art  has  added  many  magnificent  churches,  and 
notably  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  so  that  whether  for  illustration 
of  ancient  or  modern  art,  the  city  of  Rome  stands  altogether  un- 
equalled and  even  unapproached.  But  it  should  be  remembered,  that 
the  chief  remains  of  architectural  antiquity  at  Rome  were  erected 
subsequently  to  New  Testament  times.  But  few  monuments  of 
Rome,  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  Nero,  still  exist.  The  Coliseum, 
for  instance,  was  commenced  by  Vespasian,  the  Pantheon  was  built 
by  Agrippa,  and  many  other  buildings  indicate  their  date  by  their 
names. 

The  population  of  Rome  in  New  Testament  times  had  far  out- 
spread the  limits  of  the  ancient  city  on  the  seven  hills.  It  has 
been   estimated  in   St.   Paul's  time   as  between  two  and  three 


EOME.  463 

millions,  and  "vraa  spread  far  away  through  suburbs  of  villas  and 
gardens.  Of  this  population,  about  one-half  were  freemen,  and 
the  remainder  slaves  or  foreigners.  Trades,  professions,  and 
handicrafts  were  left  to  the  latter  classes,  while  the  citizens  gave 
themselves  entirely  to  amusement  and  idleness.  A  vast  number  of 
them  subsisted  on  public  or  private  charity,  and  cared  for  nothing 
beyond  their  daily  dole,  and  the  games  and  savage  shows  of  the 
circus  and  amphitheatre. 

To  enter  upon  the  general  history  of  the  Roman  empire  is  not 
the  object  of  this  work,  but  a  few  words  may  be  added  as  to  its 
condition  and  history  in  New  Testament  times.  During  this 
period,  the  Roman  dominions  were  administered  as  an  empire.  The 
first  emperor,  Julius  Csesar,  was  assassinated  B.C.  44,  and  after 
various  intestine  struggles^  his  nephew,  Caius  Julius  Csesar 
Octavianus,  received  the  title  of  Augustus  in  a.d.  27,  and 
became  sole  master  of  the  Roman  territories.  These  included 
England  (Britannia),  France  (Gallia),  Spain  and  Portugal 
(Hispania),  Italy,  Switzerland  (Helvetii),  Southern  Germany 
(Germania,  Vindelicia,  Noricum,  Rh^tia),  the  modern  empire  of 
Turkey  (Msesia,  Thracia,  Macedonia),  part  of  Austria  (Pan- 
nonia,  lllyricum),  Greece  (Achaia),  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  including 
Palestine,  together  with  Egypt,  the  northern  shores  of  Africa,  and 
the  majority  of  the  Mediterranean  islands.  To  these  dominions 
the  successors  of  Augustus  added  the  Transdanubian  provinces 
(Dacia),  and  pushed  the  limits  of  the  Eastern  provinces  a  little 
further  to  the  east  and  south.  These  vast  dominions  were 
administered  as  provinces,  the  settled  ones  under  the  charge  of 
the  Roman  Senate,  and  the  unsettled — where  military  force  was 
more  required — under  the  immediate  charge  of  the  emperor. 
This  was  of  course  a  device  for  concentrating  all  military 
authority  in  the  emperor.  As  to  the  manner  of  distribution,  see 
Province  in  Sect.  4. 

Augustus  Cffisar  died  in  a.d.  14,  and  was  succeeded  in  succession 
by  Tiberius;  Caius  or  Caligula  (a.d.  37);  Claudius  (a.d.  41);  Nero 
(a.d.  54),  under  whom  St.  Paul  was  executed,  and  the  Christians 
first  persecuted  ;  Galba  (a.d.  68)  ;  Otho,  Vitellius,  and  Vespasian 
(a.d.  69),  under  whom  Jerusalem  was  taken  and  destroyed  by 
Titus,  afterwards  emperor  ;  Titus  (a.d.  79)  ;  Domitian  (a.d.  81), 
who  again  persecuted  the  Christians ;  Nerva  (a.d.  96)  :  Trajan 
(a.d.  98),  in  whose  reign  the  death  of  St.  John  took  place.  The 
events  narrated  in  the  Gospels  and  Acts  all  took  place  during  the 
reign  of  the  first  five  of  these  sovereigns,  and  during  this  time,  the 


464       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAI^IENT  STUDY. 

empire  may  be  considered  to  liave  enjoyed  a  profound  immunity 
from  intestine  warfare.  The  ill-feeling  which  existed  between  the 
Jews  and  their  E,oman  masters,  and  the  petty  insurrections  which 
resulted  from  this  feeling,  were  probably  the  most  important 
sources  of  internal  disquiet  in  the  entire  empire.  The  Roman  laws, 
although  severe,  were  on  the  whole  just,  and  the  government  was 
administered  with  a  firm  hand ;  all  religions  were  tolerated  so 
long  as  they  had  no  political  bearings,  and  local  systems  and 
prejudices  were  not  much  interfered  with. 

The  city  of  Rome  itself  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  one  of  the  Epistles  of  St,  Paul  is  directed  to  the 
Christians  residing  there.  In  the  Old  Testament,  Rome  is  no- 
where mentioned,  although  several  allusions  occur  in  the  Apocryphal 
books  of  the  Maccabees  (1  Mace.  i.  10;  vii.  1 ;  viii.  17,  19  ;  xii.  1 ; 
xiv.  16,  24;  xv.  15  ;  2  Mace.  iv.  11),  from  which  it  appears  that 
the  Maccabees  endeavoured  to  obtain  Roman  support  by  means  of 
an  embassy,  and  a  shield  of  gold  of  l,0001bs.  weight.  In  the  New 
Testament,  Jews  from  Rome  (^strangers  of  Rome,  oi  l-TridrjuovvTeg 
'Puj^aTut,'  lit.  =Hhe  Romans  then  dwelling  at  Jerusalem ')  were 
present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  10),  and  in  John  xi.  48 
the  priestly  party  argue  that,  if  they  let  Jesus  alone,  '  the  Romans 
shall  come  and  take  away  both  our  place  and  nation.' 

The  Roman  franchise  is  referred  to  in  several  places,  as  possessed 
by  St.  Paul  (Acts  xvi.  37,  38;  xxii.  25-29;  xxv.  10,  21).  This 
franchise  was  not  confined  to  free  persons  born  in  Italy,  but  was  ex- 
tended to  the  inhabitants  of  the  colonise  and  many  other  cities  out  of 
Italy.  Hence  the  citizens  of  Philippi,  which  was  a  colony,  accused 
Paul  and  Silas  of  introducing  customs,  which  it  was  not  lawful 
for  them  to  receive,  '  being  Romans '  (Acts  xvi.  21).  But  Tarsus, 
although  a  ^free  city  '  (i.e.  having  local  self-government)  was  not 
either  a  colony  or  municipium,  and  hence  St.  Paul's  hereditary 
freedom  must  have  been  either  purchased  by,  or  given  as  a  reward 
of  service  to,  his  father.  It  conferred  immunity  from  scourging, 
torture,  and  degrading  capital  punishment,  together  with  certain 
political  and  social  rights,  which  were  comparatively  insignificant. 

With  regard  to  the  '  Epistle  to  the  Romans,'  see  p.  39.  It  is 
there  stated  that '  of  the  origin  of  the  Roman  church  nothing  is 
known,'  and  although  various  conjectures  have  been  hazarded,  this 
statement  can  only  be  repeated.  That  large  numbers  of  Jews  re- 
sided in  Rome  is  evident  from  many  passages  in  classical  writers  (as 
Josephus,^?!;^.  17.11.1. ;  ThilOjLeffatad  Ccmmi,  p.  1014,  Dio  Cassius 
xxxvii.  17,  all  quoted  by  Alford,  in  Prolegomena  to  Romans)   as 


KUFUS— SAI.AMIS.  465 

well  as  from  Acts  xxviii.  17  ('  Paul  (at  Rome)  called  the  chief  of 
the  Jews  (^rovg  oiTUQ  tCjv  'livcaiojv  irpiorovc)  together').  It  must 
also  be  remembered  that  some  reduction  had  probably  taken  place 
in  the  number  of  resident  Roman  Jews  by  reason  of  the  decree  of 
Claudius,  'commanding'  all  Jews  to  depart  from  Rome'  (Acts 
xviii.  2),  to  which  decree  no  certain  reference  exists  in  classical 
writers,  and  the  connection  of  which  with  any  Christian  movement 
amongst  them  cannot  be  ascertained. 

With  regard  to  the  alleged  visits  of  St.  Peter  to  Rome  see  p. 
50.  The  traditional  localities  of  the  prison  of  St.  Paul  and  the 
place  of  that  apostle's  decapitation  are  still  pointed  out.  The  iden- 
tification of  the  former,  a  dungeon  in  the  Mamertine  prison,  rests 
on  no  certain  foimdation :  but  that  of  the  latter,  which  is  close  to 
the  Mausoleum  of  Caius  Cestius,  on  the  Ostian  road,  is  supported 
by  many  ancient  and  trustworthy  authorities. 

Rufus  ['Poddoc,  Evfus],  one  of  the  sons  of  Simon  the  Cyre- 
nian,  who  carried  our  Saviour's  cross  (]Mark  xv.  21).  There  seems 
no  reason  for  mentioning  the  names  of  Simon's  sons,  except  that  the 
sons  were  better  known  than  the  father.  Tradition  therefore  iden- 
tifies the  Rufus,  whom  (together  with  his  mother)  St.  Paul  in 
Rom.  xvi.  13  salutes  as  '  elect  in  the  Lord,'  with  the  son  of  Simon. 
Nothing  further  is  known  of  him. 

Rutli  [n-11  =  either  beauty  or  fnend,  'Pov9,  Huth'],  a  Moabitess, 
the  widow  of  Mahlon,  and  afterwards  the  wife  of  Boaz,  and  mother 
by  him  of  Obed.  Her  history  is  recounted  in  the  book  which  bears 
her  name.  She  is  one  of  the  four  women  named  in  the  genealogy 
of  our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  5). 

Sadoc  [ZadojK,  Sadoc],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  son  of 
Azor,  and  father  of  Achim  (Matt.  i.  14). 

Sala  [nb^  =  a  sprout,  2a\a,  Sale],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our 
Lord,  son  of  Cainan,  and  father  of  Heber  (Luke  iii.  35).  He  is 
called  in  the  Old  Testament  Salah,  and  in  the  Hebrew  text  his 
father  Cainan  is  not  mentioned,  but  Arphaxad  is  given  as  his 
father  (Gen.  xi.  13 ;  1  Chron.  i.  24,  25).  The  LXX.,  however, 
inserts  Cainan. 

Salamis  [^aXa^iiq,  Salamis\  a  sea-port  town  on  the  south-east 
shores  of  Cyprus,  the  first  place  visited  by  Saul  and  Barnabas  on 
St.  Paul's  first  missionary  journey.  It  was  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant town  of  Cyprus,  and  in  the  time  of  Trajan  contained  a  large 
number  of  Jews,  who  broke  out  in  insurrection.  An  earthquake 
destroyed  the  town  in  the  reign  of  Constantine,  and  only  a  few 
ruins  now  exist  near  the  town  of  Famagosta.     Nothing  is  related 

n  H 


466        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

of  the  visit  of  Saul  and  Barnabas,  except  that  '  when  they  were  at 
Salaniis,  they  preached  the  word  in  the  synagogues  of  the  Jews  ' 
(Acts  xiii.  5),  and  from  the  use  of  the  plural  word  synagogues, 
Conybeare  and  Howson  infer  that  the  number  of  Jews  was  large. 
Salathiel  [!'^?''^l?^?^  =  ivhom  I  asked  for  from  God,  SaXa6)u)X, 
SalathieV],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord.  In  Luke  iii.  27,  he  is 
called  the  son  of  Neri,  and  father  of  Zorobabel :  in  Matt.  i.  12,  he 
appears  as  the  son  of  Jechonias  and  father  of  Zorobabel.  The 
latter  statement  is  in  accordance  with  1  Chron.  iii.  17,  but  the 
former  has  yet  to  be  explained.  Bishop  Hervey's  explanation 
of  the  difficulty  is  given  under  Genealogy  of  CJmst,  p.  176.  In 
the  Old  Testament,  except  in  1  Chron.  iii.  17,  Salathiel  is 
always  called  Shealtiel,  but  he  never  appears  except  in  the  fre- 
quently repeated  expression,  '  Zerubabel,  son  of  Shealtiel.'  Of  his 
personal  actions  or  character,  nothing  is  recorded. 

Salem  [Sa\r}ju,  Salem],  only  mentioned  in  the  expression,  '  Mel- 
chisedek,  king  of  Salem'  (Heb.  vii.  1,  2).  S&lem  =  Qw^  =  peace, 
and  hence  the  Apostle  points  out  that  Melchi&edek,  whose  name  = 
king  of '  righteousness,'  is  also  king  of  '  peace.'  Salem  is  in  all 
probability  the  same  as  Jeru-salem.  But  see  further  under  Mel- 
chisedek. 

Salim  [2aXf//i  or  Sr^XXj/ju,  Salitn],  only  mentioned  in  John  iii.  23 
('John  also  was  baptising  in  -^non,  near  to  Salim,  because  theie 
was  much  water  there ').  Much  controversy  has  taken  place  as  to 
the  identification  of  this  spot.  Alford  proposes  Shilhim  in  Judaea, 
Dr.  Robinson  supports  Salim,  a  village  east  of  Nablous  orShechem, 
Dr.  Barclay  places  it  in  Wady  Seleim,  five  miles  north-east  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  Mr.  Clarke,  following  Vandevelde,  favours  Sheikh 
Salim,  six  miles  south  of  Beisan,  and  two  miles  east  of  the  Jordan, 
where  it  appears  that  there  is  abundance  both  of  brook  and  spring 
water. 

Salmon  [ruppb^  =  a  garment,  "ZaXixdiv,  Sahnoti],  an  ancestor  of 
our  Lord,  son  of  Naasson,  and  father  of  Booz  (Matt.  i.  4,  5).  In  the 
Old  Testament,  he  is  called  either  Salmon,  Salmah,  or  Salma,  but 
no  particulars  of  his  life  are  recorded  (Ruth  iv.  20,  see  margin ; 
1  Chron.  ii.  11). 

Salmoue  [SaX^wr/;,  Salmone'],  a  cape  forming  the  east  point  of 
Crete.  It  only  occurs  in  the  description  of  the  voyage  of  St.  Paul 
to  Rome,  in  Acts  xxvii.  7  {'  the  wind  not  sufiering  us,  we  sailed 
under  {v7re7rktvaafiti>)  Crete,  over  against  Salmone'). 

Salome  [SaXwjurj,  Salome],  the  wife  of  Zebedee,  and  mother  of 


SALATHIEL— SAMARITANS.  467 

James  and  John.  She  appears  to  have  lost  her  husband  at  some 
period  shortly  subsequent  to  the  call  of  her  sons  to  the  apostolate, 
being  found  absent  from  him  in  Jerusalem,  and  being  called,  not 
the  wife  of  Zebedee,  but  Hhe  mother  of  Zebedee's  children' 
(Matt.  XX.  20 ;  xxvii.  56).  The  only  circumstances  recorded  of 
her,  apart  from  her  family  connections,  are  her  preferring  a  request 
on  behalf  of  her  sons  for  distinguished  places  in  the  Redeemer's 
kingdom  (Matt.  xx.  20,  21),  and  her  attendance  at  the  crucifixion 
(Matt,  xxvii.  55,  56 ;  Mark  xv.  40),  and  at  the  sepulchre,  with 
sweet  spices  (Mark  xvi.  1).  Some,  comparing  the  lists  of  women 
at  the  crucifixion  as  given  by  Matthew,  Mark,  and  John  (xix.  25), 
have  considered  that  Salome  was  the  sister  of  our  Lord's  mother. 
On  this  point,  see  under  Mary. 

Samaria  \_'LafxapHa,  Samaria],  a  district  of  Palestine  lying 
between  Judaea  on  the  south,  Galilee  on  the  north,  the  Jordan  on 
the  east,  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west.  It  was  inhabited 
by  the  race  called  Samaritans,  of  whom  a  full  account  is  given  in 
Sect.  4.  Our  Lord  frequently  passed  through  Samaria  on  his  way 
to  and  from  Jerusalem,  and  on  one  occasion  remained  at  Sychar, 
in  Samaria,  for  two  days,  and  there  made  many  disciples  (John 
iv.  40).  In  Acts  i.  8,  just  previous  to  his  ascension,  our  Lord  also 
specially  named  Samaria  as  one  of  the  places  where  the  apostles 
should  bear  witness  of  Him.  In  accordance  with  this  prediction, 
the  disciples,  when  scattered  abroad  after  the  death  of  Stephen, 
went  down  to  Samaria,  and  Philip  preached  in  a  city  of  Samaria 
(not  '  the  city  of  Samaria '  as  A.  V.)  with  great  success.  In 
this  city  Simon  Magus  lived^  and  here  he  also  pretended  to  be 
converted  (Acts  viii.  5-2o). 

Previously  to  New  Testament  times  the  name  Samaria  had  been 
also  used,  not  only  of  a  district,  but  of  a  particular  city,  a  little  to 
the  north  of  the  ancient  Shechem.  Omri,  the  successor  of  Zimri 
on  the  throne  of  Israel,  founded  it  in  B.C.  925,  and  for  a  long  time 
it  remained  the  capital  of  the  ten  tribes.  In  B.C.  721  Shalmaneser 
took  the  city,  and  in  B.C.  109  John  Hyrcanus  utterly  demolished  it. 
However,  Herod  the  Great,  to  whom  a  gi-ant  of  the  site  had  been 
made  by  Augustus,  undertook  its  restoration,  and  actually  rebuilt 
it  under  the  name  of  Sebaste,  colonising  it  with  six  thousand  veteran 
soldiers,  and  erecting  several  magnificent  buildings  in  it.  Its  further 
history  is  obscure,  but  even  at  the  present  time  a  small  village, 
called  Sebustieh,  still  exists  on  the  undoubted  site  of  the  ancient 
Samaria  or  Sebaste. 

Samaritans.     See  under  the  same  word  in  Sect.  4. 

HH  2 


468        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Samos  [i:diJ.cc,  Samus],  only  mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  15,  as  an 
island  at  which  St.  Paul  stayed  for  one  night  on  his  last  journey 
to  Jerusalem  (^  The  next  day  we  arrived  at  Samos,  and  tarried  at 
Trogyllium ').  Samos  is  one  of  the  principal  islands  in  the  ^gean, 
in  circumference  about  eighty  miiles,  and  lying  off  the  coast  of 
Ionia,  from  which  it  is  only  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  about 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide.  It  consists  of  a  range  of  mountains, 
running  east  and  west,  as,  indeed,  its  name  (Sd/i<oc  =  a  height,  in 
ancient  Greek)  denotes.  It  had  an  important  political  history, 
and  an  extensive  commerce,  and  had  been  rendered  illustrious  by 
the  residence  of  many  artists,  architects,  poets,  and  philosophers, 
amongst  whom  Pythagoras  was  the  most  eminent.  Its  principal 
city  was  also  called  Samos,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest 
cities  in  the  world,  having  a  splendid  harbour,  and  being  adorned 
with  many  magnificent  buildings.  Its  ruins  still  exist.  When 
St.  Paul  visited  the  island,  it  was  united  to  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia,  but  enjoyed  the  Roman  franchise  as  a  '  free  city'  (see  under 
Home).  Vespasian  deprived  it  of  its  freedom,  and  it  then  sank 
into  insignificance.  At  present  it  belongs  to  the  Turkish  empire, 
and  contains  about  thirty  thousand  people,  chiefly  employed  in 
the  cultivation  of  vineyards  and  in  the  working  of  the  marble 
quarries. 

Trogyllium,  whore  the  vessel  of  St.  Paul  passed  the  night,  was 
the  promontory  on  the  east  of  the  island.  In  the  narrow  strait, 
where  the  vessel  lay,  had  been  fought  the  celebrated  naval  battle 
of  Mycale,  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians,  in  B.C.  479. 

Samotbracia  [^ai^ioOpaKt],  Samothracia],  only  mentioned  in 
Acts  xvi.  11,  as  a  place  at  which  St.  Paul  anchored  for  the  night 
in  his  first  voyage  to  Europe  ('  Loosing  from  Troas,  we  came  with 
a  straight  course  {tWvSpojjiTjaaiAii)  to  Samothracia,  and  the  next 
day  to  Neapolis ').  Samothracia  is  a  small  island  in  the  north-east 
corner  of  the  ^gean,  nearly  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Hebrus  in 
Thrace.  Homer  calls  the  island  simply  Samos  ( =  the  height,  in 
old  Greek),  and  it  was  also  called  Dardania.  Here  were  celebrated 
with  great  -splendour  the  mystferies  of  the  mystic  divinities  called 
Cabiri,  or  Corybantes.     It  is  now  called  Semendrek. 

Samson  [ptJ'DK^  =  like  the  mn,  ^aiJ.\pi.ov,  Samson],  a  judge  of 
Israel,  celebrated  for  his  strength.  His  history  and  exploits  are 
recounted  in  Judges  xiii.-xvi.,  and  his  official  recognition  probably 
lasted  from  B.C.  1140  to  e.g.  1120.  In  the  New  Testament  he  only 
appears  in  Heb.  xi.  32,  83,  as  one  of  the  examples  of  faith  {'  The 
time  would  fail  me  to  tell  of  Gedeon,  and  o/ Barak,  and  o/ Samson, 


SAMOS— SAMUEL.  469 

and  q/"  Jeplatbae :  <?/"  David  also,  and  Samuel,  and  0/ tlie  prophets  : 
who  through  faith  .  .  .  stopped  the  mouths  of  lions  .  .  .  out  of 
"weakness  were  made  strong,  waxed  valiant  in  fight,  turned  to 
flight  the  armies  of  the  aliens').  That  the  extraordinary  strength 
of  Samson  came  through  trust  in  divine  help  (that  is,  by  faith^  as 
opposed  to  a  permanent  physical  endowment),  may  be  clearly  seen 
by  references  to  Judges  xiv.  6,  19 ;  xv.  14,  18 ;  xvi.  28. 

Samuel  ^P'^'^'C1^  =  heard  of  God  {\  Sam.  i.  20)>5:o/ioi;//X,  8amuel\^ 
the  son  of  Elkanah,  a  Levite,  who  lived  at  Ramathaim-zophim  (1 
Sam.  i.  1  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  22,  23),  and  Hannah.  Ramathaim-zophim 
is  probably  identical  with  Nehy  Samivil  (  =  Prophet  Saynuel),  four 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  Hannah,  having  been  long  childless, 
vowed  to  dedicate  to  the  Lord,  as  a  Nazarite,  any  child  she  might 
have,  and  Samtiel,  followed  by  three  sons  and  two  daughters,  was 
the  result  of  this  vow.  Samuel  was  accordingly  taken  at  a  very 
early  age  to  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh,  and  there  made  over  to  Eli 
the  priest,  whose  personal  attendant  he  appears  to  have  become. 
Here  the  Lord  soon  personally  revealed  himself  to  him,  and 
although  a  child,  ^  all  Israel  knew  that  Samuel  was  established  to 
be  a  prophet  of  the  Lord '  (1  Sam.  iii.  20).  From  thistime,  almost 
to  his  death,  Samuel  appears  as  the  most  prominent  person  in 
Israel.-  Under  his  guidance,  the  Philistines,  with'  whom  the 
Israelites  were  continually  at  war,  were  so  far  subdued  as  for  a 
long  time  to  leave  Israel  at  peace,  and  the  description  of  his  posi- 
tion, given  in  1  Sam.  vii.  15-17,  is  that  '  he  judged  Israel  all  the 
days  of  his  life.  And  he  went  from  year  to  year  in  circuit  to  Beth-el, 
and  Gilgal,  and  Mizpeh,  and  judged  Israel  in  all  those-  places. 
And  his  return  was  to  Ramah ;  for  there  was  his  house ;  and 
there  he  judged  Israel;  and  there  he  built  an  altar  unto  the  Lord.' 

This  state  of  things  did  not  continue  to  the  end  of  Samuel's  life. 
His  sons  grew  up  and  '  walked  not  in  his  ways,  but  turned  aside 
after  lucre  and  perverted  judgment '  (1  Sam.  viii.  3),  while  on  the 
other  hand  the  Philistines,  perhaps  presuming  on  the  known  inter- 
nal dissatisfaction  in  Israel,  recommenced  their  inroads.  The 
upshot  was  the  determination  of  the  people  to  elect  a  king,  and 
Samuel  accordingly,  although  entirely  opposed  to  the  measure,  and 
regarding  it  as  insulting  to  God,  selected  Saul  by  divine  revelation, 
and  anointed  him  king.  He  then  seems  to  have  retired  from 
secular  duties,  but  to  have  retained  in  his  own  hands  a  sort  of 
priesthood.  Thus,  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  8-15,  we  find  him  reproving 
Saul  for  having  himself  offered  burnt  offerings,  for  the  due  oflering 
of  which  he  should  have  awaited  Samuel's  coming.     And  again, 


470       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

in  1  Sam,  xv.  we  find  him  directing  Saul  to  attack  and  destroy 
Agag-,  king  of  Amalek,  and  tlien  reproving  Saul  for  retaining  some 
of  the  spoil,  and  with  his  own  hand  slaying  Agag,  whom  Saul  had 
spared.  After  this,  we  read  that  ^  Samuel  came  no  more  to  see 
Saul  until  the  day  of  his  death  '  (1  Sam.  xv.  35),  and  shortly  after 
he  is  found  anointing  David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  to  succeed  Saul  in 
the  kingdom  (1  Sam.  xvi.  1-13).  In  1  Sam,  xxv.  1,  we  read  that 
'  Samuel  died ;  and  all  the  Israelites  were  gathered  together  and 
lamented  him,  and  buried  him  in  his  house  at  Ramah.'  His  loss 
was  evidently  felt  as  a  public  calamity,  and  even  Saul,  hard 
pressed  by  the  Philistines,  desired  the  help  and  advice  of  the 
departed  judge.  By  the  help  of  the  witch  at  Endor,  he  succeeded 
in  recalling  Samuel's  departed  spirit,  but  only  to  hear  from  his 
lips  a  sentence  of  defeat  and  death.  The  interview  between  Saul 
and  the  spirit  of  Samuel  is  described  dn  1  Sam.  xxviii.,  and  the 
appearance  of  Samuel  is  there  given  as  that  of  '  an  old  man, 
covered  with  a  mantle.' 

Samuel  is  always  called  in  the  New  Testament,  '  Samuel  the 
Prophet.'  Thus  Peter  at  the  Beautiful  Gate,  '  All  the  prophets 
from  Samuel  and  those  that  follow  after,  as  many  as  have  spoken, 
have  likewise  foretold  of  these  days  '  (Acts  iii.  24).  Thus  St.  Paul 
at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  '  God  gave  unto  them  fudges  about  the  space 
of  450  years,  until  Samuel  the  prophet '  (Acts  xiii.  20).  Thus  Heb. 
xi.  32, '  the  time  would  fail  me  to  tell  .  .  .  of  Samuel  and  of  the  pro- 
phets.' This  may  partly  arise  from  the  fact,  that  from  Samuel 
onwards,  the  succession  of  prophets  was  unbroken,  being  carried 
on  by  means  of  regular  schools  of  the  prophets,  possibly  established 
by  Samuel  himself  (1  Sam.  xix.  20).  It  may  also  have  arisen 
from  the  personal  eminence  of  Samuel,  who  is  classed  in  Jer.  xv.  1 
with  Moses  himself  (^  Though  Moses  and  Samuel  stood  before  me, 
yet  my  mind  could  not  be  toward  this  people  ').  The  term 
*  Prophet'  is  in  Samuel's  case  the  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  H^l 
(Ro'eh)  ~  a  seer,  by  which  title,  except  in  two  places,  where  he  is 
called  ^''13  (Nabi),  =  a  recogtiised  pro^yhet  (1  Sam.  iii.  20  j  2  Chron. 
XXXV.  18),  Samuel  is  universally  designated.  The  term  nth 
by  which  the  official  prophets  of  the  royal  court  appear  to  have 
been  designated,  is  never  applied  to  Samuel.  The  first  person  to 
whom  this  term  was  applied  was  Gad  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  11).  Samuel 
was  probably  born  about  B.C.  1160,  and  died  about  B.C.  1060. 

Sapphira  [^a-ipdpt],  SapJiira\  the  wife  of  Ananias,  who  was 
struck  dead  for  attempting  to  deceive  the  apostles  as  to  the  price 


SAPPHIRA— SAUDIS.  471 

which  he  had  received  for  his  land.  She  shared  her  husband's 
crime  and  punishment  (Acts  v.  1-10).     See  Ananias. 

Sara.     See  Sarah. 

Sarab  [at  first  ^^b^  (meaning  doubtful)  but  afterwards  n*T.^  = 
princess  (Gen.  xvii.  15),  Sa^jpa,  Sara'],  the  wife  of  Abraham.  Her 
descent  is  obscure,  but  Jewish  tradition  identifies  her  with  Iscah 
(Gen.  xi.  29),  and  declares  her  to  have  been  the  daughter  of  Haran, 
the  sister  of  Lot,  and  therefore  really  Abraham's  niece.  In  Gen.  xx. 
12,  Abraham  says  of  her/Indeed  she  is  my  sister;  she  is  the  daughter 
of  my  father,  but  not  the  daughter  of  my  mother  ;  and  she  became 
my  wife."  In  the  same  way,  Abram  calls  Lot  his  ^brother,' 
though  really  his  nephew  (Gen.  xiv.  14, 16).  Her  history  is  in  most 
points  that  of  her  husband,  whose  faith,  however,  she  does  not 
appear  to  have  entirely  shared  (Gen.  xviii.  12),  and  whom  she 
incited  to  harsh  measures  towards  her  slave  Hagar  and  Hagar's 
child  Ishmael.  Sarah  was  for  a  long  time  childless,  and  the  fact 
of  her  bringing  forth  a  child  at  all  is  referred  to  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  an  instance  of  faith,  both  inher  husband  and  herself  (Rom. 
iv.  19 ;  Heb.  xi.  11),  In  Rom.  ix.  9,  her  child  Isaac,  thus  super- 
naturally  born,  is  brought  forward  as  a  '  child  of  promise,'  and  in 
Gal.  iv.  22-28,  the  circumstances  of  his  birth  from  Sarah  are  con- 
trasted with  those  of  the  birth  of  Ishmael  from  Agar,  and  used  as 
a  type  of  the  birth  of  a  spiritual  progeny  to  Abraham  in  contrast 
to  that  of  the  merely  legal  descendants.  Here  Sarah  is  called  '  a 
free-woman  QXevOspa) '  in  contradistinction  to  the  '  bond-woman 
(TraiSiaKn) '  Agar.  In  1  Pet.  iii.  6,  the  obedience  of  Sarah  (here 
only  called  Sara)  to  her  husband  is  instanced  as  a  pattern  for  wives 
('Even  as  Sara  obeyed  Abraham,  calling  him  lord  (Kvpiov,  Gen. 
xviii.  12) :  whose  daughters  ye  are  so  long  as  ye  do  well,  and  are  not 
afraid  with  any  amazement  (/n?)  <p<}i5oi'fxivai  jujcifiiav  irronair,  perhaps 
better  =  not  being  afraid  of  any  Jiuttering  alarm)  ').  The  passage  is 
difficult,  but  probably  refers  to  wives  having  unbelieving  husbands, 
of  whose  sudden  anger  they  are  encouraged  not  to  be  afraid,  so 
long  as  they  do  well.  Such  wives  also,  although  naturally  Gen- 
tiles, yet  by  faith  became  '  daughters  of  Sara,'  which  may  be 
regarded  as  corresponding  to  '  children  of  Abraham '  in  the  case  of 
men. 

Sarah  died  at  the  age  of  127,  and  was  buried  in  the  cave  of 
Machpelah  (Gen.  xxiii.),  at  Hebron.  After  her  death,  Abraham 
married  again  and  had  other  children,  but  only  Isaac  appears  to 
have  been  reckoned  as  the  legitimate  son  (Gen.  xxv.  5,  6). 

Sardis  [Sapoac,  Sai'dis'],  a  famous  city  of  Asia  Minor,  situated 


472       ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAIrlENT  STUDY. 

on  the  river  Pactolus,  It  had  been  the  capital  of  the  Lydian 
empire,  but  the  rise  of  Pergamos  considerably  diminished  its 
importance.  It  is  now  completely  in  ruins,  the  extent  and  magni- 
ficence of  which  testify  to  its  ancient  splendour.  In  New  Testament 
times,  it  was  included  in  the  Roman  province  of  Asia,  and  was  the 
seat  of  a  Christian  church,  whose  origin  is  unknown.  The  angel 
of  this  church  is  addressed  in  Eev.  iii.  1-6,  in  words  which  give  a 
deplorable  view  of  its  condition. 

Sarepta  [T\^yi  =^ metal  rejininff  shop,  'ScipsTrra,  Sarepta],  a  small 
town  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  about  half  way  between  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Zarephath.  A  village  near  the 
probable  site  is  now  called  Surafend.  It  is  only  remarkable  as 
having  been  the  residence  of  the  prophet  Elijah  during  the  great 
drought  of  Ahab's  reign,  and  the  scene  of  two  remarkable  miracles 
wrought  by  the  prophet  on  behalf  of  a  widow  woman  there 
(1  Kings  xvii.  9-24).  The  residence  of  Elijah  with  the  widow 
woman  is  referred  to  in  Luke  iv.  25,  26  ('  Many  widows  were  in 
Israel  in  the  days  of  Elias  .  .  .  but  unto  none  of  them  was  Elias 
sent,  save  unto  Sarepta,  a  city  of  Sidon,  unto  a  woman  that  was  a 
widow '). 

Sskx on  \yT\^  =  tJie  plain  country,  6  "^apiov  or  drranpwv,  Sarona\ 
the  level  district  between  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Judaea  and  the 
Mediterranean,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Sharon.  It  is  about 
ten  miles  in  width,  and  crossed  by  many  streams,  some  of  which 
contain  water  during  the  whole  of  the  year,  and  spread  out  into 
marshes.  The  soil  is  extremely  rich,  and  when  cultivated  produces 
heavy  crops  of  grain  and  fruit.  Along  the  sea-line,  however,  sand 
takes  the  place  of  soil,  and  appears  to  be  encroaching  on  the  land, 
forming  extensive  dunes,  and  obstructing  the  efflux  of  the  streams. 
The  Jews  probably  never  possessed  this  region,  which  continued  to 
a  very  late  date  to  be  held  by  the  Philistines  and  Canaanites 
(2  Kings  viii.  2).  Under  the  Romans  it  was  regarded  as  the 
choicest  portion  of  the  country,  and  it  contained  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant cities,  such  as  CaBsarea,  Antipatris,  Diospolis,  Joppa,  Azotus, 
and  Lydda.  At  present  the  exactions  and  weakness  of  the  Turkish 
government  have  so  discouraged  enterprise,  that  this  naturally  rich 
district  is  little  more  than  an  uncultivated  waste.  In  the  New 
Testament,  Saron  only  appears  as  the  district  surrounding  Lydda, 
where  ^neas  was  healed  by  St.  Peter  (*  All  that  dwelt  in  Lydda 
and  Saron  saw  him  (i.e.  JEneas),  and  turned  to  the  Lord,'  Acts 
ix.  35). 


SAREPTA— SCYTHIAN.  473 

Samcb  [i-*!")!^  =  sJioot,  ^apnvx,  Sariig'],  one  of  the  ancestors  of 
our  Lord,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Serug  (Gen.  xi.  20-23).  He 
was  the  son  of  Reu  or  Ragau,  and  father  of  Nahor  (Luke  iii.  35). 
Nothing  else  is  known  of  him. 

Satan.     See  Devil  in  Sect.  4. 

Saul  [y^^^  =  asked  for,  SaiiXoc,  Sauliis  {-^h^Ti.  applied  to  the 
apostle  Paul),  but  'S.auvX,  Saul  (when  applied  to  the  Israelitish 
king)]. 

1.  The  son  of  Cis  (called  in  the  Old  Testament  KisJi),  a 
man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  divinely  appointed  to  be  the  first 
king  of  Israel.  His  history  is  related  in  1  Sam.  ix.-xxxi.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  personal  strength,  courage,  and  beauty,  but 
of  headstrong  temper,  and  subject  to  occasional  fits  of  madness. 
He  reigned  from  B.C.  1095  to  B.C.  1055,  when  he  destroyed  himself 
after  a  battle  with  the  Philistines,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ish- 
bosheth,  as  king  of  Israel,  and  David,  as  king  of  Judah.  In  the  New 
Testament  he  is  only  incidentally  referred  to  in  the  short  sketch 
of  Jewish  history,  introduced  by  St.  Paul  in  his  address  at  the 
synagogue  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  21). 

2.  The  name  by  which  the  apostle  Paul  (also  of  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin)  is  described,  until  the  conversion  of  Sergius  Paulus 
in  Crete.  The  change  of  name  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  been 
made  as  a  commemoration  of  the  conversion  of  Paulus.  Others 
think  that  Paulus  was  a  Latin  or  Greek  equivalent  for  the  Hebrew 
Saulus.     For  a  life  of  the  apostle  see  pp.  27-36. 

Sceva  [^Ktva,  gen,,  Scevce,  gen.]  'a  Jew,  and  chief  of  the 
priests  {^lovScdog  apxifpfvc),'  at  Ephesus.  His  seven  sons  practised 
exorcism,  and  uttered  the  name  of  Jesus  over  one  who  had  an 
evil  spirit ;  on  this  the  evil  spirit  broke  loose,  and  '  leaped  on 
them,  and  overcame  them,  so  that  they  fled  out  of  that  house 
naked  and  wounded  '(Acts  xix.  13-16).  What  the  term  '  apxupevQ  ' 
may  mean,  as  applied  to  Sceva,  is  unascertained.  He  is  previously  de- 
scribed as  a  'vagabond'  (i.e.  wandering)  Jew  (see  ver.  13),  and 
therefore  cannot  have  been  holding  any  honourable  office.  He  was 
possibly  the  head  of  one  of  the  twenty-four  courses  of  priests.  As 
to  these  courses,  see  Priest,  in  Sect.  4. 

Scythian  \_^icvOt]<:,  Scytha'],  a  term  only  used  in  Col.  iii.  11, 
{'  where  (i.e.  under  the  gospel)  there  is  neither  Greek  nor  Jew, 
circumcision  nor  uncircumcision,  Barbarian,  Scythian,  bond  nor 
free  :  but  Christ  is  all  and  in  all ').  This  probably  does  not  refer 
to  the  Scythians  from  a  geographical  or  national  point  of  view, 
but   the   Scythian   is   taken   as   a  representative   of   totally  un- 


474        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

civilised  nations.  The  word  '  BarDarian/  in  classical  Greek, 
siimplj  =  speaking  neither  Greek,  Latin,  nor  Hebrew,  but  not 
necessarily  uncivilised.  Hence  a  division  into  Jew,  Greek  and 
Barbarian  would  not  be  an  exhaustive  division  of  mankind  with- 
out some  addition  indicating  uncivilised  races.  This  addition  is 
accordingly  effected  by  the  introduction  of  '  Scythian.'  The  races 
occupying  the  unexplored  countries  adjoining  the  north  and  east 
of  the  Black  Sea,  and  thence  into  Asia,  were  comprehended  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  under  the  general  designation  of  Scy- 
thians. The  Tartars  are  probably  their  nearest  modern  repre- 
sentatives. 

Sea  of  G-alilee.     See  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

Secundus  \_^tKovvdoc,  Secundus],  one  of  St.  Paul's  companions 
on  his  final  journey  from  Greece  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  4), 
Nothing  further  is  known  of  him. 

Seleucia  [_'2i\ivKna,  Seleucia'],  sometimes  called  Seleucia  in  Pieria, 
or  Seleucia  by  Antioch,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  other  cities 
of  the  same  name,  was  a  strong  fortress  and  sea-port  in  Syria, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pieria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes,  and 
about  twelve  miles  west  of  Antioch,  of  which  it  served  as  the 
sea-port.  It  was  founded  by  Seleucus  I.  in  B.C.  300,  one  month 
before  the  foundation  of  Antioch,  and  its  natural  strength  was 
improved  in  every  possible  way,  so  as  to  render  it  both  a  con- 
venient harbour  and  strong  fortification.  Traces  of  its  former 
magnificence  still  survive  in  numerous  and  considerable  ruins,  and 
the  moles  of  the  ancient  harbour,  which  are  yet  standing,  now 
go  by  the  names  of  Paul  and  Barnabas.  In  the  New  Testament 
the  only  actual  mention  of  Seleucia  is  in  Acts  xiii.  4,  where  we 
read  that  Saul  and  Barnabas,  on  their  first  missionary  journey, 
departed  unto  Seleucia;  and  from  thence  they  sailed  to  Cyprus.' 
But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  on  several  other  occasions  the 
apostle  Paul  must  have  passed  through  this  city  (cf.  Acts  xiv. 
26  ;  XV.  41 ',  xviii.  22). 

Sem  [pp  =  name,  'Eijj.t,  Sem'],  the  second  (?)  son  of  Noah,  called 
in  the  Old  Testament  Sheni.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Shemitic 
nations  (i.e.  the  nations  originally  inhabiting  the  western  parts  of 
Asia,  such  as  the  Persians,  Assyrians,  and  part  of  the  Arabians), 
and  from  him  Abraham  was  descended  (Gen.  x.  22-30 ;  xi.  11-30). 
As  a  reward  for  his  filial  conduct,  a  special  blessing  was  attached 
to  Shem  by  Noah,  and  his  brothers  were  made  subservient  to 
him,  and  the  future  coming  of  a  Shemitic  protector  of  all  nations 
was  not  indistinctly  hinted  at  ('Blessed  be  the  Lord  God  of  Shem ; 


SEA    OF    G-ALILEE— SIDON.  475 

and  Canaan  shall  be  his  servant  (marg.  servant  to  them)  :  God 
shall  enlarge  {marg.  persuade)  Japheth,  and  he  shall  dwell  in  the 
tents  of  Shem  ;  and  Canaan  shall  be  his  servant'  Gen.  ix.  26-27). 

Some  have  identified  Melchisedek  with  Shem,  and  this  is 
certainly  chronologically  possible,  since  Shem  did  not  die  until 
Abraham  was  a  hundred  and  forty-eight  years  old.  In  the  New 
Testament,  Sem  (if  not  identified  with  Melchisedek)  only  appears 
in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  36). 

Semei  [_'^fnd,  Semei"],  one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord,  father 
of  Mattathias,  and  son  of  Joseph  (Luke  iii.  26).  Nothing  further 
is  known  of  him. 

Sergrius  Paulus.     See  Faulm. 

Seth  [T\^  =  placed  in  the  stead  of  another  (i.e.  Abel)  (?),  ^if, 
Seth'],  the  third  son  of  Adam  and  Eve.  His  birth  is  recounted 
in  Gen.  iv.  25,  but  no  particulars  of  his  life  are  given.  In  the 
New  Testament,  Seth  only  appears  as  one  of  the  ancestors  of 
our  Lord   (Luke  iii.  38). 

Sheepgate.     See  Bethesda. 

Sidon  \y\1^*$=Jishing,^icojv,2A].  Iidtjviot,  Sidon,  adj.  Sidonii], 
the  most  ancient,  and  for  a  long  time,  the  most  powerful  and 
wealthy  of  the  cities  of  Phoenicia.  It  was  particularly  celebrated 
for  its  glass  manufactories.  Ultimately  it  was  eclipsed  in  splen- 
dour by  its  own  colony  Tyre,  with  the  name  of  which  its  own 
name  is  frequently  united  in  the  New  Testament  as  a  synonyme 
for  Phoenicia  (Matt.  xi.  21,  22 ;  xv.  21 ;  Mark  iii.  8  ;  vii.  24,  31 ; 
Luke  vi.  17;  x,  13,  14;  Acts  xii,  20).  It  stands  on  the  coast, 
about  twenty  miles  north  of  Tyre,  and  is  still  a  town  of  con- 
siderable commerce,  containing  about  six  thousand  inhabitants, 
and  named  Saida.  In  New  Testament  times,  Sidon  was  included 
in  the  Roman  province  of  Syria,  and  was  inhabited  by  an  idola- 
trous population.  During  one  period  of  his  ministry,  our  Lord 
visited  the  'coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,'  and  there  healed  the 
daughter  of  a  Syrophoenician  woman  (Matt.  xv.  21-28  ;  Mark  vii. 
24-30),  and,  if  the  reading  of  5^  be  correct, he  even  entered  into  the 
city  of  Sidon  itself  (see  p.  80).  The  people  of  'Tyre  and  Sidon  ' 
also  frequently  flocked  to  his  ministry  (Mark  iii.  8;  Luke  vi.  17). 
Yet  '  Tyre  and  Sidon '  are  apparently  used  by  our  Lord  as 
crucial  instances  of  profligate  life,  and  insensate  idolatry,  in  the 
expostulative  addresses  to  Chorazin  and  Bethsaida  ('If  the  mighty 
works,  which  were  done  in  you,  had  been  done  in  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  they  would  have  repented  long  ago  in  sackcloth  and  ashes : 


476        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

but  I  say  unto  you^  It  shall  be  more  tolerable  for  Tyre  and  Sidon 
at  the  day  of  judgment,  than  for  you,'  Matt.  xi.  21,  22;  Lulje 
X.  13,  14). 

In  Acts  xii.  20,  the  country  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  appears  as 
dependent  upon  the  kingdom  of  Herod^Agrippa  I. ;  and  its  people, 
having  made  favour  with  Blastus,  the  king's  chamberlain,  reconcile 
themselves  to  him.  It  was  at  the  public  ratification  of  this 
reconciliation,  when  Herod,  having  made  a  great  feast  and  given 
public  shows  to  the  people  of  Csesarea  (Josephus,  Ant.  18.  8. 2.), 
had  made  an  oration  to  the  Phoenicians,  that  the  angel  of  God 
smote  Herod  with  the  fearful  disease  of  which  he  died.  On  only 
one  other  occasion  Sidon  appears  in  the  New  Testament,  viz., 
as  a  place  at  which  the  ship,  which  carried  St.  Paul  to  Rome, 
touched  for  a  short  time.  It  then  appears  that  the  Gospel,  which 
had  not  only  been  preached  there,  or  in  the  neighbourhood,  by  our 
Lord  himself,  but  possibly  by  those  who  had  been  scattered  abroad 
in  the  persecution  which  followed  the  death  of  Stephen  (Acts  xi. 
19),  had  borne  fruit.  Hence  we  read  that  'Julius  (the  centurion 
in  charge  of  the  prisoners)  courteously  entreated  Paul,  and  gave 
him  liberty  to  go  unto  his  friends  to  refresh  himself  {-n-poQ  (piXovt: 
7roptv~)8VTa  sTTifieXtiai:  Tvxtiv=^lit.  to  go  to  friends  and  obtain  an 
outfit),'  Acts  xxvii.  3).  And  in  this  connection  it  may  here  be 
mentioned  that  Christian  brethren  were  also  found,  about  the 
same  time,  at  Tyre  (Acts  xxi.  4,  7). 

Sarepta  is  called,  in  Luke  iv.  26,  '  a  city  of  Sidon.'  This  arose 
from  the  fact  that  the  importance  of  Sidon  caused  its  name 
frequently  to  be  attached  to  the  surrounding  district,  and  the 
Phcenicians  are  often  in  the  Old  Testament  called  simply  *  Si- 
donians '  (Deut.  iii  9 ;  1  Kings  v.  6,  &c.). 

For  a  general  account  of  the  district,  see  under  Phenice. 

Silas  [2('/\ac,  Silas],  a  '  chief  man  among  the  brethren '  at  Jeru- 
salem. When  the  question  of  the  circumcision  of  the  Gentiles 
had  been  settled  at  Jerusalem,  in  a.d.  50,  the  delivery  at  Autioch 
of  the  encyclical  letter,  which  had  been  written  by  the  apostles 
and  elders,  was  entrusted  to  Paul  and  Barnabas,  as  having  come 
with  the  question  from  Antioch„and  to  Judas  Barsabas  and  Silas,  as 
representatives  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xvi.  22).  After 
the  due  delivery  of  the  letters  at  Antioch,  Judas  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem, but  Silas  remaiued  at  Antioch,  engaged  in  preaching  (Acts 
xvi.  32,  34),  and  here,  apparently,  formed  a  strict  friendship  for 
St.  Paul.  Hence,  at  the  commencement  of  Paul's  second  missionary 
journey,  when  the  contention  about  Mark  arose  between  Paul  and 


SILAS.  477 

Barnabas,  and  these  two  'departed  asunder  the  one  from  the 
other/  Paul  naturally  chose  Silas  as  his  companion,  in  lieu  of 
Barnabas  (Acts  xvi.  40).  We  have,  therefore,  to  regard  Silas  as 
St.  Paul's  associate  in  the  subsequent  events  of  this  journey 
through  Syria  and  Cili'cia,  Derbe  and  Lystra  (where  Timotheus 
joined  them),  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  Troas,  Philippi,  Amphipolis, 
Apollonia,  Thessalonica  and  Berea  (Acts  xvi.  40-xvii.  14).  At 
some  points  he  is  personally  mentioned.  Thus,  he  is  apprehended 
at  Philippi  (xvi.  19),  and  with  Paul  sings  praises  in  the  inner 
prison  (xvi.  25).  He  joins  with  Paul  in  receiving  the  jailer's 
anxious  inquiry, '  Sirs,  what  must  I  do  to  be  saved? '  and  in  replying 
to  it,  '  Believe  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  thou  shalt  be  saved, 
and  thy  house '  (xvi.  29,  30).  At  Thessalonica  the  believers 
consort  '  with  Paul  and  Silas  '  (xvii.  4),  and  thence  he  is  sent  by 
night  with  Paul  to  Berea  (xvii.  10).  It  is,  therefore,  very  evident 
that  his  share  in  these  events  was  by  no  means  that  of  a  mere 
attendant  on  St.  Paul,  but  of  an  active  and  outspoken  associate. 
At  Berea  a  temporary  separation  took  place.  Fearful  of  danger 
to  St.  Paul's  life,  the  brethren  sent  him  away  by  sea  to  Athens, 
while  Silas  and  Timotheus  remained  behind  (Acts  xvii.  15),  and 
did  not  rejoin  the  apostle  until  he  had  been  some  little  time  in 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  5).  Here  we  find  his  name  introduced 
together  with  that  of  Timotheus  in  the  two  epistles  to  the 
Thessalonians,  written  at  this  time  from  Corinth  ('  Paul,  and 
Silvanus,  and  Timotheus  unto  the  church  of  the  Thessalonians,' 
]  Thess.  i.  1 ;  2  Thess.  i.  1) ;  and  in  2  Cor.  i.  19  we  have  reference 
to  his  preaching  at  Corinth  ('Jesus  Christ  .  .  .  was  preached 
among  you  by  us,  eveti  by  me  and  Silvanus,  and  Timotheus '). 
But  after  this  he  disappears  from  notice  altogether  until  1  Pet. 
V.  12,  where  (if  the  same  person  be  meant)  he  seems  to  be  the 
bearer  of  the  epistle  from  Babylon  to  the  elect  brethren  of  the 
dispersion.  Here  his  history,  so  far  as  derivable  from  Scripture, 
abruptly  terminates.  But  it  has  been  suggested  that  Silas  may 
have  been  sent  by  St.  Paul  from  Rome  on  a  mission  to  the  East, 
and  been  entrusted  by  St.  Peter  with  this  letter  on  his  return. 

Some  indistinctness  is  imparted  to  the  history  of  Silas  from  the 
fact  that  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  always  call  him  Silvanus  ('2i\ovav6c, 
Silvanus).     The  names  Silas  and  Silvanus  are  really  identical. 

Some  have  suggested  that  the  book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
was  written  by  Silas,  or  even  that  Luke  and  Silas  are  identical. 
An  elaborate  confutation  of  this  opinion  may  be  found  in  Alford 
(Prolegomena  to  Acts). 


478        ESSENTIALS   OE   NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

Siloam  [nPt^  =  a  sending  (i.e.  of-  water),  and  hence  an  aqueduct, 
'S.ikuydjx,  Siloe\  an  aqueduct  formed  by  King  Hezekiab,  by  which 
the  waters  of  Gihon  were  brought  down  to  a  pool  or  reservoir  on 
the  south-east  of  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.- xxxii.  30).  The  'waters  of 
Gihon  '  are  not  yet  precisely  identified,  but  the  pool,  in  which  the 
conduit  or  aqueduct  of  Siloam  ends,  still  exists  to  the  south  of  the 
Haram  enclosure  (see  under  Jerusalern),  and  bears  nearly  its 
ancient  name,  as  Ain  Silwan.  It  is  a  cistern,  enclosed  with 
masonry,  of  oblong  shape,  about  fourteen  feet  broad  at  the  lower 
end  and  seventeen  at  the  upper,  about  fifty  feet  long,  and  eighteen 
feet  deep,  but  never  containing  more  than  three  or  four  feet  of 
water.  The  conduit  which  leads  to  it  underground  has  been 
traced  to  some  considerable  distance,  and  the  pool  has  been  shown 
to  be  fed  from  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  a .  little  further  north. 
In  the  Old  Testament  the  pool  is  called  Shiloah  (Is.  viii.  6)  and 
Siloah  (Neh.  iii.  lo),  and  in  John  ix.  7,  the  meaning  of  the  name 
is  said  to  be  6  cnrtaraXfiiyoc  (A.V.  '  sent,'  but  the  reference  is  to  the 
sending  of  the  water).  In  the  New  Testament  two  circumstances 
are  related  of  Siloam  ;  one  the  opening  of  a  blind  man's  eyes  by 
washing  (according  to  our  Lord's  command)  in  the  pool  (KoXvfi- 
f5r)9pa,  John  ix.  7-11),  the  other  the  falling  of  the  tower  (o  Trvpyog) 
in  Siloam  upon  eighteen  persons,  on  which  event  our  Lord  founded 
the  exhortation,  '  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish ' 
(Luke  xiii,  4). 

Silvanus  [SiXovavoc,  Silvamis],  the  same  as  8ila&^  which  see. 

Sivaeon  \y\V^^  =  hearing  luith  acceptance,  ^rf-iuoy,  Simeon,  but 
in  Acts  xiii.  1 ;  xv.  14,  and  2  Pet.  i.  1,  Siynon],  the  Hebrew  form 
of  the  more  common  name  Si?non.  It  is  applied  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  five  persons. 

1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Jacob.  He  gave  his  name  to  a  tribe,  of 
which  12,000  are  said  in  Rev.  vii.  7  to  have  been  sealed. 

2.  An  aged  and  pious  Jew,  to  whom  it  was  revealed  that  he 
should  not  see  death  before  he  had  seen  the  Lord's  Christ  (rev  Xp. 
Kupioi').  Coming  therefore,  by  the  spirit  into  the  Temple  at  the 
presentation  of  the  infant  Jesus,  he  took  him  in  his  arms,  and, 
giving  thanks  to  God,  uttered  the  hymn  known  as  the  '  Song  of 
Symeon  '  (Luke  ii.  25-35).  Rabban  Simeon,  the  son  of  Hillel,  and 
father  of  Gamaliel,  who  lived  about  this  time  acd  was  president  of 
the  Sanhedrim,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  person  in- 
tended, but  it  seems  unlikely  that  so  eminent  a  person  should  be 
only  casually  introduced,  and  on  the  other  hand,  Simeon  was  a 
common  Jewish  name. 


SILOAM— SIMON.  479 

3.  Au  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  son  of  Juda,  and  father  of  Levi 
(Luke  iii.  30).     Nothing  further  is  known  ot  him. 

4.  A  minister  of  the  early  Christian  church  at  Antioch  (Acts 
xiii.  1).     He  was  surnamed  Niger,  which  see. 

5.  Simon  Peter,  the  apostle,  in  Acts  xv.  14,  where  St.  James,  at 
the  council  at  Jerusalem,  in  a.d.  50,  says,  referring  to  a  statement 
made  by  Peter,  '  Simeon  hath  declared,'  &c.  Peter  gives  himself 
the  same  designation  in  2  Pet.  i.  1  (where  A.V.  and  Vulg.  have 
*  Simon,'  but  Gr.  So/itwr).  For  the  life  of  the  apostle,  see  pp. 
44-50. 

Simon  [probably  a  contracted  form  of  fiy^^  (see  preceding 
article),  but  the  name  {iC'K^  also  occurs  (1  Chrou.  iv.  20),  Timoi>, 
gen.  ^ii-ioj^Gc,  Simon,  gen.  Simotiis^.  Applied  to  nine  persons  in  the 
New  Testament. 

1.  Simon  the  Canaanite  or  Zelotes,  one  of  the  apostles.  The 
meaning  of  the  appellatives  'Canaanite'  and  '  Zelotes '  is  given  under 
Canaanite,  on  p.  307.  Except  as  occurring  in  the  lists  of  the 
apostolate,  where  his  name  in  Matt.,  Mark,  and  Acts  occurs  last 
but  one  (Matt.  x.  4 ;  Mark  iii.  18 ;  Luke  vi.  15 ;  Acts  i.  13),  his 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Testament,  nor  does  any  trust- 
worthy tradition  exist  as  to  his  after  history.  Some  consider  him 
identical  with  Simon  (3),  the  brother  of  our  Lord. 

2.  Simon,  the  son  of  Jonas,  surnamed  by  our  Lord  Peter.  This 
name  is  applied  to  the  apostle  in  Matt.  xvi.  17  ;  xvii.  25 ;  Mark  i. 
29  ;  xiv.  37 ;  Luke  iv.  38;  v.  3, 4,  5,  10  5  xxii.  31 ;  xxiv.  34 ;  John  i. 
41,  42 ;  xiii.  6,  9,  24,  36 ;  xxi.  15-17.  When  used  by  our  Lord 
instead  of  '  Peter,'  it  seems  to  have  been  intended  to  convey  either 
an  impression  of  tender  regard  Tsee  especially  the  words,  '  Simon, 
Simon,  behold,  Satan  hath  desired  to  have  you  (vfidc,  plur.  i.e.,  all 
the  apostles),  but  I  have  prayed  for  thee  (Trfot  aov,  sing,  i.e.,  you, 
Simon,  particularly)'  Luke  xxii.  31),  or  a  reference  to  his  human 
relationships  as  distinguished  from  his  official  character  (see  espe- 
cially Matt.  xvi.  17;  John  xxi.  15-17).  In  Acts  xv.  14;  2  Pet. 
i.  1,  the  Hebrew  form  Simeon  is  used  instead  of  Simon.  See  under 
Simeon.     For  the  life  of  St.  Peter,  see.  pp.  44-50. 

3.  Simon,  the  brother  of  our  Lord.  As  to  the  question  of  who 
the  brethren  of  our  Lord  were,  see  under  James.  This  Simon  is 
only  mentioned,  as  one  of  the  '  brethren,'  in  Matt.  xiii.  55,  and 
Mark  vi.  3.  Some  regard  him  as  identical  with  Simon  the 
Canaanite,  and  others  as  identical  with  Syraeon,  bishop  of  Jerusa- 
lem, after  the  death  of  James  the  Just  in  a.d.  62.  This  Symeon, 
moreover,  is  stated  by  Eusebius  and  another  author,  to  have  been 


480       ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW  TESTA]\IENT   STUDY. 

the  son  of  Clopas^  and  cousin  of  our  Lord,  and  so  far  this  statement 
supports  the  theory  of  those  who  maintain  that  our  Lord's 
'  brethren'  were  really  his  cousins. 

4.  Simon  the  Leper,  a  person  at  whose  house  in  Bethany  Jesus 
was  entertained  six  days  before  the  last  passover  of  his  earthly 
ministry  (Matt.  xxvi.  6  ;  Mark  xiv.  3  ;  John  xii.  2).  Lazarus  was 
a  guest,  Martha  was  among  the  attendant  women,  and  Mary  at 
this  feast  anointed  our  Lord  for  his  burial.  On  the  other  hand 
Simon  does  not  appear.  Hence  it  may  be  inferred  that  Simon  was 
some  near  relative  of  the  family  of  Lazarus  (possibly  Martha's 
husband),  but  in  seclusion  on  account  of  his  disease.  Another 
consideration  adds  force  to  this  suggestion.  Earlier  in  the  Gospel 
history,  our  Lord  is  entertained  in  the  '  house  of  Martha '  (Luke 
X.  38-42).  If  this  were  the  same  house  as  that  afterwards 
described  as  'the  house  of  Simon  the  leper/  the  disease  of  its 
master  and  his  consequent  seclusion  would  render  such  a  descrip- 
tion of  his  house  perfectly  explicable.  At  the  same  time  it  must 
"be  remembered  that  all  this  is  conjectural.  See  further  on  p.  88 
and  p.  94. 

5.  Simon  the  Cyrenian,  a  man  who,  '  coming  out  of  the  country,' 
was  met  by  tlie  soldiers  conveying  Jesus  to  execution,  and 
compelled  to  bear  the  cross  (Matt,  xxvii.  32  ;  Mark  xv.  21 ;  Luke 
xxiii.  26).  He  is  stated  to  have  been  the  father  of  Alexander  and 
Eufus,  and  as  a  Rufus  afterwards  appears  as  a  Christian,  together 
with  his  mother  (E,om.  xvi.  13),  it  has  been  conjectured  that  Simon 
himself  either  was  at  the  time,  or  afterwards  became,  a  disciple. 
Nothing  else  is  known  of  him.  As  to  his  native  country,  see  under 
Ci/rene. 

6.  Simon  a  Pharisee,  at  whose  house  our  Lord  was  entertained, 
and  where  a  woman  who  was  a  sinner  anointed  his  feet.  Our 
Lord  used  this  circumstance  as  an  opportunity  for  uttering  the 
parable  of  the  Two  Debtors  (Luke  vii.  40-43).  When  and  where 
this  feast  and  its  attendant  circumstances  occurred  is  doubtful. 
It  may  have  been  at  Nain,  but  see  further  on  the  incident  at  p.  73. 

7.  Simon,  the  father  of  Judas  Iscariot  (John  vi.  71;  xii.  4;  xiii. 
2,  26).     Nothing  is  known  of  him. 

8.  Simon  the  tanner,  of  Joppa,  with  whom  Peter  lodged  for 
awhile  (Acts  ix,  43 ;  x.  6,  17,  32).  His  house  was  by  the  sea- 
side, and  its  traditional  site  is  still  pointed  out. 

9.  Simon  Magus,  a  sorcerer,  who  was  found  by  Philip  the 
Evangelist  at  the  'city  of  Samaria'  (perhaps  Sychar)  when  he 
preached  there  with  such  success  after  the  death  of  Stephen  in 


SINA.  481 

A.D.  36.  On  account  of  his  wonderful  works  lie  was  called  by  the 
people,  Uhe  great  power  of  God.'  After  a  while,  he  himself 
became  a  believer,  and  when  the  apostles  Peter  and  John  came; 
down  from  Jerusalem,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  fell  on  the  baptised  by 
the  imposition  of  their  hands,  he  oftered  them  money,  that  he  also 
might  possess  what  he  conceived  to  be  their  magical  power.  This 
blasphemous  proposition  was  rebuked  by  St.  Peter  in  the  strongest 
terms,  and  the  name  of  Simony  has  ever  since  been  attached  to  the 
crime  of  trafficking  in  spiritual  appointments.  But  Peter's  rebuke 
appears,  even  from  the  Scripture  narrative  (Acts  viii.  5-25),  to  have 
had  little  effect,  and  tradition  informs  us  that  Simon  afterwards 
became  a  professed  opponent  of  Christianity,  travelling  about 
with  an  abandoned  woman  whom  he  named  "Kj'voia,  and  whom 
he  represented  as  embodying  the  divine  intelligence.  His  later 
history  is  involved  in  much  obscurity,  but  by  some  it  is  asserted 
that  he  was  buried  alive  at  his  own  request,  in  the  full  expecta- 
tion of  rising  again  after  three  days.  Tradition  also  says  that  he 
encountered  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  but  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on 
this  statement.  His  birth  and  origin  are  also  doubtful.  Justin 
Mart}^  declares  him  to  have  been  born  at  Gitton,  a  village  of 
Samaria,  near  Nablous.  But  Josephus  {Ant.  20.  7.  2.)  mentions  a 
Simon,  a  pretended  magician,  who  influenced  Drusilla  to  desert 
her  husband  Azizus,  and  marry  Felix,  and  who  was  a  Cypriot. 

Sina  \^TP  perhaps  =  c/«?/e?/  from  \'^U  =  clay,  to  6pog  ^ivd,  Sina, 
(A.V.  in  Acts  vii.  30,  38,  '  Sina,'  but  in  Gal.  iv.  24,  25,  '  Sinai ' : 
the  Greek  in  all  cases  is  the  same)],  either  a  mountain  or  a 
triangular  mountainous  district,  enclosed  between  the  two  northern 
arms  of  the  Eed  Sea.  The  names  Horeb  and  Sinai  are  applied 
to  this  region,  and  with  difficulty  distinguished.  Some  critics, 
as  Gesenius,  consider  Sinai  to  be  the  general  name,  and  Horeb 
to  indicate  a  particular  mountain.  Others  regard  Horeb  as  an 
Egyptian  name,  and  Sinai  as  a  native  name,  for  the  same  range. 
Others  again,  who  are  at  present  in  the  majority,  take  Horeb  to 
signify  the  entire  system  of  mountains  occupying  the  above  named 
triangular  peninsula,  and  Sinai  to  be  the  designation  of  the 
particular  mountain  from  which  the  law  was  given. 

The  question  then  occurs — Which  is  the  particular  peak  en- 
titled to  the  name  of  Sinai  ?  Nearly  all  are  agreed  that  this  is 
to  be  sought  for  in  a  quadrangular  mass  of  table-land,  near  the 
centre  of  the  region,  about  five  miles  long,  by  two  miles  wide, 
bounded  on  all  sides  by  narrow  ravines,  and  with  its  greater 
length  lying  from  south-east  to  north-west.     The  northern  and 

I  I 


482        ESSENTIALS   OE   NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

southeni  ends  of  this  table-land  rise  into  summits,  which  both 
slope  precipitously  down  to  plains  of  considerable  extent.  The 
bouthern  of  these  summits  is  called  Jehel  Musa  (  =  Mountain  of 
Moses),  and  the  southern  plain  Sebahjeh.  The  height  of  the  peak 
is  7,097  feet  above  the  sea  and  2,000  feet  above  the  plain.  This  is 
the  traditional  scene  of  the  giving  of  tbe  Law,  but  those  opposed 
to  accepting  it  as  the  true  locality  describe  the  so-called  plain 
as  rough,  uneven,  inaccessible,  and  unsuited  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  sacred  history.  The  northern  summit  is  now  finding  more 
favour.  It  is  called  Rds-es-Sussdfeh,  and  rises  precipitously  to  a 
height  of  1,500  feet  above  a  level  space,  formed  by  two  valleys 
or  wadys,  and  about  2,300  yards  long  by  900  yards  wide.  For 
further  particulars  see  Mr.  Palmer's  '  Desert  of  the  Exodus.' 

The  peaks  of  Jebel  Musa  and  Ras-es-Sussafeh  are  the  principal 
claimants  to  the  title  of  Sinai.  But  Jebel  Serbal,  Jebel  Katherin, 
and  Jebel  Fureia  (all  peaks  in  the  same  neighbourhood),  have 
each  their  advocates.  Sinai,  or  Horeb,  in  the  Old  Testament, 
appears  as  the  scene  of  Moses'  commission  to  be  the  leader  of 
Israel  (Exod.  iii.),  and  of  the  giving  of  the  law  to  the  Israelites 
after  the  exodus  from  Egypt  (Exod.  xix.).  The  giving  of  the  law 
at  Sinai  is  referred  to  in  Heb.  xii.  18-21,  although  the  name  is 
not  mentioned.  In  tbis  passage  the  mountain  is  described  as 
'  the  mount  that  migbt  be  touched  (xprjkafoju'svov  opoc;).'  This 
may  mean,  either  that  Sinai  was  a  material  mountain,  in  contrast 
to  tbe  spiritual  Sion,  or  perhaps  that  its  sides  were  so  precipitous 
that  those  who  stood  in  the  valley  could  (as  it  were)  touch  them. 
This  is  actually  the  case  with  Ras-es-Sussafeh.  Direct  mention 
is  also  made  of  Sinai  in  the  speech  of  St.  Stephen  before  the 
Sanhedrim,  as  the  place  where  the  angel  of  God  spake  to  Moses 
(Acts  vii.  30,  38),  and  in  Gal.  iv.  24,  25,  where  '  Sinai  in  Arabia ' 
is  used  as  an  equivalent  for  '  Jerusalem  which  now  is,'  or  the 
Mosaic  covenant.  The  contrast  between  tliis  and  the  Gospel 
covenant  (represented  by  '  Jerusalem  which  is  above ')  is  typified 
by  the  contrast  between  Sara,  the  free  wife  of  Abraham  and 
mother  of  Isaac,  and  Hagar,  his  bondwoman,  the  mother  of  Ish- 
mael.     See  further  on  this  point  under  Agar. 

Sinai.     See  Sina. 

Sion  lf\^'i  =  a  smmt/ place,  Siwi/,  Sion].  To  which  locality  this 
name  (in  the  Old  Testament  always  Zion)  is  to  be  applied  has 
occasioned  much  controversy.  It  has  been  very  generally  supposed 
that  the  western  portion  of  Jerusalem  is  the  place  indicated  by 
it,    but   modern   criticism  now  inclines  to  the  opinion  that  the 


SINAI— S^IYHNA.  483 

eastern  hill,  including  the  site  of  the  Temple,  is  the  locality 
intended.  As  tending  to  this  conclusion,  the  following  passages 
may  be  consulted  (Ps.  ii.  6 ;  ix.  11 ;  xx.  2,  3  ;  xlviii.  2  ;  cxxxii.  5, 
13;  Is.  xxiv.  23  J  xxviii.  16;  xxxi.  4;  xxxiii.  20;  Ix.  14;  Jer.  xxxi. 
12;  Joel  iii.  17-21).  In  the  Apocryphal  books  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  Temple  mount  is  intended  by  the  term  Sion 
(cf.  especially  1  Mac.  iv.  36-38 ;  v.  54 ;  \u.  33).  For  the  topo- 
gi'aphy  and  position  of  this  mount  see  under  Jerusalem. 

With  two  exceptions,  where  Mount  Sion  is  used  as  equivalent 
to  the  spiritual  Jerusalem^  or  kingdom  of  Christ  (Heb.  xii.  22 ; 
Rev.  xiv.  1),  Sion  is  only  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  in 
quotations  from  prophetic  books.  Thus  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah 
lix.  20  ('  and  the  Redeemer  shall  come  to  Zion,  and  unto  them 
that  turn  from  transgression  in  Jacob '),  is  applied  in  Rom.  xi.  26 
as  a  declaration  of  the  future  salvation  of  all  Israel.  Again, 
Isaiah  xxviii.  16  Q  I  lay  in  Zion  for  a  foundation  a  stone,  a  tried 
stone,  a  precious  corner  stone,  a  sure  foundation  :  he  that  believeth 
shall  not  make  haste ')  is  used  in  1  Peter  ii.  6  as  referring  to 
Christ,  the  corner-stone  of  the  building  of  the  Christian  Church. 
Finally,  the  prophecy  of  Zech.  ix.  9  ('  Rejoice  greatly,  0  daughter 
of  Zion  J  shout,  O  daughter  of  Jerusalem ;  behold,  thy  King 
Cometh  unto  thee:  he  is  just,  and  having  salvation:  lowly  and 
riding  upon  an  ass,  and  upon  a  colt  the  foal  of  an  ass  ')  is  declared 
by  Matt.  xxi.  5  and  John  xii.  15  to  have  been  fulfilled  by  the 
entrance  of  our  Lord  into  Jerusalem  on  the  Sunday  of  Passion- 
week.  It  may  here  be  noticed  that  the  expression  ^  daughter 
of  Zion '  is  often  used  in  the  Old  Testament  to  indicate  the  in- 
habitants of  Jerusalem  (cf.  Is.  i.  8  ;  x.  32 :  Ixii.  11 ;  Zech,  ii.  10). 

Smyrna  \_'2iivpva,  Smp-na],  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  flourish- 
ing cities  of  Asia  Minor.  It  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the  Sinus 
Smyrnaeus  or  Hermaeus  (Gulf  of  Smyrna),  at  the  mouth  of  the 
little  river  Hermus,  near  which,  but  higher  up  the  valley,  stood 
the  wealthy  and  famous  city  of  Sardis.  It  still  continues  to  be 
an  important  and  flourishing  sea-port,  the  great  emporium  of  the 
trade  of  the  Levant,  and  nearly  retaining  its  ancient  name,  under 
the  form  of  Ismir.  In  the  New  Testament,  Smyrna  appears  as 
one  of  the  seven  Asiatic  churches,  addressed  in  the  Apocalypse 
(Rev.  ii.  8-11).  With  the  exception  of  Ihe  church  of  Phila- 
delphia, no  other  church  besides  Smyrna  received  a  message  of 
unmixed  approval. 

The  church  of  Smyrna  long  continued  prominent.  Here  Poly- 
carp  (whom  some  have  supposed  to  be  the  'angel  of  the  church' 


484       ESSENTIALS   OE   i^TEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

addressed  in  the  Apocalypse)  was  "bishop  at  the  time  when 
Ignatius  of  Antioch  passed  through  on  his  way  to  martyrdom  at 
Rome  (about  a.d.  110).  Here,  also,  at  a  later  date,  Polycarp 
himself  suifered  death  rather  than  revile  Christ. 

Sodom  [Dip  =  hurning,  'Sooofxa,  Sodoma\  one  of  the  five  cities 
of  the  plain,  destroyed  by  fire  and  brimstone  from  heaven  (Gen. 
xix.).  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  these  cities  occupied  the 
valley  now  filled  by  the  Dead  Sea,  but  recent  observations  are 
against  this  theory,  and  it  is  now  generally  supposed  that  the 
cities  occupied  the  flat  land  at  the  northern  end  of  the  sea.  In 
this  city  Lot  dwelt.  His  leaving  it  and  the  subsequent  destruction 
of  the  city  are  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  as  types  of  the 
preservation  of  the  godly  at  the  final  destruction  of  the  world 
(Luke  xvii.  29 ;  2  Pet.  ii.  6 ;  Jude  7).  The  entire  destruction 
of  the  city  is  also  mentioned  as  a  typical  instance  of  complete 
devastation  (Rom.  ix.  29,  where  alone  'Sodoma'  is  used).  The 
wickedness  of  such  cities, as  shall  reject  the  Gospel  is  also  declared 
to  be  more  deserving  of  God's  judgment  than  even  the  unnatural 
sins  practised  at  Sodom  (Matt.  x.  15;  xi.  24;  Mark  vi.  11;  Luke 
X.  12).  Finally,  the  dead  bodies  of  the  two  Witnesses  are  to  lie 
in  the  '  street  of  the  great  city,  which  spiritually  is  called  Sodom 
and  Egypt'  (Rev.  xi.  8). 

Sodoma,  used  in  Rom.  ix.  29  instead  of  Sodam.  The  Greek 
original  is  '2,6^ona^  as  in  other  places.     See  Sodom. 

Solomon  [Plb?^  —peaceable,  ^oXofiibv,  gen.  2oXo/xwvrof,  Salomon, 
gen.  Salomonis],  the  tenth  son  of  David,  and  his  successor  upon 
the  throne.  He  reigned  from  B.C.  1005-b.c.  975,  and  his  history 
occupies  2  Sam.  xii.  24, 25 ;  1  Kings  i.-xi. ;  1  Chron.  xxiii.-2  Chron. 
ix.  He  was  also  the  author  of  the  books  of  Proverbs,  Song  of 
Songs,  and  Ecclesiastes.  His  name  has  become  proverbial  for 
wealth  and  wisdom ;  and  in  his  days  the  kingdom  of  the  Israelites 
obtained  its  widest  extent,  reaching  as  far  to  the  north  as  Tipsah 
(or  Thapsacus)  on  the  Euphrates,  including  the  country  between 
the  eastern  slopes  of  Lebanon  and  the  desert,  and  extending  across 
the  Jordan  and  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  as  far  as  the  desert  and  the 
Gulf  of  Akaba.  Solomon  was  also  famous  for  his  buildings, 
amongst  which  the  Temple  on  Mount  Moriah  was  the  most  con- 
spicuous. In  his  old  age,  unhappily,  he  lapsed  into  idolatry  and 
sensuality,  and  the  extravagant  expenditure  of  the  court  resulted 
in  an  extreme  pressure  of  taxation,  which  led  to  the  disruption  of 
the  kingdom  under  his  successor  Rehoboam. 


SODOM— SOPATER.  485 

The  incidents  in  Solomon's  career  which  are  referred  to  in  the 
New  Testament  are  as  follows: — 1.  His  birth  from  Bathsheba,  the 
wife  of  Uriah  (Matt,  i,  6).  The  circumstances  of  this  birth  are 
recounted  in  2  Sam.  xii,  Bathsheba's  first  child  by  David  died, 
and  Solomon's  birth  appears  to  have  been  regarded  both  by  God 
and  by  David  as  a  token  of  the  Divine  forgiveness.  Hence  the  name 
given  to  the  child,  and  a  second  name  also  given  by  God,  through 
the  hand  of  the  prophet  Nathan,  viz.  Jedidiah  (  =  beloved  of  Jehovah) . 
2.  The  regal  magnificence  of  Solomon  is  alluded  to  by  our  Lord 
as  practically  surpassed  by  the  natural  beauty  with  which  God 
has  endowed  the  common  flowers  of  the  field  ('  Consider  the  lilies 
of  the  field  .  .  .  even  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed 
like  one  of  these,'  Matt.  vi.  28,  29;  Luke  xii.  27).  This  magni- 
ficence is  described  especially  in  1  Kings  iv.  22-29;  x.  14-29; 
2  Chron.  ix.  13-22.  As  regards  the  beauty  of  the  flowers  of 
Palestine,  see  under  Z^7y,  p.  191.  3.  The  visit  of  the  queen  of 
Sheba  to  Solomon  (1  Kings  x.  1-10 ;  2  Chron.  ix.  1-12)  is  referred 
to  in  Matt.  xii.  42 ;  Luke  xi.  31  ('  The  queen  of  the  south  shall 
rise  up  in  the  judgment  with  this  generation,  and  shall  condemn 
it :  for  she  came  from  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  to  hear  the 
wisdom  of  Solomon ;  and,  behold,  a  greater  than  Solomon  is  here  '*), 
and  contrasted  with  the  apathy  of  the  Jews  in  attention  to  our 
Saviour's  teaching.  This  *  queen  of  the  south,'  or  of  Sheba,  was 
probably  the  queen  of  Abyssinia,  or  Ethiopia,  a  predecessor  of  that 
sovereign  whose  chief  treasurer  was  converted  under  ^the  instruc- 
tion of  Philip  the  evangelist  (Acts  viii.  26-39).  The  sovereign  of 
these  realms  was  habitually  a  female,  who  bore  the  official  title  of 
Candace.  It  is  possible  that  a  knowledge  of  the  Jewish  religion 
was  cai'ried  by  the  queen  of  Solomon's  time  back  to  her  native 
country,  and  hence  the  interest  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  exhibited 
in  later  times  by  a  high  official  of  that  country,  4.  The  '  porch 
of  Solomon '  is  mentioned  as  having  been  the  place  where  on  one 
occasion  our  Lord  was  preaching  (John  x.  23) ;  where  again,  after 
the  miracle  done  by  them  on  the  lame  man,  the  people  ran 
together  to  Peter  and  John  (Acts  iii.  11),  and  where,  still  later 
on,  the  apostles  and  disciples  appear  to  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
meeting  (Acts  v.  12).  This  porch  was  what  would  now  be  called 
a  colonnade  or  cloister,  built  along  the  east  wall  of  the  Temple 
enclosure,  and  contiguous  to  the  Beautiful  Gate.  It  was  not  built 
by  Solomon,  but  merely  named  after  him.     See  Tem2ole,  p.  251. 

Sopater  [SwrraTpoc,  Sopater].,  a  man  of  Beroea,  the  sen  of  Pyrrhus 
(whose  name  is  omitted  in  Rec.  text,  and  A.V.),  and  one  of  those 


486        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

wlio  accompanied  St.  Paul  from  Greece  into  Asia  on  his  final 
journey  to  Jerusalem.  He  may  have  been  the  same  person  as 
Sosipater  (Rom.  xvi.  21),  but  the  mention  of  his  father's  name 
seems  to  suggest  that  this  was  added  in  order  to  prevent  such  a 
confusion  of  persons  arising.  The  mention  of  the  name  of  a  per- 
son's father  is  unusual  in  the  epistles  of  the  New  Testament. 

Sosipater  [SwaiVarpoc;,  Sosipate?''],  a  kinsman  (avyyevi^g)  of  St. 
Paul,  who  with  others  sends  salutations  from  Corinth  to  the  Roman 
Christians  in  Rom.  xvi.  21.  He  may  be  the  same  as  Sojjater  (see 
above),  but  it  is  unlikely. 

Sostlienes  \_^Ma6si^j)c,  SostJienes],  a  person  of  whom  all  that  is 
known  is  contained  in  Acts  xviii.  17  ('Then  all  the  Greeks  took 
Sosthenes,  the  chief  ruler  of  the  synagogue  (at  Corinth),  and  beat 
Am  before  the  judgment  seat  (of  Gallio)  .  .  .  .')j  and  1  Cor.  i.  1 
('Paul,  .  .  .  and  Sosthenes  our  brother,  unto  the  church  of 
Corinth ').  Assuming  that  the  two  .persons  here  called  Sosthenes 
are  identical,  we  may  conjecture  that  Crispus,  who  is  also  called 
'  the  chief  ruler  of  the  synagogue '  (at  Corinth)  having  been  con- 
verted (Acts  xviii.  8 ;  1  Cor.  i.  14),  Sosthenes  was  made  chief 
ruler  in  his  place,  and  that  the  Greeks,  regarding  the  disputes 
about  the  gospel  as  a  mere  Jewish  squabble,  seized  Sosthenes  as  a 
representative  of  the  Jews  and  maltreated  him  in  the  manner 
described.  After  this  he  may  have  been  converted,  and  being  at 
Ephesus  with  St.  Paul  when  1  Cor.  was  written  (four  or  five  years 
later,  see  pp.  31,  32)  was  naturally  joined  with  him  in  the  saluta- 
tion to  the  church  of  his  former  city.  At  the  same  time  it  must 
be  remembered  that  all  this  is  entirely  conjectural. 

Spain  [STraj/i'a,  Hispania],  the  peninsula  on  the  S.  W.  of 
Europe,  closing  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean.  Spain  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  unless  it  be  under  the  name  of 
Tarshish  (Gen.  x.  4  ;  Jonah  i.  3,  and  eighteen  other  places).  In 
New  Testament  times,  Spain,  after  a  fierce  struggle  with  the  Car- 
thaginians and  the  native  tribes,  had  fallen  entirely  into  the  hards 
of  thQ  Romans,  and  was  divided  into  three  provinces,  named  Tar- 
raconensis,  which  comprehended  the  north-west  and  centre  of  the 
country,  Lusitania,  nearly  corresponding  with  modern  Portugal, 
and  Bcstica.  As  Jews  had  spread  along  the  southern  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  as  far  as  Cyrene  (Acts  vi.  9),  and  had  been  deported 
in  large  numbers  to  Sardinia,  the  probability  is  that  Jews 
were  found  in  Spain,  and  Irenseus  (who  lived  at  Lyons)  and  Ter- 
tullian  (who  lived  at  Carthage)  both  testify  to  the  early  introduc- 


SOSIPATER- STEPHEN.  487 

tion  of  Christianity  into  this  country.  The  only  mention  of  Spain 
in  the  New  Testament  is  the  expressed  intention  of  St.  Paul  to 
visit  that  country  ('Whensoever  I  take  my  journey  into  Spain,  I 
will  come  to  you,'  Rom.  xv.  24 ;  and  'I  will  come  by  you  (ol'l'7Jw^■) 
into  Spain,'  Rom.  xv.  28).  This  intention,  however,  was  formed  at 
Corinth,  about  a.d.  57,  and  in  the  course  of  the  next  year  the 
apostle  was  arrested.  Whether  his  intention  was  ever  carried  out, 
seems  therefore  exceedingly  doubtful.  If  it  was,  the  journey  pro- 
bably took  place  in  a.d.  64  and  65.     See  Life  of  St.  Paul,  p.  35. 

Stachys  [Srax"t-,  Stachys\  a  Roman  Christian,  saluted  as  '  my 
beloved '  in  Rom.  xvi.  9.     Nothing  further  is  known  of  him. 

Stephanas  [_^Ttc,avacj  Stejyhanas],  a  Corinthian  whose  house- 
hold was  baptised  by  St.  Paul,  and  called  ^  the  first-fruits  of 
Achaia.'  This  baptism  is  referred  to  by  St.  Paul  in  1  Cor.  i.  16, 
as  one  of  the  few  baptisms  which  he  himself  had  performed.  The 
same  household  afterwards  appear  with  St.  Paul  at  Ephesus,  and 
are  said  to  ^  have  addicted  themselves  to  the  ministry  of  the  saints 

(h'c,-  ctaKoviav  roig  ayioic;  tru^av  kavrwc) '  (1  Cor.  Xvi.  15).      In  what 

way  this  'ministry '  was  exercised  does  not  appear,  neither  does  it 
appear  that  Stephanas  himself  was  a  convert,  although  the  form 
of  the  expression  by  no  means  necessarily  excludes  him.  From  a 
somewhat  similar  phrase  in  the  case  of  Onesiphorus,  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  this  form  of  expression  has  been  adopted  because 
of  the  death  of  the  head  of  the  house.     See  OnesipJioi'us. 

Stephen  [Er6<;tavoc,  Stephanus],  one  of  the  seven  men  '  full  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  wisdom '  who  were  appointed  in  a.d.  36  to 
superintend  the  distribution  of  alms  to  the  Grecian  or  Hellenist 
widows  (Acts  vi.  1-5).  His  name  stands  first  on  the  list,  and  he 
is  described  as  '  a  man  full  of  faith  and  the  Holy  Ghost.'  In  com- 
mon with  all  the  other  six  names,  the  name  of  Stephen  ( =  a 
garland)  is  Greek ;  and  Hellenist  Jews  were  no  doubt  purposely 
selected,  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  duties  to  be  performed. 
Stephen,  however,  speedily  rose  beyond  the  sphere  of  mere  distri- 
bution of  alms.  '  Full  of  faith  and  power,  he  did  gi-eat  wondei-s 
and  miracles  among  the  people,'  and  entered  into  discussion  with 
the  members  of  foreign  synagogues,  amongst  which  the  Cilician 
synagogue,  of  which  St.  Paul  was  probably  a  member,  is  specially 
mentioned  (Acts  vi.  8,  9).  His  success  in  these  discussions  aroused 
the  anger  of  his  opponents  so  greatly,  that  at  last  they  brought 
him  before  the  Council  or  Sanhedrim,  and  accused  him  of  speaking 
*  blasphemous  things  against  Moses  and  the  Law.' 


488        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

The  progress  and  result  of  this  trial  are  recounted  at  length  in 
Acts  yi.  12-viii.  2.  It  resulted  in  his  unanimous  and  tumultuous 
condemnation  and  immediate  execution.  Without  time  for  further 
consideration,  he  was  hurried  out  beyond  the  temple  precincts  and 
the  city  walls,  which  lay  contiguous.  Tradition  yet  attaches  the 
name  of '  St.  Stephen's  gate '  to  a  gate  a  little  north  of  the  temple 
area,  giving  admittance  to  the  road  from  Bethany.  Here,  then, 
just  outfide  the  city  wall,  or  at  some  similarly  situated  spot,  the 
sentence  was  at  once  carried  out,  and  Stephen  was  stoned,  calling 
upon  God  and  saying,  '  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit !  Lord,  lay 
not  this  sin  to  their  charge  ! '  But  his  life  having  been  taken,  his 
enemies  did  not  attempt  further  dishonour.  '  Devout  men  carried 
him  to  his  burial,  and  made  great  lamentation  {KoirtTov)  over  him ' 
(Acts  viii.  2). 

The  career  and  martyrdom  of  Stephen  have  j  ustly  attracted  great 
attention.  A  full  examination  both  of  the  facts  and  the  inferences 
from  them  (but  not  of  the  alleged  inaccuracies  in  his  speech)  may 
be  found  in  Dean  Goulburn's  Acts  of  the  Deacons.  Here  only  a 
few  remarks  on  the  most  salient  points  can  be  subjoined. 

1.  The  connexion  of  Stephen  and  Paul  is  very  noticeable.  That 
St.  Paul  may  have  been  one  of  the  members  of  the  synagogue  of 
the  Cilicians  who  '  disputed  with  Stephen '  has  been  ah-eady  sug- 
gested. But  the  apostle  himself  tells  us  that  he  was  present  at  the 
trial  of  Stephen,  and  took  a  prominent  share  in  it.  See  Acts  xxii. 
20  ('  When  the  blood  of  thy  martyr  Stephen  was  shed,  I  also  was 
standing  by,  and  consenting  (frwevooicMr)  unto  his  death,  and  kept 
the  raiment  of  them  that  slew  him '),  with  which  compare  Acts  xxvi. 
10  ('  When  they  (the  saints)  were  put  to  death,  I  gave  my  voice 
(•^arip'syKa  ^npof)  against  t/iem  ').  Probably  this  does  not  imply 
that  St.  Paul  actually  voted  for  his  death.  Unmarried  men  were 
excluded  from  the  Sanhedrim^  and  therefore  (unless,  indeed,  he 
were  a  widower)  he  could  not  have  had  a  vote  (1  Cor.  ix.  5). 

In  the  narrative  of  Acts  vii.  we  further  read  that  '  the  witnesses 
(Deut.  xiii,  9,  10 ;  xvii.  7)  laid  down  their  clothes  at  the  feet  of  a 
young  man  named  Saul.'  Again,  the  deep  impression  made  by  the 
speech  of  the  first  martyr  upon  St.  Paul's  mind  may  be  traced  in 
many  coincidences,  both  verbal  and  logical,  between  the  speech, 
and  St.  Paul's  words  on  various  occasions.  Thus  compare  Acts 
vii.  SB  and  Rom.  iii.  2,-  Acts  vii.  44  and  Heb.  viii.  5;  Acts  vii. 
48-50  and  xvii.  24,  25  ;  Acts  vii.  51  and  Eom.  ii.  29 ;  Acts  vii. 
60  and  2  Tim  iv,  16.  Lastly,  there  seems  a  high  probability,  es- 
pecially when  the  similarity  of  Stephen's  speech  and  St.  Paul's 


STEPHEN.  489 

aadress  at  AntiocTi  in  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.)  is  considered,  that  St. 
Paul  himself  furnished  the  account  of  the  speech  and  the  atten- 
dant circumstances. 

The  death  of  Stephen,  therefore,  was  not  an  unmitigated  loss.  It 
powerfully  affected  one  whose  after  influence  was  to  he  incalculably 
greater  than  that  of  the  martyr  himself.  And  further  than  this,  it 
was  the  cause  of  the  dispersion  abroad  of  the  disciples  in  many 
widely  diverging  directions,  '  preaching  the  word '  (Acts  viii.  4). 

2.  The  lawfulness  of  Stephen's  punishment  deserves  considera- 
tion, and  is  discussed  under  Council  (p.  157). 

3.  The  speech  of  Stephen  should  be  carefully  examined  from 
two  points  of  view.  («)  As  to  its  argument,  (h)  As  to  its  alleged 
historical  inaccuracies. 

(a)  As  to  the  argument.  Conybeare  and  Howson  well  remark 
that  the  parallel  speech  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia  should  be  taken  as 
an  indication  of  what  St.  Stephen  would  have  said  had  he  been 
allowed  time  to  finish.  From  ver.  1-48  the  speech  appears  to  be 
a  recapitulation  of  the  principal  facts  of  Israelitish  history.  No 
doubt  this  was  intended  as  a  reply  to  the  charge  that  he  was 
desirous  of  '  changing  the  customs  which  Moses  delivered,'  and 
had  he  gone  on  he  would  have  shown  that  the  Christian  religion 
was  in  accordance  with  those  customs,  and  that  Jesus  fulfilled  the 
Law.  But  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  darkening  countenances  of 
hirs  judges  warned  Stephen  that  they  saw  his  drift,  and  were 
utterly  unprepared  to  receive  his  inferences.  Hence  the  outburst 
with  which  the  speech  concludes,  and  the  appeal  to  his  o^nti  vision 
of  Jesus  glorified,  which  they  regarded  as  blasphemous,  and  which 
aroused  them  to  the  determination  to  take  his  life  at  once.  The 
speech,  therefore,  must  be  regarded  as  an  unfinished  speech^  and  its 
full  intention  only  to  be  conj  ecturally  ascertained. 

(h)  The  speech  has  been  charged  with  serious  historical  inac- 
curacies. On  these  it  is  an  obvious  observation  that  an  accom- 
plished disputant  like  Stephen  w^ould  not  be  likely  to  make  such 
blunders,  even  setting  aside  any  theory  of  Divine  assistance.  But 
that  such  blunders  do  not  exist  is  evident  from  a  detailed  con- 
sideration of  the  passages  supposed  to  involve  them.  Dean  Alford 
only  mentions  two  as  ^  demonstrable  historical  mistakes ; '  but 
Dean  Stanley  augments  the  number  of  supposed  errors  or  variations 
from  the  Mosaic  history  to  twelve.  His  list  (in  Smith's  '  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible ')  is  therefore  here  given,  with  a  few  observations 
upon  each.  For  fuller  information  on  some  of  these  points,  see 
particularly  Lee's  '  Inspiration  of  Scripture,'  App.  H. 


490        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAIVIENT   STUDY. 

i.  '  The  Ccill  of  Aoraham  before  the  migration  to  Haran  (vii.  2), 
not,  as  according  to  Gen,  xii.  1,  in  Haran.'  This  proceeds  on  the 
assumptions  that  the  call  of  Abraham  referred  to  by  Stephen  was 
necessai-ily  the  call  of  Gen.  xii.  1,  and  that  this  latter  call  of 
necessity  took  place  (which  is  not  stated)  in  Haran.  But  Jewish 
tradition  uniformly  mentions  another  call,  earlier  than  that  in 
Haran,  and  which  occurred,  as  Stephen  says,  in  Chaldasa.  Thus 
Josephus,  confusing  the  two  calls  (Ant.  1.  7. 1),  says,  ^  Abram  .  .  . 
left  the  land  of  Chaldcea  when  he  was  seventy-five  years  old,  and 
at  the  command  of  God  went  into  Canaan.'  Thus  Philo  says  ('  De 
Abrah.,'  §  15),  '  On  account  of  this  (the  Divine  command)  he  is 
said  to  have  made  his  first  migration /v-o^n  ChaldcBa  into  Charran.^ 
And  in  Gen.  xv.  7  we  read,  '  I  am  the  Lord  that  brought  thee  ont 
of  JJr  of  the  Chaldees;'  and  Nehemiah  (ix.  7)  instructs  the  Levitea 
to  pray,  almost  in  Stephen's  words,  '  Thou  art  the  Lord  the  God, 
who  didst  choose  Abram,  and  broughtest  him  forth  out  of  Ur  of 
the  ChaldeesJ 

It  should  also  be  noticed  that  A.  V.  translates  Gen.  xii.  1  itself 
as,  '  Now  the  Lord  had  said  ("ipX"!)  unto  Abram,  Get  thee  out  of 
thy  country,'  &c,,  and  therefore  entirely  obviates  the  force  of  the 
objection  by  referring  this  call  to  some  time  previous  to  Terah's 
death.  The  deficiencies  of  the  Hebrew  verb,  which  has  no  plu- 
perfect tense,  but  uses  the  preterite  instead  (as  in  Gen.  ii.  2 ; 
vii.  9;  xix.  27;  xx.  18;  xxvii.  30;  xxxi.  20),  are  answerable  for 
this  obscurity. 

ii.  '  The  death  of  his  (Abram's)  father  after  the  call  (vii.  4),  not, 
as  according  to  Gen.  xi.  32,  before  it.'  This  seems  to  be  substan- 
tially identical  with  Objection  (i.).  If  so,  then,  as  before,  we 
assert  an  earlier  call,  spoken  of  by  Jewish  tradition,  and  hinted  at, 
if  not  expressly  described,  in  Scripture. 

But  probably  the  same  objection  is  put  more  clearly  by  Alford  ; 
'  In  Gen.  xi.  26,  we  read  that  Terah  lived  seventy  years  and  begat 
Abram,  Nahor,  and  Haran ;  in  xi.  32,  that  Terah  lived  205  years 
and  died  in  Haran  ;  and  in  xii.  4  that  Abram  was  seventy-five 
years  old  when  he  left  Haran.  Since  then  70  +  75  =  145,  Terah 
must  have  lived  sixty  years  in  Haran  after  Abram's  departure.  It 
seems  evident  that  the  Jewish  chronology,  which  Stephen  follows, 
was  at  fault  here,  owing  to  the  circumstance  of  Terah's  death 
being  mentioned  (Gen.  xi.  32)  before  the  command  to  Abram  to  leave 
Haran.'  Now  this  assumes  that  Abram  was  born  when  his  father 
was  seventy  years  old,  i.e.,  that  he  was  the  eldest  son.  But  Gen. 
xi.  26  does  not  say  this.     Indeed  it  is  pretty  certain  that  Abram 


STEPHEN.  491 

was  not  the  eldest  son.  For  he  married  Sarah,  the  daughter  of  Haran, 
i.e.,  his  niece,  and  from  Gen.  xvii.  17,  it  appears  that  he  was  only 
ten  years  older  than  she.  Hence  Haran,  her  father,  must  have  been 
many  years  older  than  Abram.  Ussher  makes  him  sixty  years  older. 
As  to  the  order  of  names,  the  Hebrew  custom  does  not  depend  on 
seniority  of  birth,  as  is  also  seen  in  the  cases  Seth,  Shem,  Isaac, 
Jacob,  and  Judah.     This  objection,  therefore,  utterly  breaks  down. 

It  may  be  further  remarked  that,  so  long  as  Terah  lived,  Abram's 
home  would  be  in  Haran,  although  he  may  have  occasionally 
visited  Canaan.  The  expression  'removed him  {utTipKWiv),^  applied 
to  Abiam's  movement  after  Terah's  death,  rather  = '  he  changed  his 
domicile^  than  simply  ^he  migrated.'' 

iii.  'The  seventy- five  souls  of  Jacob's  migration  (vii.  14),  not 
(as  according  to  Gen.  xlvi.  27)  seventy.'  Here  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  exactly  what  Stephen  says,  and  what  Genesis  says.  Ste- 
phen says,  '  Then  sent  Joseph,  and  called  his  father  Jacob  to  him, 
and  all  his  kindred,  three  score  and  iifteen  souls.'  Genesis  says, 
'  All  the  souls  that  came  with  Jacob  into  Egypt,  which  came  out 
of  his  loins,  besides  Jacob's  sons'  wives,  all  the  souls  were  three- 
score and  six ;  and  the  sons  of  Joseph,  which  were  born  to  him  in 
Egypt,  were  two  souls :  all  the  souls  of  the  house  of  Jacob,  which 
came  into  Egypt,  loere  threescore  and  ten.'  Hence  it  appears  that 
Stephen  enumerates  all  the  kindred  of  Joseph,  whereas  Genesis 
enumerates  the  lineal  descendants  of  Jacob,  who  came  down  into 
Egypt,  exclusive  of  their  wives.  Now  the  number  of  wives  is  not 
stated,  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  was  nine.  For  Joseph's 
wife  was  in  Egypt,  Judah's  wife  was  dead  (Gen.  xxxviii.  12),  and 
probably  Simeon's  wife  also,  for  his  youngest  son  was  born  of  a 
Canaanitish  woman  (Gen.  xlvi.  10).  Hence  Jacob's  sixty-six 
lineal  descendants  +  his  sons'  nine  wives  =  the  seventy-five  persons 
(described  by  Stephen  as  'all  Joseph's  kindred'),  who  came  down 
to  Egypt^  and  Stephen  and  Genesis  exactly  agree.  But  it  may 
further  be  noticed  that  the  LXX.  inserts  in  Gen.  xlvi.  20  an  ac- 
count of  the  children  and  grandchildren  of  Manasseh  and  Ephraim, 
five  in  number ;  so  that  from  this  point  of  view  also,  Stephen's 
statement  is  perfectly  correct. 

iv.  '  The  godlike  loveliness  {aaTtioQ  r<^  06<^)  of  Moses  (vii.  20), 
not  simply,  as  according  to  Ex.  ii.  2,  the  statement  that  "he  was  a 
goodly  child." '  The  Hebrew  text  of  Ex.  ii.  2,  says  that  the  babe 
Moses  was  ll'lD  {=good),  which  the  LXX.  translates  by  the  word 
which  Stephen  uses  (actre^og),  and  which  St.  Paul  also  uses  in  Heb. 
xi>  23,  also  to  describe  Moses.     The  addition  of  ti[j  Btt^j  Q.\t.=to 


492        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

God)  is  a  common  Hebraism  to  express  pre-eminence.  Thus  in 
Gen.  xxiii.  6,  A.V.  says  '  thou  art  a  mighty  prince/  but  the  Heb.' 
^  a  prince  of  God  ;  '  in  Gen.  xxx.  8,  A.V.  says  *  with  great  wrest- 
lings,' but  Heb.  ^with  wrestlings  of  God;'  in  Ps.  xxxvi.  6,  A.V. 
has  'the  great  mountains/  but  Heb.  'the  mountains  of  God;'  in 
Ps.  Ixxx.  10,  A.V.  has  '  the  goodly  cedars/  but  Heb.  '  the  cedars 
of  God  ;  ^  in  Jonah  iii,  3,  A.V.  calls  Nineveh  '  an  exceeding  great 
city,'  but  Heb.  says  '  a  city  great  to  God.'  Hence  Stephen  merely 
uses  the  superlative  instead  of  the  positive. 

V.  '  His  Egyptian  education  (vii.  22)  as  contrasted  with  the 
silence  on  this  point  in  Ex.  iv.  10.'  Here  the  probable  objection 
can  hardly  be  that  Moses  could  not  have  been  well  educated,  because 
Exodus  does  not  mention  the  fact.  All  Jewish  tradition,  with 
which  Stephen  was  no  doubt  well  acquainted,  is  against  this,  and 
declares  that  Moses  was  not  merely  brought  up  among  the  priests, 
but  became  a  priest  himself,  by  the  name  of  Osarsiph  or  Tisithen. 
Nor  does  the  silence  of  Exodus  prove  anything  contradictory  to 
Stephen's  statement.  Moses  held  the  position  of  the  son  of  the 
King's  daughter,  and  manifestly  had  access  to  the  best  instruction 
which  Egypt  afforded. 

If  the  objection  here  intended  be  that  Stephen  describes  Moses 
as  *  mighty  in  words,'  whereas  Ex.  iv.  10  represents  him  as  saying 
'  I  am  not  eloquent,'  there  is  in  this  no  necessary  contradic- 
tion. Ben  gel  well  says,  'Eloquentia,  quamvis  deerat  pronuntia- 
tio/  or,  as  Matthew  Henry  says,  '  He  had  not  a  ready  way  of 
expressing  himself,  but  stammered,  yet  had  admirable  good  sense  ; 
and  everything  he  said  commanded  assent.'  The  Jewish  tradition 
is  that  he  could  not  pronounce  the  labials.  It  may  be  also  men- 
tioned that  Rashbam,  an  eminent  Jewish  commentator,  explains 
Ex.  iv.  10  to  mean  that,  during  his  long  sojourn  in  Midian, 
Mos€S  had  foi-gotten  the  Egyptian  tongue,  which  Aaron,  who 
had  continuously  resided  there,  was  of  course  versed  in.  The 
cure  of  such  a  defect  as  this  was  obviously  only  a  question  of 
time. 

vi.  'The  same  contrast  with  regard  to  his  secular  greatness, 
"mighty  in  words  and  deeds"  (vii.  22,  comp.  Ex.  ii.  10).'  This  is 
the  same  as  (v.),  which  see. 

vii.  '  The  distinct  mention  of  the  three  periods  of  forty  years 
(vii.  23,  30,  36)  of  which  only  the  last  is  specified  in  the  Penta- 
teuch.' The  statement  of  Stephen  in  Acts  vii.  23  is,  'When  he 
was  full  forty  years  old,  it  came  into  his  heart  to  visit  his  brethren, 
&c.'     This  statement  was  undoubtedly  traditional,  but  it  does  not 


STEPHEN.  493 

follow  that  it  was  incorrect.  Kalisch,  a  Jewish  commentator,  says 
on  Ex.  ii.  11,  'An  old  tradition  asserts  that  every  forty  years  there 
was  an  important  crisis  in  the  fates  of  Moses  ;  he  led  the  Israelites 
from  Egypt  in  his  80th  year ;  he  died  in  his  120th  yearj  therefore, 
it  is  added,  he  was  probably  forty  years  old  when  his  flight  to 
Midian  took  place.' 

yiii.  'The  terror  of  Moses  at  the  bush  (vii.  32)  not  mentioned 
in  Ex,  iii.  3.'  But  this  terror  is  mentioned  in  Ex.  iii.  6  ('  Moses 
hid  his  face,  for  he  was  afraid  to  look  upon  God '),  which  is  en- 
tirely identical  with  Stephen's  statement  ('  Then  Moses  trembled 
and  durst  not  behold  '). 

ix.  '  The  supplementing  of  the  Mosaic  narrative  by  the  allu- 
sions in  Amos  to  their  neglect  of  the  true  worship  in  the  desert 
(vii.  42,  43).'  Stephen  distinctly  states  this  to  be  a  supplementary 
statement,  prefacing  it  with  the  words  'as  it  is  written  in  the  book 
of  the  prophets '  (vii.  42).  For  the  statement  itself,  see  under 
HempJian,  p.  459,  and  for  other  Pentateuch  allusions  to  idola- 
tries in  the  desert,  see  Levit.  xvii.  7,  and  Deut.  xxxii.  17. 

X.  '  The  intervention  of  the  angels  in  the  giving  of  the  law  (vii. 
53),  not  mentioned  in  Ex.  xix.  16.'  Stephen's  words  are,  'who 
have  received  the  law  by  the  disposition  of  angels  (h'(^  SiaTciya,;  dy- 
yeXiov).'  The  exact  meaning  of  this  difficult  phrase  has  been  much 
discussed.  Some  consider  it. to  refer  to  the  'angel'  who  spake  to 
Moses  in  the  bush  (Exod.  iii.  2),  which  angel,  nevertheless,  was 
either  Jehovah  himself  (Exod.  iii.  14),  or  an  attendant  upon  Jehovah. 
Others  refer  the  expression  '  angel'  to  the  prophets.  Others  trans- 
late, 'troops  of  angels  being  present,'  or  'as  commands  of  angels,' 
or  'by  the  ministry  of  angels.'  Alford  well  says,  'The  key  to  the 
right  rendering  seems  to  be  the  similar  expression  in  Gal.  iii.  19, 
^'It  (the  law)  was  ordained  by  angels  in  the  hand  of  a  mediator 

(6  vofiOQ  diaTaytii^  di   ayysXoJi',  tv  x^'pi  nsoirov^.^'      Th e  law  was  ^2*yew 

by  God,  but  announced  by  angels  ....  So  Matt.  xii.  41,  "  They 
repented  at  (tig)  the  preaching  of  Jonas."  '  Kalisch  also,  on  Exod. 
iii.  4,  well  quotes  Herder,  '  Wherever  God  appears  in  the  symbol  of 
any  natural  phenomenon,  this  is  His  angel,  or  His  visible  agent, 
or,  in  the  beautiful  language  of  Moses,  the  name  of  God  is  in  him.' 
In  view  of  this  extreme  divergency  of  opinion  as  to  the  meaning 
of  Acts  vii,  53,  and  seeing  also  that  the  ministry  of  angels  is  con- 
tinually refen-ed  to  in  connection  with  the  circumstances  of  the 
Exodus,  it  is  entirely  unreasonable  to  limit  Stephen's  general  re- 
mark to  the  giving  of  the  Ten  Commandments  on  Sinai,  But  the 
presence  and  ministry  of  angels  even  on  this  occasion  is  by  no 


494       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

means  improbable.  Compare  Ps.  Ixviii.  17  ('  The  chariots  of  God 
are  20,000,  even  thousands  of  angels :  the  Lord  is  among  them  as 
in  Sinai '),  and  Deut.  xxxiii.  2  ('  The  Lord  came  from  Sinai,  and 
rose  up  from  Seir  unto  them ;  he  shined  forth  from  Mount  Paran, 
and  he  came  with  ten  thousands  of  saints '). 

xi.  '  The  burial  of  the  twelve  patriarchs  at  Shechem  (vii.  16) 
not  mentioned  in  Ex.  i.  6.'  Stephen's  words  are  '■  Jacob  .... 
died,  he  and  our  fathers,  and  were  carried  over  into  (niTfTeOr](Tav 
«('t)  Sychem,  and  laid  in  the  sepulchre  that  Abraham  bought  for 
a  sum  of  money  of  Emmor  the  father  of  Sychem.'  The  Old  Testa- 
ment account  is  that  (1)  the  body  of  Jacob  was  embalmed,  and 
carried,  soon  after  his  death,  from  Egypt  to  Machpelah,  where  it  was 
interred  with  great  pomp  (Gen.  1.  1-14)  ;  (2)  Joseph's  body  was 
embalmed  (Gen.  1.  24-26),  carried  out  of  Egypt  at  the  Exodus 
(Exod.  xiii.  19),  and  ultimately  buried  in  Shechem  (Josh.  xxiv. 
32),  i.e.  in  Sychem;  (.3)  the  other  sons  of  Jacob  died,  nothing  being 
said  of  their  burial  (Exod.  i.  6).  With  this  Stephen's  words  en- 
tirely agree,  upon  the  supposition  that  the  body  of  Jacob  w^as  re- 
moved from  Machpelah  to  Sychem,  and  that  the  bodies  of  the  sons 
of  Jacob  were  similarly  taken  from  Egypt  and  removed  to  the 
ancestral  burying  place.  As  to  the  first  point,  i:ifTi-'tO)](rav  hq  2. 
(A.V.  '  were  carried  over  into  Sychem  ')  literally  means  '  were  re- 
moved into  Sychem.''  As  to  the  second  point,  Josephus  declares 
(Ant.  2.  8.  2)  that  the  eleven  patriarchs,  some  time  after  their 
death,  were  buried  at  Hebron  (i.e.  Machpelah),  whereas  Rabbinical 
traditions  declare  them  to  have  been  buried  (as  Stephen  says)  at 
Sychem.  Moreover,  Jerome  (who  died  at  Bethlehem,  a.d.  420) 
states  that  the  tombs  of  the  eleven  patriarchs  were  to  be  seen  at 
Shechem  in  his  day.  The  strong  probability,  therefore,  is  that 
their  bodies  were  transferred,  along  with  that  of  their  father,  to 
the  recognised  family  grave  at  Sychem,  at  the  time  when,  accord- 
ing to  all  authorities,  Joseph  was  solemnly  interred  there.  The 
Egyptian  process  of  embalming  rendered  such  a  transfer  perfectly 
easy  and  becoming. 

It  may  further  be  remarked  that  by  an  alteration  of  the  present 
punctuation,  and  the  reference  of  ixtTtrtdt-jnav  to  the  patriarchs  only, 
instead  of  Jacob  and  the  patriarchs  (which  is  entirely  grammatical, 
no  pronoun  nominatives  being  expressed  in  the  original  Greek), 
Stephen  says  nothing  whatever  about  the  burial  of  Jacob.  Thus 
we  may  read,  if  we  please;  'Jacob  died,  he  and  our  fathers.  And 
they  (i.e.  the  fathers)  were  carried  over,'  &c.  Nor  does  this 
reading  interfere  with  the  strong  probability  that  Jacob's  body 


SUSANNA— SYCHAK.  495 

sliould  have  "been  ultimately  '  removed  to  *  the  place  where  all  his 
sons  were  buried. 

xii.  *  The  purchase  of  the  tomb  at  Shechem  by  Abraham  from 
the  sons  of  Emmor  (vii.  16),  not,  as  according  to  Gen.  xxiii.  15, 
the  purchase  of  the  cave  at  Machpelah  from  Ephron  the  Hittite.' 
This  objection  assumes  that  the  transactions  of  Acts  vii.  16  and 
Gen.  xxiii.  15  are  the  same.  But  the  greater  probability  is  that  they 
are  totally  distinct,  and  that  Abraham  purchased  a  plot  of  ground 
when  residing  at  Shechem  (Gen.  xii.  6),  it  may  have  been  for  the 
purpose  of  building  the  altars  which  he  erected  there.  The  exist- 
ence of  some  local  tie  of  this  description  explains  Jacob's  journey 
thither,  when  he  also  bought  a  piece  of  ground  and  erected  an  altar 
at  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiv.  19).  On  this  latter  purchase,  Kalisch 
remarks,  '  Jacob  proceeded  to  Shechem,  whither  Abraham  also  had 
first  repaired,  where  he  received  the  first  promise  on  sacred  soil, 
and  where  he  built  the  first  altar.  His  grandson  followed  his  ex- 
ample in  almost  every  respect  .  .  .  Hence,  Jacob  did  not  merely 
encamp  in  or  before  Shechem,  but  he  bought  a  piece  of  land  as 
his  own  permanent  property ;  whereas  Abraham  had  acquired  a 
burial  ground.^ 

No  difiiculty  need  arise  from  the  pei-sons  of  whom  Jacob  bought 
the  land  being  called  '  the  sons  of  Hamor,  the  father  o/ Shechem.' 
^  Hamor,  the  father  of  Shechem,'  appears  from  Judges  ix.  28  to 
have  been  the  regular  official  title  of  the  chief  of  the  tribe,  to 
which,  in  both  cases,  the  land  which  was  bought  belonged. 

xiii.  '  The  introduction  of  Remphan  from  the  LXX.  of  Amos 
V.  26,  not  found  in  the  Hebrew.'  See  above  under  (ix.)  and  also 
under  Hemjjhan,  p.  459. 

Reviewing,  therefore,  the  historical  inaccuracies  attributed  to 
Stephen,  it  may  be  asserted  that,  while  some  obscurities  remain 
(which  would  be,  no  doubt,  cleared  up  by  the  possession  of  further 
information),  tio  historical  inaccuracy  v.hatever  can  be  proved,  and 
no  statement  contradictory  to  Old  Testament  history  is  uttered  in 
the  speech. 

Susanna  [Sovaavj^a,  8usannci\^  one  of  the  women  who,  with 
Joanna  and  others,  accompanied  our  Lord  during  a  part  of  the 
Galilsean  mission,  and  *  ministered  unto  him  of  their  substance ' 
(Luke  viii.  3).     Nothing  else  is  known  of  her. 

Sycbar  \^ixup^  or,  preferably,  "^v^ap^  Sichar\  only  mentioned 
in  John  iv,  5,  where  it  is  described  as  '  a  city  of  Samaria,  which 
is  called  Sychar,  near  to  the  parcel  of  ground  that  Jacob  gave  to 
his  son  Joseph.     Now  Jacob's  well  was  there.'     As  to  the  locality 


496        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

intended,  see  note  on  p.  64,  and  also  under  Sychem.  Here  our  Lord 
held  his  interview  with  the  '  woman  of  Samaria,'  and  afterwards 
spent  two  days,  and  here  many  believed  on  him  (John  iv.  39-42). 
Sycliein  [DpK^  =  the  ujp'per  part  of  the  hack,  and  hence,  an  elevated 
tract  of  land,  y^vx^ii,  Sichem'],  the  town  called  in  the  Old  Testament 
Shechem  or  (in  Gen.  xii.  6  only)  Sichem  (where,  notwithstanding 
the  divergency  in  A.  V.,  Heb.  is  D5K^,  as  in  other  places).  The 
first  mention  of  Sychem  is  when  Abram  pitches  his  tent,  and 
erects  an  altar  there  (Gen  xii,  6) ;  and  to  this  period  the  reference 
in  Acts  vii.  16  is  in  all  probability  made,  and  not  to  a  later  pur- 
chase of  ground  at  the  same  place  by  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxiii.  18-20, 
for  which  see  under  Stephen,  where  the  whole  question  of  the 
allusion  in  Acts  vii.  16  is  examined).  From  the  texts  already 
quoted,  compared  with  Gen.  xxxiv.  and  Judges  ix.  28,  it  would 
appear  that  *  Ham  or,  the  father  of  Shechem,'  was  the  official  title 
of  the  prince  of  the  Cauaanitish  tribe  to  which  Shechem  belonged. 
After  the  entrance  of  the  Israelites  into  Canaan,  Shechem  became 
one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx.  7)  and  an  important  political 
centre.  Hither  Joshua  assembled  the  Israelites  to  make  a  public 
and  solemn  covenant  with  God  (Josh,  xxiii.  1,  25),  and  here 
Joseph  (and  probably  Jacob  and  his  other  sons,  see  under  Stephen) 
was  finally  interred.  Under  Abimelech,  the  son  of  Gideon,  who 
was  a  native  of  Shechem,  the  town  became  again  conspicuous,  and 
its  wars  and  troubles  are  related  in  Judges  ix.  When  the  division 
of  the  kingdom  occurred,  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  it  was  to 
Shechem  that  Rehoboam  went  to  be  crowned,  and  where  the  con- 
ference commenced  which  ended  in  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes 
(1  Kings  xii.  1;  2  Chron.  x.  1).  Immediately  afterwards, 
Jeroboam  adopted  it  for  his  capital  (1  Kings  xii.  25).  After  this 
it  disappears  from  Old  Testament  history,  being  supplanted  by  the 
city  of  Samaria,  built  by  Omri  upon  Mount  Shemer,  a  little  to  the 
south,  only  being  mentioned  in  Jer.  xii.  5  ('  There  came  certain 
from  Shechem,  from  Shiloh,  and  from  Samaria'),  and  in  the 
margin  of  Hos.  vi.  9,  as  a  place  where  highway  robbery  was  in 
vogue.  In  New  Testament  times  it  had  obtained  the  name  of 
Sychar  (see  p.  64,  note),  and  here,  in  all  probability,  our  Lord 
spent  two  days,  and  made  many  converts,  after  his  interview  with 
the  woman  of  Samaria,  described  in  John  iv.  Whether  the  *  city 
of  Samaria,'  where  Philip  preached,  and  where  Simon  Magus 
lived,  was  Shechem,  cannot  be  ascertained,  but  for  this  see  under 
Samai'ia. 


SYCHEM — SYEIA.  497 

Shechem  still  exists  as  Nablous  (a  corruption  of  Neapolis,  the 
name  given  hj  Vespasian).  It  stands  in  the  narrow  valley 
between  Mounts  Ehal  and  Gerizim,  and  is  one  of  the  most  pros- 
perous towns  of  Palestine,  having  a  population  of  about  five 
thousand,  some  commerce,  and  a  considerable  soap  manufacture. 
The  Samaritan  religion  is  still  professed  there,  hut  the  majority  of 
the  population  is  Mohammedan.  About  one  and  a  half  miles  to 
the  f^ast  of  Shechem,  Jacob's  well,  at  which  our  Lord  sat,  is  still 
to  be  found,  and  not  far  from  this  is  the  tomb  of  Joseph. 

Syracuse  [^vpaicovaat,  Si/racusd],  a  city  about  three-quarters 
down  the  eastern  shore  of  Sicily.  St.  Paul  landed  here  on  his 
voyage  to  Rome,  and  remained  three  days,  apparently  waiting  for 
the  wind  (Acts  xxviii.  12),  and  in  the  New  Testament  it  is  only 
mentioned  in  this  connection.  At  the  time  of  the  apostle's  visit 
it  was  merely  a  town  of  the  Roman  province  of  Sicily.  But  its 
prosperity  and  power  in  former  days  had  been  very  great,  and  at 
one  time  it  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  world. 
It  was  founded  in  B.C.  725  by  a  colony  from  Corinth,  and  in 
B.C.  485,  Gelon,  who  had  become  its  sovereign,  was  practically 
the  ruler  of  Sicily.  In  B.C.  414  the  Athenians  sent  an  expedition 
against  it,  under  Nicias  and  Demosthenes,  which  was  defeated 
with  total  loss  of  both  ships  and  men.  After  this  its  government 
passed  into  various  hands,  including  those  of  the  two  Dionysii, 
who  raised  the  fame  of  the  city  to  the  highest  point.  At  length, 
in  B.C.  212,  a  Roman  army,  under  Marcellus,  captured  it  and  added 
it  to  the  Roman  possessions. 

Ancient  SjTacuse  consisted  of  five  cities,  united  together. 
The  oldest  of  these  {Ortygia)  was  situated  on  a  peninsula,  which 
had  been  an  island,  and  which  lay  between  the  Great  Harbour  on 
the  west,  and  the  Little  Harbour  on  the  east.  The  other  towns 
lay  on  the  heights  of  the  mainland  to  the  north  of  Ortygia,  and 
extended  for  several  miles-  At  present  only  the  island  is  occupied 
by  the  modern  town  of  Siracusa,  but  considerable  remains  of  the 
ancient  city  exist,  amongst  which  the  catacombs,  and  the  stone- 
quarries  or  Latomice,  in  which  the  Athenian  prisoners  were  kept, 
and  amongst  which  is  the  excavation  called  The  Ear  of  Diony- 
sius,  are  most  remarkable.  The  fountain  of  Arethusa,  anciently 
celebrated,  is  still  flowing,  and  there  are  vestiges  of  the  baths  of 
Daphne,  where  the  emperor  Constans  was  murdered  in  a.d.  668. 

Syria  [2vpia,  Syria],  the  Roman  province  of  which  in  New 
Testament  times  PalestiDe  formed  a  portion.  It  was  added  to  the 
empire  by  Porapey.     It  was  separated  from  Cilicia  by  a  spur  of 

e:  k 


498        ESSENTIALS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

the  Taurus  range,  and  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Euphrates 
and  Arabian  desert,  and  on  the  west  by  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  was  partly  administered  by  Roman  governors, 
who  were  called  at  first  propraetors,  then  proconsuls,  and 
finally  legati ;  but  a  number  of  free  cities  were  also  permitted,  and 
numerous  petty  kingdoms  were  assigned  to  subsidiary  princes. 
Thus  Antioch,  Seieucia,  Sidon,  Tyre,  and  others,  were  free  cities  ; 
Abilene,  Damascus,  and  for  a  time  Judasa,  with  other  tracts  of 
country,  were  subsidiary  states.  The  government  of  Judaea  is 
further  described  under  Herod. 

The  principal  cities  of  Eoman  Syria,  outside  of  Palestine,  were 
Antioch  the  capital,  Seleucia,  Damascus,  Sidon,  Tyre,  Palmyra 
and  Chalcis.  Of  these  the  first  five  are  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  described  under  their  respective  names.  The 
country  is  intersected  from  north  to  south  by  the  ranges  of  Liba- 
nus  and  Antilibanus,  in  the  valley  enclosed  by  which  occurs  the 
most  fertile  portion  of  the  district.  The  whole  of  Roman  Syria  is 
now  included  in  the  Turkish  empire,  and  its  principal  towns  at 
present  are  Aleppo,  Ladkeyah,  Beyrout,  Saide,  Jaffa,  Jerusalem, 
and  Damascus. 

In  the  New  Testament  Syria  is  mentioned  in  Luke  ii.  2  as  under 
the  government  of  Cyrenius  (see  p.  317),  and  in  a  phrase  descrip- 
tive of  the  wide-spread  fame  of  the  Saviour's  miracles  ('  His  fame 
went  throughout  all  Syria,'  Matt.  iv.  24).  It  is  coupled  with 
Cilicia  in  Acts  xv.  23,  as  the  abode  of  Christians  to  whom  the  cir- 
cular letter  about  Gentile  circumcision  was  sent,  and  in  Acts  xv. 
41,  as  containing  churches  which  Paul  and  Silas  '  confirmed,'  on 
St.  Paul's  second  missionary  journey.  In  Galatians  i.  21,  St.  Paul 
speaks  of  his  passing  through  '  Syria  and  Cilicia '  on  his  way  from 
Tarsus  to  Ajitioch,  before  his  first  residence  at  the  latter  place. 
After  this,  Syria  appears  as  the  place  to  which  Paul  returned  from 
Greece,  in  his  second  journey  (Acts  xviii.  18),  and  also  in  his  final 
journey  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  3  ;  xxi.  3). 

Naaman  '  the  Syrian  C??"!!^,  from  D'IK.  =  S^jria,  6  ^vpogy  is  referred 
to  in  Luke  iv.  27.  For  his  history  see  under  Naaman.  Here  it  may 
be  noticed  that  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  in  which  Naaman  was  an 
officer,  was  founded  at  Damascus  by  Rezon,  who  had  been  a  sub- 
ject of  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah  (  1  Kings  xi.  23-25).  After 
this,  the  family  of  Hadad  appears  to  have  regained  power,  and  a 
succession  of  monarchs  of  the  name  of  Benhadad  followed.  These 
monarchs  were  continually  at  war  with  the  kings  of  Israel  and 
Judah,  but  to  which  of  them  Naaman  was  general  is  not  ascer- 


SYROPHOENICIAN— TERTUI.LUS.  499 

tained.  After  some  time,  the  Hadad  dynasty  was  succeeded  by 
that  of  Hazael  (about  B.C.  884)  and  with  him  and  his  successors 
both  the  Assyrians  and  the  Israelites  were  engaged  in  nearly  con- 
tinuous warfare.  Ultimately,  Damascus  was  captured,  its  king 
Rezin  slain,  its  inhabitants  carried  captive  to  Assyria,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Syria  merged  for  a  time  in  that  of  Assyria. 

Syroplioenician.     See  Phenice. 

Tabitha.     See  Dorcas. 

Tarsus  {Tapaoc,  adj.  Tapan'Q,  Tharsus,  adj.  Thai' sensis],  the  chief 
city  of  Cilicia,  on  the  river  Cydnus,  about  twelve  miles  from  its 
mouth.  It  was  of  unknown  antiquity,  and  was  made  the  capital 
of  the  Roman  province  of  Cilicia  by  Pompey,  B.C.  66.  Under 
Augustus  it  became  a  free  city.  It  was  celebrated  both  for  its 
commercial  importance,  and  the  highly  cultivated  character  of  its 
inhabitants.  In  the  New  Testament  Tarsus  only  occurs  as  the 
birthplace  of  the  apostle  Paul,  who  is  called  ^  Saul  of  Tarsus  '  in 
Acts  ix.  II,  and  whose  birth  in  T'arsus  the  Apostle  himself  refers 
to  in  Acts  xxi.  39  ;  xxii.  3.  It  was  also  the  scene  of  his  temporary 
retirement  after  his  first  visit  to  Jerusalem,  and  thence  ha  was 
fetched  by  Barnabas  to  Antioch  (Acts  ix.  30 ;  xi.  25).  A  town 
named  Tersoos  still  exists  on  the  ancient  site  of  Tarsus.  But  no 
remains  of  the  ancient  city  are  now  to  be  found. 

Taverns,  ttie  Three.     See  Th?'ee  Tavet-ns. 

Tertius  [Tspnoc,  Tertius],  the  amanuensis  of  St.  Paul  in  writing 
his  epistle  to  the  Romans  from  Corinth.  That  Tertius  fulfilled 
this  office  appears  from  Rom.  xvi.  22  Q  I,  Tertius,  who  wrote  this 
epistle  (6  ypa^\iaQ  r/}i/ iTTicrroAm')  salute  you  in  the  Lord').  It  is 
quite  possible  that  St.  Paul  dictated  the  sentence  in  the  third 
person,  and  that  the  amanuensis  made  the  alteration.  The  inser- 
tion is  interesting  both  as  showing  that  St.  Paul  employed  Chris- 
tian amanuenses,  and  from  the  name  (which  is  Latin)  suggesting 
a  connection  between  the  Roman  and  Corinthian  churches  as  even 
then  existing.     Nothing  further  is  certainly  known  of  Tertius. 

Tertullus  [rkprvWoQ,  TertuUus],  a  *  certain  orator  (pnrojp)  '  or 
advocate  employed  by  the  Jews  to  bring  their  accusation  against 
Paul  before  the  procurator  Felix.  An  abstract  of  his  speech,  and 
the  circumstances  which  led  to  it,  are  given  in  Acts  xxiv.  The 
description  in  this  speech  of  the  cruel  and  sensual  Felix,  as  one 
by  whose  'providence  very  worthy  deeds  are  done  unto  this 
nation,'  is  the  gross  flattery  of  a  hired  advocate.  From  the  words, 
*  and  would  have  judged '  (ver.  6)  to  the  words  '  come  unto  thee  ' 

kk2 


500        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

(ver.  8)  is  omitted  by  many  good  MSS.      The  name   Tertullus 
is  a  diminutive  of  Tertius.     Nothing  further  is  known  of  him. 

Thaddeeus  [Qn^^aioc,  Lehhceiis],  a  name  found  in  the  lists  of  the 
apostolate  in  Matt.  x.  3  ('  Lehhoius,  ivhose  surname  ivas  Thaddaeus,' 
in  which  the  italicised  words  are  very  doubtful),  and  Mark  iii. 
18.  There  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  it  is  another  designation 
for  Judas  the  brother  of  James.  See  Lehhcmis  and  Judas,  also  the 
paragraph  on  the  apostolate,  on  p.  70,  and  the  table  on  p.  71. 

Thamar  ["1?^^  =o,  pahn-tree,  Ocindp,  Thamar'],  the  wife  suc- 
cessively of  Er  and  Onan,  the  sons  of  Judah,  who  died  and  left  no 
children.  In  the  Old  Testament  she  is  called  Tamar.  By  her 
father-in-law,  Judah,  she  became  the  mother  of  Pharez  and  Zarah. 
Her  remarkable  story  is  related  in  Gen.  xxxviii.,  and  her  name  is 
recorded  amongst  the  four  women  mentioned  in  the  genealogy  of 
our  Lord  (Matt.  i.  3). 

Thara  [HIR,  Bap(7,  Thare\  the  father  of  Abraham,  called  in 
the  Old  Testament  Terah.  What  little  is  known  of  him  is  re- 
corded in  Gen.  xi.  24-32.  He  was  the  son  of  Nahor  and,  having 
lived  seventy  years  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  begat  ^Abram, 
Nahor,  and  Haran.'  Haran  died  in  Ur,  and  then  Terah  (overcome, 
according  to  Josephus,  with  grief  at  his  loss)  migrated  to  Haran 
with  the  rest  of  his  family,  including  Abram  and  Abram's  wife 
Sarai  (who  was  also  his  grand-daughter),  and  his  grandson  Lot 
Here  he  died  at  the  age  of  205  years,  or,  according  to  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  of  145  years.  In  the  New  Testament 
Terah's  name  occurs  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Luke  iii.  34), 
and  as  '  the  father  of  Abraham,'  he  is  also  referred  to  in  Stephen's 
speech  before  the  Sanhedrim  (Acts  vii.  4).  The  difficulty  which 
appears  to  arise  from  this  statement,  compared  with  Gen.  xii.  1,  is 
fully  explained  under  Stephen. 

Theopliilus  [Qe6<pi\oc,  Theophilus'\,  the  person  to  whom  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Luke  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  dedicated 
(Luke  i.  3 ;  Acts  i.  1).  As  he  is  addressed  as  '•  most  excellent 
((cpariffTf),'  he  can  hardly  be  a  mere  fictitious  personage,  and  the 
use  of  this  term  (which  is  applied  to  Felix  and  Festus,  see  Acts 
xxiii.  26 ;  xxiv.  3 ;  xxvi.  25)  seems  to  indicate  that  he  held  some 
official  position.  Many  coniectures  have  been  hazarded  as  to  his 
identity,  but  all  such  conjectures  are  valueless,  except  as  mere 
speculations. 

Tbessalonica  [0£(T.TaXoi//'K>7,  Thessalonica\  an  important  city  of 
Macedonia,  situated  at  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  Sinus 


THADD^US — THEUDAS.  501 

Thermaiciis  {Gulf  of  Saloniki)  and  now  SaloniM,  one  of  tlie  most 
flourisliing  and  important  towns  of  the  Turkish  empire.  In  New 
Testament  times  it  was  the  capital  of  one  of  the  four  Macedonian 
governments,  and  had  the  additional  advantage  of  lying  on  the 
*  Via  Egnatia,  which  led  from  the  western  shores  of  Greece  to 
Byzantium.  Some  remains  of  ancient  Thessalonica  still  exist  in 
the  modern  town,  and  the  line  of  the  main  street  is  supposed  to 
be  that  of  the  Via  Egnatia.  St.  Paul,  accompanied  by  Silas  and 
Timotheus,  visited  this  city  in  the  course  of  his  second  missionary 
journey  (a.d.  51-54),  coming  to  it  through  Apollonia,  Amphipolis, 
and  Philippi.  His  career  there  is  described  in  Acts  xvii.  1-14. 
At  first  his  success  was  great,  and  many  converts  were  made,  but 
at  length  the  unbelieving  Jews  raised  a  tumult,  and  brought  Jason, 
Paul's  entertainer,  and  some  other  brethren  before  the  rulers  of 
the  city  (rovy  7roXtrdpx«e),  and  charged  them  with  fomenting 
sedition.  The  rulers,  however,  contented  themselves  with  taking 
security  of  Jason  to  keep  the  peace,  and  meanwhile  Paul  and  Silas 
were  sent  away  by  night  to  Berea. 

Shortly  after  his  visit  to  tlie  city  the  apostle  wrote  from  Corinth 
his  two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians.  From  these  we  find,  in  con- 
formity with  the  account  in  the  Acts,  that  the  maj  ority  of  the  con- 
verts had  been  heathens  (1.  i.  9),  that  much  persecution  had  taken 
place  (1.  i.  6 ;  ii.  14, 15  j  iii.  3,  4 ;  2.  i.  4-7),  and  that  the  resurrection 
(as  might  be  expected  with  heathen  converts)  was  an  important 
subject  of  discussion  (compare  Acts  xvii.  3  and  1  Thess.  i.  10  j 
iv.  14-16). 

St.  Paul,  in  all  probability,  revisited  Thessalonica  on  his  third 
missionary  journey,  both  going  and  returning  (Acts  xx.  1-3),  and, 
it  may  be,  even  after  his  release  (1  Tim.  i.  3). 

An  interesting  illustration  of  the  account  of  St.  Paul's  visit 
remains  to  be  noticed.  In  xActs  xvii.  6,  8  the  '  rulers  of  the  city ' 
have  the  title  of  Politarchs  '  (TroXirapx"')  '•  This  official  designa- 
tion of  the  ancient  magistracy  is  still  found  in  an  inscription  on  an 
ancient  Roman  arch,  which  now  spans  the  main  street  of  Saloniki.  It 
thence  also  appears  that  the  number  of  these  magistrates  was  seven. 

Theudas  [Qtv^ag,  Theodas],  a  person  mentioned  by  Gamaliel,  in 
his  speech  to  the  Sanhedrim,  recommending  non-interference  with 
the  preachers  of  the  Gospel.  His  words  are,  '■  Before  these  days 
(a.d.  35  ?)  rose  up  Theudas,  boastmg  himself  to  be  somebody ;  to 
whom  a  number  of  men,  about  four  hundred,  joined  themselves: 
who  was  slain  -,  and  all,  as  many  as  obeyed  him,  were  scattered,, 
and  brought  to  nought.    After  this  man  rose  up  Judas  of  Galilee,' 


502        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

&c.  (Acts  V.  36,  37).  The  difficulty  is/  Who  was  this  Theudas? 
Josephus  mentions  a  Theudas,  who  arose  when  Fadus  was  procurator 
of  Judaea  (a.J)A5);  but  not  only  is  his  date  subsequent  to  Gama\ier8 
speech,  and  long  subsequent  to  Judas  of  Galilee  (a.d.  6),,  but 
his  adventures  were  so  peculiar  that  Gamaliel  would  probably 
have  dropped  some  hint  that  it  was  to  this  man  that  he  referred. 
He  was,  in  fact,  a  pretended  magician,  and  offered  to  divide 
Jordan  miraculously.  The  difficulty  must  probably  be  left  unsolved. 
The  name  Theudas  was  common  enough,  and  insurrections  were 
80  common  that  Josephus  alone  mentions  four  insurgents  named 
Simon,  and  three  named  Judas.  But  several  suggestions  de- 
serve consideration.  Sontagg  argues  that  Theudas  was  Simon, 
formerly  a  slave  of  Herod  (Josephus,  B.J.  2.  4.  2 ;  Ant.  17. 10.  6). 
Another  suggestion  is  that  Theudas  was  Judas,  the  son  of  Ezekias 
(Josephus,  Atit  17.  10.  5) ;  which  is  the  more  probable,  as  the 
names  of  Theudas,  Thaddeeus,  and  Judas  are  nearly  identical,  one 
of  the  apostles  being  known  by  either  name  indift'erently  (see  Thad- 
dcsus).  Lastly,  Wieseler  identifies  Theudas  with  Matthias,  the  son 
of  Margalothus,  who  was  burned  alive  by  Herod  the  Great  for  in- 
surrection (Josephus,  Ant.  17. 6.  2).  Wieseler  also  suggests  that 
Theudas  (or  Theodas)  is  a  contraction  of  Theodorus  ( =  (/fft  of 
God),  and  therefore  the  Greek  equivalent  of  n^niiip  (ov  Mattathias), 
which  also  means  '  the  gift  of  God.'' 

Tliomas  [Dli^in  =  «  ^zrm,  Bu)jxaQ,  Thomas'],  one  of  the  apostles^ 
coupled  in  the  lists  of  Matt.  x.  3,  Mark  iii.  18,  and  Luke  vi.  15, 
with  Matthew,  but  in  Acts  i.  13  with  Philip.  Except  in  these 
lists,  the  only  special  mention  of  Thomas  occurs  in  John,  from 
whom  we  learn  that  he  was  surnamed  Didymus  (  =  a  twin).  From 
John  we  also  learn  that  when  our  Lord  had  determined  to  go  to 
Bethany  to  see  Lazarus,  Thomas,  fully  conscious  of  the  danger,  said, 
'  Let  us  also  go,  that  we  may  die  with  him'  (xi.  16).  Again,  when 
during  the  Last  Supper  our  Lord  said,  '  Whither  I  go  ye  know, 
and  the  way  ye  know,'  Thomas  said  to  Him,  '  Lord,  we  know  not 
whither  thou  goest;  and  how  can  we  know  the  way?'  (xiv.  5). 
Again,  when  our  Lord  appeared  to  the  assembled  disciples  on  the 
evening  of  the  resurrection,  Thomas  was  absent.  Being  informed 
of  what  had  occurred,  he  declared  that  he  would  not  believe  it 
unless  he  put  his  finger  into  the  print  of  the  nails,  and  his  hand 
into  the  Redeemer's  side.  Eight  days  after,  the  disciples  were 
again  assembled,  and  Thomas  with  them.  Jesus  appeared,  and 
said  to  Thomas,  '  Reach  hither  thy  finger,  and  behold  my  hands, 
and  reach  hither  thy  hand,  and  thrust  it  into  my  side  :  and  be  not 


THOMAS— TIBEEIAS.  503 

faithless,  but  beiieviDg  (fit)  yivov  &TnaTog,  aWd  TTLffTog).  Thomas 
answered  and  said  unto  him,  My  Lord  and  my  God.  Jesus  saith 
unto  him,  Thomas,  because  thou  hast  seen  me,  thou  hast  believed : 
blessed  are  they  that  have  not  seen,  and  i/et  have  believed'  (xx. 
24-29). 

After  this,  the  name  of  Thomas  only  occurs  amongst  the  disciples 
to  whom  Jesus  appeared  at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  (xxi.  2).  He  then 
disappears  from  New  Testament  history.  Eusebius,  however, 
represents  him  as  preaching  in  Parthia  and  Persia,  and  buried  at 
Edessa,  but  later  traditions  connect  him  with  the  Christian  chui'ches 
on  the  Malabar  coast  of  Hindostan. 

Three  Taverns  [Tpug  TajSipvai,  Tres  Tahernce],  a  station  on 
theTia  Appia,  at  its  junction  with  the  road  from  Antium  and  the 
coast.  It  was  thirty- three  miles  from  Home,  and  must  have  been 
near  the  modern  Cisterna.  Here  a  party  of  Roman  Christians 
met  St.  Paul,  on  his  journey  to  the  city  from  Puteoli;  and  when 
Paul  saw  them,  he  '  thanked  God,  *ind  took  corn-age'  (Acts  xxviii. 
15).  The  word  here  translated  '  taverns'  simply  = '  shops/  and  not 
inns,  as  an  English  reader  might  suppose. 

Thyatira  [ja  Qvanipn,  Thyatira,  adj.  Thyatii'enus],  a  Mace- 
donian colony  on  the  river  Lycus,  in  the  north  of  Lydia,  in  Asia 
Minor.  It  only  occurs  in  Acts  xvi.  14,  as  the  city  from  which 
Lydia,  the  purple-seller  of  Philippi  in  Macedonia,  came,  and  in  the 
Apocalypse,  where  the  angel  of  the  church  at  Thyatira  is  ad- 
dressed (Pev.  i.  II ;  ii.  18-29).  The  city  is  now  in  ruins,  but 
inscriptions  shew  that  dyeing  was  a  trade  so  largely  carried  on, 
that  a  guild  of  dyers  existed,  and  that  a  peculiar  worship  of  Sam- 
batha,  of  which  the  chief  minister  was  a  priestess,  was  there 
carried  on.  Some  have  thought  that  the  'Jezebel'  of  Pev.  ii.  20 
may  have  been  this  priestess.  The  connection  between  Philippi 
and  Thyatira,  both  being  Macedonian,  is  to  be  noticed,  as  explain- 
ing Lydia's  position  at  Philippi.  It  has  been  also  suggested  that  she 
was  the  means  of  introducing  the  Gospel  into  her  native  city. 

Tiberias  [T<i3fp£«c,  Tibe)ias\  a  term  twice  used  to  designate  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  (John  vi.  1 ;  xxi.  1),  but  once  to  designate  a  town 
on  the  western  shore  of  that  sea  ('  Howbeit,  there  came  other 
boats  from  Tiberias,'  John  vi.  23).  The  town  of  Tiberias  is  now 
represented  by  a  miserable  village  called  Tubariyeh,  but  in  New 
Testament  times  it  was  a  splendid  city.  It  was  built  by  Herod 
Antipas  in  honour  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  and  it  was  probably 
here  that  the  feast  was  held  at  which  Herod  was  induced  to  give 
orders  for  the  execution  of  John  the  Baptist.     It  does  not  appear 


504        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

that  our  Lord  ever  visited  Tiberias^  probably  being  deterred  from 
doing  so  by  the  fact  that  Herod  Antipas  resided  there. 

Tiberias,  Sea  of.     See  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

Tiberius  Csesar  [Tt|8fpioc  Ka/jap],  the  third  Eoman  emperor. 
He  was  associated  in  the  empire  with  his  uncle  Augustus  for  two 
years  before  the  death  of  Augustus,  which  happened  in  August 
A.D.  14.  Hence  a.d.  26  was  the  fifteenth  year  of  his  reign,  and 
this  supplies  a  basis  of  calculation  for  the  dates  of  our  Lord's  life 
(see  p.  61).  For  the  purpose  of  fixing  a  date,  he  is  mentioned 
in  Luke  iii.  1 :  but  as  he  did  not  die  until  a.d.  37,  all  the  events 
of  our  Lord's  life  on  earth,  from  his  baptism  onwards,  fell  during 
his  reign.  Thus  he  v^aa  the  Csesar  referred  to  in  Matt.  xxii.  21 ; 
Luke  XX.  25,  and  before  Pontius  Pilate  (John  xix.  12).     See  Ccssar. 

Timon  [T/pwv,  Timon],  one  of  the  seven  men  chosen  to  ad- 
minister the  alms  for  the  Hellenist  widows  (Acts  vi.  5).  His 
name  only  occurs  in  this  connection,  and  nothing  further  is  known 
of  him.     His  name  indicates  that  he  was  a  Greek. 

Timotlieus.     See  Timothy. 

Timotliy  [T/po^sot-,  Timotlieus'],  an  eminent  minister  of  the 
early  Christian  church,  called  also  Timotheiis  in  A.  V.  of  Acts 
xvi.  1;  Rom  xvi.  21;  1  Cor.  xvi.  10;  2  Cor.  i.  19;  Phil.  i.  1;  ii. 
19 ;  1  Thess.  i.  1 ;  iii.  2  ;  2  Thess.  i.  1.  He  was  a  native  either 
of  Lystra  or  Derbe  in  Lycaonia,  and  the  child  of  a  mixed  marriage, 
his  mother  being  a  Jewess  and  his  father  a  Greek  ("EXXr^r,  i.e.  a 
Gentile).  Of  his  father's  character  no  information  is  given ;  but  his 
mother's  name  was  Eunice,  and  his  grandmother's  Lois,  and  they 
are  spoken  of  in  2  Tim.  i.  5,  as  persons  of  ^  unfeigned  fiiith ; '  while 
from  2  Tim.  iii.  15  we  learn  that  Timothy  'from  a  child  had 
known  the  Holy  Scriptures.'  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  his 
religious  education  had  been  carefully  attended  to.  The  earliest 
mention  of  his  name  occurs  in  Acts  xvi.  ] ,  where  we  read  that,  on 
his  second  missionary  journey,  Paul,  accompanied  by  Silas,  'came 
to  Derbe  and  Lystra :  and  behold,  a  certain  disciple  was  there 
named  Timotheus  .  .  .  which  was  well  reported  of  by  the  brethren 
that  were  at  Lystra  and  Iconium.  Him  would  Paul  have  to  go 
forth  with  him ;  and  took  and  circumcised  him  because  of  the 
Jews  which  were  in  those  quarters.'  But  the  history  of  Timothy 
previous  to  these  circumstances  is  not  entirely  conjectural.  In 
2  Tim.  iii.  10,  11  we  read,  'Thou hast  fully  known  my  doctrine  .  .  . 
persecutions,  afflictions, which  came  unto  me  at  Antioch,  at  Iconium, 
at  Lystra.'  Hence  it  may  be  presumed  that  Timothy  was  per- 
sonally cognis^mt  of  the  circumstances  of  St.  Paul's  former  visit  to 


SEA   OF  TIBERIAS— TIMOTHY.  505 

Lj^stra  and  Derbe,  seven  years  previous  to  the  second  visit,  and 
had  often  listened  to  the  apostle  at  that  time.  Of  the  circumstances 
of  his  conversion  we  know  nothing. 

It  would  appear  that  Timothy  was  not  selected  by  St.  Paul  ^  to 
go  forth  with  him'  as  an  evangelist  (2  Tim.  iv.  5)  without  a 
solemn  rite  of  ordination.  This  is  referred  to  in  1  Tim.  iv.  14 
('  Neglect  not  the  gift  that  is  in  thee,  which  was  given  thee  by 
prophecy  {^(d  '7rpo<t)r)Teiac ;  comp.  i.  18,  where  some  regard  -n-p.  as 
referring  to  the  good  reports  received  of  Timothy  from  the  brethren 
at  Lystra),  with  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  presbytery 
{rnv  TrpealSvTip'iov  =  the  asseynbled  body  of  elders)  '),  and  in  2  Tim.  i. 
6  ('  stir  up  the  gift  of  God,  which  is  in  thee  by  the  putting  on  of 
my  hands '),  but  others  suppose  that  these  passages  refer  not  to  his 
general  commission,  but  his  particular  ordination  to  the  charge  of 
the  Ephesiau  church. 

From  the  time  of  his  circumcision,  Timothy  became  a  constant 
companion  of  Paul,  who  speaks  of  him  frequently  in  terms  of 
great  affection,  and  calls  him  his  son  (1  Cor.  iv.  17  •  1  Tim.  i.  2  -, 
2  Tim.  i.  2).  With  the  apostle,  and  his  companions  Silas  and 
Luke,  he  journeyed  through  Asia  Minor  (Acts  xvi.  6-10)  to  Phi- 
lippi,  and  onwards  to  Thessalonica  and  Berea.  At  Berea  he  left  St. 
Paul  for  awhile  (Acts  xvii.  14-16),  bjit  rejoined  him  at  Athens. 
From  Athens  he  appears  to  have  been  sent  on  a  short  visit  to 
Thessalonica  (1  Thess.  iii.  2).  From  this  he  returned,  not  to 
Athens,  but  to  Corinth,  and  is  joined  with  Silas  and  St.  Paul  in  the 
salutations  of  the  two  epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  written  from 
that  place  (1  Thess.  i.  1 ;  2  Thess.  i.  1).  His  work  at  Corinth, 
probably  during  this  visit,  is  referred  to  afterwards  in  2  Cor.  i. 
19  Q  Jesus  Christ  was  preached  among  you  by  us,  even  by  me 
and  Silvanus  and  Timotheus'). 

The  events  enumerated  in  the  last  paragraph  occurred  in  B.C.  51- 
54.  Four  or  five  years  later  Timothy  is  again  found  with  St.  Paul, 
during  his  three  years'  residence  at  Ephesus,  being  described  as  one 
'  of  them  that  ministered  unto  him  {tCjv  cinKovovvrwv  avTcf),''  and 
with  Erastus  he  is  sent  from  Ephesus  to  Macedonia,  and  probably 
to  Corinth  also  (Acts  xix.  22,  with  which  compare  1  Cor.  iv.  17 ; 
xvi.  10).  Now  we  know  that  St.  Paul,  during  the  latter  part  of 
this  residence  at  Ephesus,  was  planning  another  visit  to  Corinth 
via  Macedonia  (1  Cor.  xvi.  5-7).  But  the  breakhig  out  of  the 
tumult  at  Ephesus  probably  shortened  his  stay  in  that  city  (Acts 
XX.  1),  and  going  into  Macedonia  at  once  he  overtook  Timothy, 
whose  name  is  joined  with  his  own  in  the  salutation  of  2  Cor., 


506        ESSENTIALS   OE  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

written  from  Macedonia  at  this  time.  Timothy  now  visited 
Corinth  in  St.  Paul's  company,  and  his  name  (coupled  with  the 
epithet  '  o  (rwfpyvg  [xoc,  my  fellow- worker  '),  is  found  among  those 
sending  salutations  to  the  Koman  Christians  from  that  city  (Rom. 
xvi.  21).  After  this,  he  accompanied  St.  Paul  into  Asia,  going 
before  him  to  Troas  (Acts  xx.  4),  but  from  this  point  we  lose 
sight  of  him  for  some  time.  No  indications  of  his  presence  are 
found  during  St,  Paul's  final  voyage  from  Asia  to  Jerusalem,  nor 
during  the  subsequent  imprisonment  at  Csesarea,  and  the  voyage 
to  Rome.  But  at  Rome  his  name  appears  again  with  considerable 
frequency.  There  he  was  with  St.  Paul  when  the  epistles  of  the 
Philippians,  Colossians,  and  Philemon  were  penned,  that  is,  in  all 
probability,  during  the  apostle's  first  Roman  imprisonment  in 
A.D.  62  (Phil.  i.  1 ;  ii.  19 ;  Col.  i.  1 ;  Philem.  1).  In  Phil.  ii. 
19,  we  find  that  St.  Paul,  while  regarding  him  as  a  son,  and  there- 
fore naturally  unwilling  to  part  from  him,  states  his  intention  of 
sending  him  to  Philippi,  as  one  who  will  '  naturally '  care  for 
them.  Whether  this  intention  was  fulfilled  is  not  known.  The 
only  remaining  information  regarding  Timothy  is  derivable  from 
Heb.  xiii.  23,  where  he  is  released  from  an  imprisonment  to  which 
he  has  been  subjected,  and  from  the  two  epistles  written  to  him 
by  the  apostle,  probably  during  his  second  imprisonment.  With 
regard  to  these  epistles,  see  p.  41.  We  learn  from  them  that 
Timothy  has  been  left  in  charge  of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  but 
that  St.  Paul  hopes  that  he  will  see  him  again  at  Rome  before 
the  winter  (2  Tim.  iv.  21). 

Eiforts  have  been  made  to  pourtray  the  personal  character  of 
Timothy  from  the  New  Testament  description  of  his  acts  and  the 
occasional  personal  notices  of  him.  Thus  he  is  to  be  regarded  as 
a  person  of  delicate  constitution  (1  Tim.  v.  23),  of  great  sensitive- 
ness (2  Tim.  i.  4),  of  possible  tendency  to  risk  from  'youthful 
lusts'  (2  Tim,  ii.  22),  and  so  on.  But  no  safe  deductions  of  this 
kind  can  be  made  from  such  slender  data.  His  fidelity  and  affec- 
tion to  St.  Paul,  and  the  constancy  of  his  Christian  character, 
alone  remain  unmistakably  delineated. 

Tradition  carries  on  his  history  by  stating  that  he  continued  to 
be  bishop  of  Ephesus  for  many  years,  and  then  was  killed  in  a 
popular  rising  against  the  Christians  under  Domitian.  Some  have 
identified  him  with  the  '  angel '  of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  ad- 
dressed in  Rev.  ii.  1-7,  but  on  no  sufficient  grounds. 

Titus  [Tirog,  Titus],  an  eminent  minister  of  the  early  Christian 
church.     He  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts,  and  his  histoiy  can 


TITUS — TRACHONITIS.  507 

therefore  be  only  gleaned  from  the  epistles.  St.  Paul  calls  him 
(Titua  i.  4)  his  '  own  son/  and  therefore  he  was  probably  one  of 
his  converts ;  but  the  particulars  of  his  conversion  are  not  recorded. 
The  chronologically  earliest  notice  of  him  is  in  Gal.  ii.  1,  3,  where, 
speaking  of  his  journey  from  Antioch  to  Jerusalem  (a,d.  50)  about 
the  question  of  Gentile  circumcision,  St.  Paul  says,  '  I  went  up  to 
Jerusalem  with  Barnabas,  and  took  Titus  with  me  also  .  .  .  but 
neither  Titus,  who  was  with  me,  being  a  Greek  ("EXX?;?/  =  Gentile), 
was  compelled  to  be  circumcised.'  That  'certain  other '  Christians 
accompanied  Paul  and  Barnabas  on  this  occasion  is  stated  in 
Acts  XV.  2. 

After  this,  Titus  appears  to  have  been  sent  with  another 
brother  as  the  bearer  from  Ephesus  of  the  first  epistle  of  St.  Paul 
to  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  xvi.  12 ;  2  Cor.  xii.  18).  He  had  appa- 
rently received  directions  to  return  through  Macedonia  and  Troas, 
and  here  St.  Paul  expected  to  meet  him  (2  Cor.  ii.  13).  However, 
he  encountered  him  further  on  in  Macedonia,  and  by  his  coming 
was  greatly  comforted  (2  Cor.  vii.  6,  7,  13-15).  The  object  of 
his  mission  to  Corinth  had  been,  not  merely  to  convey  the  letter, 
but  to  exhort  the  church  there  against  encroaching  immorali- 
ties, and  to  gather  funds  for  the  poor  Christians  at  Jerusalem. 
His  discharge  of  these  duties  appears  to  have  been  exemplary 
(2  Cor.  vii.  15 ;  xii.  18).  Encouraged  by  this,  Paul  sends  Titus 
back  as  the  bearer  of  a  second  epistle,  having  two  companions 
(2  Cor.  viii.  16,  18,  22,  23). 

No  further  traces  of  the  history  of  Titus  appear  until  we  find 
him  left  by  St.  Paul  in  Crete,  with  the  charge  of  organising  the 
church  there,  and  of  appointing  elders  in  every  city  (Tit.  i.  5).  This 
is  presumed  to  have  occurred  in  the  interval  between  St.  Paul's  first 
and  second  imprisonments  at  Pome  (about  a.d.  67),  and  the  epistle 
to  have  been  written  from  Ephesus.  He  is  requested  to  join  St. 
Paul  at  Nicopolis,  possibly  leaving  Artemas  or  Tychicus,  one  of 
whom  is  to  come  to  him,  in  his  place.  Zenas  and  ApoUos  are 
about  to  visit  Crete  and  to  be  forwarded  on  their  journey. 

Not  long  after  this  Titus  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Dalmatia,  and 
his  absence  is  urged  as  an  additional  reason  why  Timothy's  pre- 
sence at  Rome  would  be  comforting  to  St.  Paul.  Nothing  further 
is  certainly  known  of  Titus,  but  many  traditions  connect  him  per- 
manently with  the  bishopric  of  Crete.  The  modern  capital, 
Candia,  claims  to  be  his  burial-place,  and  the  cathedral  of  Megalo- 
Castron  is  dedicated  to  him. 

Tracbonitis  [Tpax^v/rtc,  gen.  TpaxoiviTi^og,   Ti'achmiitis,  gen. 


508        ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW   TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

Trachonitidis],  a  district  of  Syria  onl}^  mentioned  in  Luke  iii.  IV  as 
being  a  portion  of  the  tetrarchy  of  Herod  Philip,  at  the  time  when 
John  the  Baptist  commenced  his  mission.  It  probably  corresponds 
to  the  ancient  Argoh,  and  the  modern  El  LejnJi,  a  singular  district, 
forming  a  triangular-shaped  table-land,  elevated  about  thirty  feet 
above  the  plain,  of  basaltic  formation,  lying  east  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  and  south  of  Damascus.  It  is  at  present  a  desolate 
wilderness,  studded  with  deserted  and  gigantic  stone-built  cities ; 
and  an  interesting  account  of  it  is  given  in  Dr.  Porter's  ^  G-iant 
Cities  of  Bashan,'  and  in  '  Ptob  Roy  on  the  Jordan.' 

Troas  [Tpt^jac,  gen.  Tpwa^oc,  Troas,  gen.  Troadis],  a  district  and 
town  at  the  north-west  comer  of  Asia  Minor.  The  correct  name 
of  the  town  was  Alexandria  Troas,  the  name  Troas  being  properly 
applied  only  to  the  surrounding  district,  which  is  memorable  as 
the  site  of  ancient  Troy,  and  the  scene  of  the  ^  Iliad.'  In  New 
Testament  times  Troas  was  a  colony  and  an  important  town,  and 
Julius  Cassar  had  even  contemplated  making  it  the  capital  of  his 
empire.     It  still  exists  as  Eski-Stamboid. 

St.  Paul  passed  through  this  town  on  several  occasions.  On  his 
second  missionary  journey  it  was  the  port  from  which  he  took 
shipping  for  Europe,  and  saw  a  vision  of  a  man  of  Macedonia, 
saying,  '  Come  over  and  help  us '  (Acts  xvi.  9).  Again,  on  hia 
final  missionary  journey,  St.  Paul,  on  his  road  to  Greece,  waits  for 
Titus  at  Troas  (2  Cor.  ii.  12),  and,  on  his  road  from  Greece,  stays 
there  awhile.  On  this  occasion  Eutychus  falls  down  from  the 
window  and  is  revived  by  the  apostle  (Acts  xx.  5-12). 

Another  visit  is  also  spoken  of  incidentally  in  2  Tim.  iv.  13 
('  The  cloke  that  I  left  at  Troas  with  Carpus,  when  thou  comest, 
bring  with  thee '),  but  no  particulars  of  this  are  recorded. 

Trog-yllium  [Tpwyi;A\ioj',  omitted  in  Vulgate],  a  promontory  of 
Samos.     See  under  Samos. 

Tropliimus  lTp6<;jiixoc,  Troj^Jmnus],  an  Ephesian  (and  therefore 
Gentile)  Christian,  who  was  supposed  by  the  Jews  to  have  been 
brought  into  the  Temple  by  St.  Paul  on  the  occasion  of  his  last 
visit  to  Jerusalem,  and  whose  supposed  introduction  aroused  the 
tumult  which  led  to  St.  Paul's  apprehension  (Acts  xxi.  29). 
Trophimus,  however,  although  he  had  come  up  to  Jerusalem  with 
the  apostle,  had  not  entered  into  the  Temple.  He  had  been  with 
St.  Paul  in  Greece,  and  had  accompanied  him  thence  through 
Asia  (Acts  xx.  4).  Further  on  in  St.  Paul's  history  he  again 
appears  as  a  person  who  had  been  in  company  with  that  apostle. 
In  2  Tim.  iv.  20,  written  from  Rome  just  before  his  martyrdom, 


TROAS — TYRANNUS.  509 

St.  Paul  writes,  '  Trophimus  have  I  left  at  Miletiim  sicli.'  This 
is  only  explicable  on  the  supposition  that  a  visit  had  been  paid  to 
Asia  by  St.  Paul,  in  the  interval  between  his  first  and  second 
imprisonments,  in  which  Trophimus  had  been  his  companion. 

Was  Trophimus  one  of  the  two  'brethren'  who,  with  Titus, 
carried  the  second  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  from  Macedonia 
(2  Cor.  viii.  16-24)  ?  The  character  there  given  of  the  ^  brother, 
whose  praise  is  in  the  gospel  throughout  all  the  churches,'  and 
who  is  one  of  the  'messengers  of  the  churches,'  would  suit  Tio- 
phimus.  Besides,  he  was  with  St.  Paul  immediately  after  (see 
above),  and  his  journey  to  Jerusalem  was  to  assist  Paul  'to  bring 
alms  to  the  nation'  of  the  Jews,  the  very  errand  of  which  2  Cor. 
says  so  much. 

Trypbena  [Tpviaiva,  Trt/phesna],  a  Christian  woman  at  Home, 
saluted  with  Tryphosa,  as  one  who  'labours  in  the  Lord'  (Rom. 
xvi.  12).  The  name  occurs  in  a  list  which  has  been  discovered  of 
the  members  of  'Cassar's  household'  about  this  time.  But  nothing 
certain  is  known  about  her. 

Tryphosa  [Tpw^ajcra,  Tryphosa].     See  Tryphena. 

TycMcus  [TiJxtKo-,  TycJiicus],  a  native  of  Asia  ('Afftavoc),  who 
accompanied  St.  Paul  from  Greece  into  Asia,  on  his  final  journey 
to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  4).  How  far  he  accompanied  the  apostle 
is  altogether  uncertain  ;  and  no  further  mention  of  his  name  occurs 
imtil  CoL  iv.  7,  8,  when  he  reappears  as  the  bearer,  with  Onesimus, 
of  the  epistle  from  Paul  at  Rome  to  the  Colossian  church.  Here 
he  is  designated  '  a  beloved  brother  and  a  faithful  minister  and 
fiellow-servant  in  the  Lord,'  and  is  to  declare  '  all  my  state  (ja  kut 
ifik  TravTo).'  Nearly  the  same  words  are  also  used  to  describe  him 
as  the  bearer  (apparently  at  the  same  time)  of  the  epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  (Eph.  vi.  21,  22).  The  next  mention  of  Tychicus  is  in 
Tit.  iii.  12  (probably  written  from  Ephesus),  in  which  St.  Paul 
proposes  to  send  Tychicus  to  Crete,  in  order  to  permit  Titus  to 
join  himself  at  Nicopolis.  Lastly,  Tychicus  is  at  Rome,  or  has 
been  at  Rome,  just  previous  to  St.  Paul's  martyrdom.  In  2  Tim. 
iv.l2  we  read,  'Tychicus  have  I  sent  (dTrs<y-(iXa  =  either  J a?n  send- 
ing,  or  J  sen^,  perhaps  with  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy)  to  Ephesus.' 

Tychicus  may  have  been  one  of  the  two  brethren  sent  with  Titus 
to  carry  the  second  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  from  Macedonia.  The 
character  of  the  messengers  (2  Cor.  viii.  16-24;  agrees  with  his, 
and  he  was  with  St.  Paul  about  the  same  time.  See  further 
imder  Trophimus. 

Tyrannus  \_TvpavvoQj  Tyrannus,'],  a  person  in  whose  '  school 


510       ESSENTI.\LS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

(rrxoXi]) '  St.  Paul  held  disputations  for  two  out  of  the  three  years 
of  his  stay  in  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  9).  Whether  Tyrannus  was  a 
Christian  or  not  is  unascertained.  The  '■school' was  probably  a 
hall  or  room  used  for  philosophical  teaching,  and  Tyrannus  may 
have  been  a  teacher  of  philosophy  or  rhetoric. 

Tyre  ['i]'i  =  rock,  Tvpoc,  Tyrus],  an  important  city  of  PhcBnicia. 
The  more  modern  part  of  it  was  situated  on  an  island  close  to  the 
coast,  and  the  more  ancient  part  on  the  adjacent  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean,  about  twenty  miles  south  of  Sidon,  of  which  it 
was  originally  a  colony.  It  gradually  eclipsed  the  mother  city 
and  became  exceedingly  famous  for  wealth,  commercial  activity, 
and  maritime  enterprise.  One  of  the  chief  articles  of  its  trade  was 
the  purple  called  the  Tyrian  dye  (see  under  Purple  in  Sect.  4), 
and  one  of  its  principal  colonies  was  Carthage.  Its  relations  with 
the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  the  time  of  Solomon  were  very  close,  and 
its  sovereign  assisted  Solomon  with  timber  and  skilled  workmen 
in  erecting  his  various  buildings.  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria, 
besieged  Tyre  unsuccessfully  for  five  years,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  for 
thirteen  years  with  the  like  ill  success  ;  but  Alexander  the  Great 
erected  a  mole  between  the  island  and  the  mainland,  and  captured 
and  nearly  destroyed  the  city  in  B.C.  322.  Under  the  Romans, 
in  New  Testament  times,  it  was  stiU  a  strong  fortress  and  port, 
and  there  St.  Paul  landed,  remained  seven  days,  and  changed  into 
another  ship  on  his  final  journey  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi.  3-7). 
At  this  time  there  were  Christians  resident  there,  and  their  inter- 
course with  Paul  is  touchingly  described.  At  the  present  date, 
Tyre  only  exists  as  a  miserable  village,  and  even  the  ruins  of  its 
former  magnificent  structures  are  to  a  great  extent  covered  by  the  sea. 

Tyre  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  in  con- 
junction with  Sidon.  For  the  places  where  this  occurs  see  under 
Sidon,  and,  for  a  general  account  of  the  district,  under  Phenice. 

lJT\Sk.s[piiy^^  =  light  of  Jehovah,  OvpiuQ,  Unas'],  the  husband  of 
Bathsheba,  whom  David,  in  his  absence  at  the  siege  of  Rabbath- 
Ammon,  dishonoured.  After  a  futile  attempt  to  conceal  the  con- 
sequences of  his  crime,  David  contrived  to  have  Uriah  placed  in 
a  very  dangerous  position  at  the  siege,  and  so  killed.  He  then 
married  Bathsheba,  and  by  her  became  the  father,  first  of  an  infant 
who  died,  and  then  of  Solomon.  The  mournful  history  of  this 
crime  and  its  subsequent  punishment  is  recounted  in  2  Sam.  xi., 
xii.  In  the  New  Testament  Uriah  only  appears  in  the  genealogy 
of  our  Lord  ('  David  the  king  begat  Solomon  of  her  that  had  been 
the  ivife  of  Urias/  Matt.  i.  6).     In  Old  Test,  he  is  called  Uriah. 


T  YRE— ZACHAEIAS.  511 

Zabulon.     See  Zehulon. 

Zacchseus  [Za/cynror,  ZacchcEus],  a  chief  tax-collector  (apx*-- 
TfXcoi'ijg),  who  resided  at  Jericho,  and  entertained  our  Lord  at 
a  feast  there,  when  on  his  first  journey  to  Jerusalem.  He  was  a 
Jew,  and  rich,  and  had  long  desired  to  see  Jesus.  Being  short  of 
stature,  and  therefore  unable  to  see  Him,  as  He  passed  along,  on 
account  of  the  crowd,  he  *  ran  before  and  climbed  up  into  a  syca- 
more' or  mulberry-fig  tree,  and  there  awaited  the  procession. 
When  he  came  to  the  tree,  our  Lord  stopped  and  requested  Zacchse us 
to  come  down  and  entertain  Him.  This  he  accordingly  did  ;  and 
after  the  repast  made  the  remarkable  declaration,  '  Behold,  Lord, 
the  half  of  my  goods  I  give  to  the  poor  ;  and  if  I  have  taken  any- 
thing from  any  man  by  false  accusation,  I  restore  fourfold.'  This 
is  generally  understood  to  be  descriptive  of  Zacchaeus'  intention, 
rather  than  of  his  previous  practice.  At  this  feast,  also,  our  Lord 
related  the  parable  of  the  Founds.  The  incident  is  related  in 
Luke  xix.  1 — 27,  but  no  further  mention  of  Zacchgeus  occurs. 
Probably  our  Lord  spent  the  night  at  his  house,  and  proceeded 
the  next  day  to  Jerusalem. 

Zacharias  [H^IDT  =re??2e?;i5erefZ  5y  God,  Zaxapiac,  Zacharias], 
1.  The  father  of  John  the  Baptist.  He  was  a  priest  of  the  course  of 
Abia  J  his  wife  was  named  Elisabeth,  and  they  had  for  many  years 
been  childless.  As  he  was  performing  his  duties  in  the  Temple, 
the  angel  Gabriel  announced  to  him  that  a  son  should  be  born  to 
him,  of  remarkable  character,  and  destined  to  be  the  forerunner 
of  the  Lord.  Not  believing  this,  he  was  struck  dumb  until  the 
birth  of  the  child,  when  his  speech  was  restored.  Elisabeth  was 
a  relative  (r.vyyevrjg,  A.  V.  'cousin')  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  These 
circumstances  are  related  by  Luke  only  (i.  1-25,  57-80),  and  are 
discussed  in  pp.  54-56,  where  the  chronological  questions  dependent 
on  the  date  of  the  ministry  of  Zacharias  are  also  examined. 

2.  ^  The  son  of  Barachias,'  according  to  the  Kec.  Text  and 
A.  V.  in  Matt,  xxiii.  35  ('  Zacharias,  son  of  Barachias,  whom 
ye  slew  between  the  temple  and  the  altar  (mi)  vaov  Kat  tov  Ovaia- 
GTTjpiovy).  The  circumstance  here  related  is  also  referred  to  in 
the  parallel  passage  in  Luke  xi.  51  ('  Zacharias,  which  perished 
between  the  altar  and  the  temple  (^tov  Gvffiaarrjplov  Kal  tov  o'Uovy). 
It  is  observable  that  Luke  omits  the  parentage  of  Zacharias,  and  t< 
and  other  good  MSS.  also  omit  the  words  'son  of  Barachias'  in 
Matt,  xxiii.  35.  Most  probably  they  are  an  insertion  by  a  late 
copyist,  who  had  noticed  that  the  prophet  Zechariah  was  the  son 
of  Berechiah  (Zech.  i.  1),  and  added  the  words  as  an  intended 


512        ESSENTIALS   OF   NEW  TESTAMENT  STUDY. 

explanation.  Zechariah  the  son  of  Jelioiada  was  put  to  death  in 
the  way  described  for  remonstrating  against  idolatry  in  the  reign  of 
Joash  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  20,  21).  Again,  in  the  New  Testament 
references  to  Zacharias  he  appears  to  he  spoken  of  as  the  latest  pro- 
phet slain  by  the  Jews.  Thus  Matthew  says:  'That  upon  you  may 
come  all  the  righteous  blood  shed  upon  the  earth,  from  the  blood  of 
righteous  Abel  unto  the  blood  of  Zacharias,'  &e. ;  and  Luke  says, 
'  That  the  blood  of  all  the  prophets  .  .  .  may  be  required  of  this 
generation  ;  from  the  blood  of  Abel  unto  the  blood  of  Zacharias/ 
&c.  In  chronological  order,  several  prophets  were  slain  after 
Zacharias ;  but  in  the  order  of  the  books  in  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
2  Chron.  stands  last.  Hence  Zacharias  is  the  last  prophet  of  whose 
putting  to  death  the  people  were  accustomed  to  read,  and  Zacharias 
was  as  naturally  mentioned  as  the  last  of  the  murdered  saints  as 
Abel  was  the  first. 

Zara  [nit-rt  rising,  Zapa,  Zara],  one  of  the  twin  sons  of 
Thamar  by  her  father-in-law  Judah,  the  other  of  the  twins  being 
Phares.  In  the  Old  Testament  he  is  called  Zerah  or  Zarah. 
The  history  of  his  birth  is  related  in  Gen.  xxxviii.  He  was  the 
elder  brother;  but  the  family  of  Phares  seems,  nevertheless,  to  have 
been  regarded  as  the  elder  branch.  His  descendants  are  often 
mentioned  as  the  Zarhites,  Esrahites,  and  Israhites ;  but,  beyond 
the  circumstances  of  his  birth,  nothing  is  known  of  his  per- 
sonal history.  In  the  New  Testament  he  appears  collaterally 
as  the  son  of  Judas  and  Thamar  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord 
(Matt.  i.  3). 

Zebedee  [probably  '''illt  for  HJIDT  =  the  gift  of  Jehovah  (Josh, 
vii.  1,  (fee),  ZefSedcdog,  ZehdcBus],  the  father  of  the  apostles  James 
and  John,  and  husband  of  Salome.  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
history  except  in  connection  with  his  children.  He  was  engaged 
in  the  fishing  business  on  the  lake  of  Galilee,  and  probably  lived 
at  Bethsaida.  In  his  business  he  employed  '  hired  servants' 
(Mark  i.  20),  and  it  has  therefore  been  argued  that  he  was  in  easy 
circumstances.  On  only  one  occasion  does  he  personally  appear 
in  the  New  Testament,  viz.  as  employed  with  his  two  sons 
mending  their  nets,  when  they  received  a  call  to  follow  Jesus 
(Matt.  iv.  21,  22  ;  Mark  i.  19,  20).  To  their  obeying  this  call  he 
apparently  made  no  objection.  Later  in  the  Gospel  history,  his 
wife  is  found  acting  independently  of  a  husband,  and  called  ^  the 
mother  of  Zebedee's  children'  (Matt.  xx.  20;  xxvii.  56).  Coupling 
this  with  the  fact  that  his  son  John  now  possessed  a  home  of  his 


ZAKA— ZOROBABEL.  513 

own  (John  xix.  27),  it  has  been  reasonably  conjectured  from  this 
that  Zebedee  himself  died  at  an  early  date  in  our  Lord's 
ministry. 

Zebulon  [1>13T,  Za/SouXwr,  Zebulon],  one  of  the  sons  of  Jacob, 
and  giving  his  name  to  a  tribe  of  Israel.  Of  this  tribe  12,000  are 
sealed  in  Kev.  vii.  8.  The  district  assigned  to  Zebulon  lay  between 
the  sea  of  Tiberias  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  a  large  portion  of 
Galilee  was  included  in  it.  Hence  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  ix.  1 
{'  Nevertheless,  the  dimness  shall  not  be  such  as  ivas  in  her  vexation, 
when  at  the  first  he  lightly  afflicted  the  land  of  Zebulon,'  &c.)  is 
declared  in  Matt.  iv.  15,  16  to  have  been  fulfilled  by  the  preaching 
of  the  gospel  in  Galilee  by  our  Lord.  As  to  this  prophecy,  see 
Appendix  I.     See  also  under  Nephthalim. 

Zelotcs.     See  Canannite. 

Zenas  [Zrjvdc,  Ze7ias],  a,  or  rather  ^the,  lawyer  (6  vojutKog),'  who 
with  Apollos  was  recommended  to  the  care  of  Titus,  as  about  to 
make  a  journey  into  Crete  (Titus  iii.  13).  Nothing  else  is  known 
of  him. 

Zorobabel  [753"^t  =  horn  at  Babylon,  or  scattered  to  Babylon, 
7.opoi3dl3sX,  Zorobabefj,  an  eminent  Israelite,  the  son  of  Shealtiel, 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Zerubbabel. 
He  brought  back  the  first  colony  of  Jews  to  Palestine,  after  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  and  notices  of  him  occur  in  the  historical 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and  in  the  prophecies  of  Haggai  and 
Zechariah,  by  whose  exhortations  his  work  was  assisted.  He  is 
several  times  styled  the  '  governor  of  Judah '  (Haggai  i.  1, 14,  21), 
and  he  took  a  principal  part  in  the  erection  of  the  second  Temple. 
In  the  New  Testament  he  only  appears  as  an  ancestor  of  our 
Lord.  Matthew  says  (i.  12)  '  Salathiel  begat  Zorobabel,  and  Zo- 
robabel  begat  Abiud,'  but  Luke  says  (iii.  27)  '  Joanna,  which  was 
the  son  of  Rhesa,  which  was  t/ie  son  of  Zorobabel,  which  was  the 
son  of  Salathiel.'  Bishop  Hervey  regards  'Khesa'  as  a  title  of 
Zorobabel,  equivalent  to  '  prince,'  but  as  to  this  see  under  Rhesa. 


The  following  omission  has  been  discovered  while  these  pages 
were  passing  through  the  press  : — 

Core  [Kopf,  Core,  Heb.  form  Vrp  =  ice'],  a  Levite,  called  in  the 
Old  Testament  Korah.  Together  with  Dathan,  and  Abiram,  he 
conspired  against  the  authority  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  and  with  his 

L  L 


514       ESSENTIALS   OF  NEW  TESTAMENT   STUDY. 

supporters  was  miraculously  destroyed  (Num.  xvi.).  He  is  only 
referred  to  in  Jude  11,  where  disorderly  professors  of  Christianity 
are  warned  of  the  fate  of  those  who  perished  in  '  the  gainsaying 
(£1/  T7J  avTiXoyia — lit.  the  Contradiction)  of  Core.' 


APPENDICES. 


I. 

LIST  OF   QUOTATIONS  FROM  THE   OLD    TESTAMENT. 


N.B.  All  the  passages  here  collected  are  direct  quotations.  In  addition  to  these, 
innumerable  allusions,  and  a  multitude  of  verbal  similarities,  unite  the  New 
and  Old  Testaments.  For  these,  reference  may  be  advantageously  made  to 
Mr.  Gough's  '  New  Testament  Quotations.' 


GrEXESlS. 

i.  27  &v.  2.  Have  ye  not  read,  that  he  which  made  them  at  the  beginning 

made  them  male  and  female  ? — Matt.  xix.  4. 
But  from  the  beginning  of  the  creation  Grod  made  them 

male  and  female. — Mark  x.  6. 
ii.  2      ,     .  For  he  spake  in  a  certain  place  of  the  seventh  day  on  this 

wise :  And  Grod  did  rest  the  seventh  day  from  all  His 

works. — Heb.  iv.  4. 
ii.  7      .     .  And  so  it  is  written,  The  first  man  Adam  was  made  a  living 

soul. — 1  Cor.  XV.  45. 
ii.  24     .     .  For  this  cause  shall  a  man  leave  father  and  mother,  and 

shall  cleave  to  his  wife ;  and  they  twain  shall  be  one  flesh. 

Wherefore  they  are  no  more  twain,  but  one  flesh. — Matt. 

xix.  5,  6. 
For  this  cause  shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  mother,  and 

cleave  to  his  wife ;  and  they  twain  shall  be  one  flesh :  so 

they  are  no  more  twain,  but  one  flesh. — Mark  x.  7,  8. 
For  two,^  saith  he,  shall  be  one  flesh. — 1  Cor.  vi.  16. 
For  this  cause  shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  mother,  and 

shall  be  joined  unto  his  wife,  and  they  two  shall  be  one 

flesh.— Ephes.  v.  31. 
Y.  24    .     .  Ey  faith  Enoch  was  translated  that  he  should  not  see  death ; 

'  The  LXX  reading  of  Gren.  ii.  24  is  '  they  twain  (oi  6vo)  shall  be  one  flesh.' 
ll2 


516 


APPENDIX  I. 


xii.  1 


xii.  ; 
xxii. 

3& 
18 

xiii. 
xvii, 
xxiv 

15, 

,  8  & 
.7 

XV.  5 


XV.  6 


and  was  not  found,  because  God  had  translated  him  :  for 
before  his  translation  he  had  this  testimony,  that  he  pleased 
God.— Heb.  xi.  5,  6. 
.  .  .  and  said  unto  him'  (Abram),  Get  thee  out  of  thy 
country,  and  from  thy  kindred,  and  come  into  the  land  that 
I  shall  shew  thee. — Acts  vii.  3. 

And  in  thy  seed  shall  all  the  kindreds  of  the  earth  be 
blessed. — Acts  iii,  25. 

In  th^e  shall  all  nations  be  blessed. — Gal.  iii.  8. 

.  To  Abraham,  and  to  his  seed  for  ever. — Luke  i.  55. 

.  Now  to  Abraham  and  his   seed  were  the  promises  made. 

He  saith  not,  And  to  seeds,  as  of  many ;  but  as  of  one,'' 

And  to  thy  seed,  which  is  Christ  .  .  .  till  the  seed  should 

come  to  whom  the  promise  was  made  .  .  . — Gal.  iii.  16,  19. 

.  According  to  that  which  was  spoken,  So  shall  thy  seed  be. — 

Eom.  iv.  18. 
.  For  what  saith  the  scripture  ?     Abraham  believed  God,  and 
it  was  counted  unto  him  for  righteousness. — Eom.  iv.  3. 

Even  as  Abraham  believed  God,  and  it  was  accounted  to  him 
for  righteousness.— Gal.  iii.  6. 

And  the  scripture  was  fulfilled  which  saith,  Abraham 
believed  God,  and  it  was  imputed  unto  him  for  righteous- 
ness.—James  ii.  23. 

And  God  spake  on  this  wise,  That  his  seed  should  sojourn 
in  a  strange  land ;  and  that  they  should  bring  them  into 
bondage,  and  entreat  them  evil  four  hundred  years.  And 
the  nation  to  whom  they  shall  be  in  bondage  will  I  judge, 
said  God ;  and  after  that  they  shall  come  forth,  and  serve 
me  in  this  place. — Acts  vii.  6,  7. 

As  it  is  written,  I  have  made  thee  a  father  of  many  nations. 
— Eom.  iv.  17. 

.  .  .  yet  he  promised  that  he  would  give  it  to  him  for  a 
possession,  and  to  his  seed  after  him,  when  as  yet  he  had 
no  child. — Acts  vii.  5. 
xviii.  10,  14  For  this  is  the  word  of  promise.  At  this  time  will  I  come, 

and  Sarah  shall  have  a  son.— Eom.  ix.  9. 
xxi.  10       .  Nevertheless  what  saith  the  scripture?  Cast  out  the  bond- 
woman and  her  son :  for  the  son  of  the  bondwoman  shall 
not  be  heir  with  the  son  of  the  freewoman. — Gal.  iv.  30. 
xxi.  12      .  Neither  because  they  are  the  seed  of  Abraham,  are  they  all 
children:  but,  in  Isaac  shall  thy  seed  be  called. — Eom.  ix.7. 


XV.  13,  14 


xvii.  5 


xvii.  8 


'  As  to  the  time  when  this  promise  was  made,  see  under  Stephen. 

^  In  the  original  Hebrew  of  Gen.  xiii.  15,  the  word  translated  '  seed  '  is  a  noun  of 
multitude.  But  may  not  this  linguistic  fact  have  been  so  ordered,  in  order  that  the 
word,  being  singular  in  form,  might  have  special  reference  to  the  seed  of  the  woman, 
i.e.  Jesus  Christ  ? 


QUOTATIONS  FROM  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT.       517 

Of  whom  it  was  said,  that  in  Isaac  shall  thy  seed  be  caUed. 

— Heb.  xi.  18. 
xxii.  2-9  .  Was  not  Abraham  our  father  justified  by  works,  when  he 

had  offered  Isaac  his  son'  upon  the  altar? — Jas.  ii.  21. 
xxii.  16, 17  For  when  Grod  made  promise  to  Abraham,  because  he  could 

swear  by  no  greater,  he  sware  by  himself,  saying,  Surely 

blessing  I  will  bless  thee,  and  multiplying  I  will  multiply 

thee.— Heb  vi.  13,  14. 
xxii.  17     .  Therefore  sprang  there  even  of  one,  and  him  as  good  as  dead, 

so  many  as  the  stars  of  the  sky  in  multitude,  and  as  the  sand 

which  is  by  the  sea-shore  innumerable.- — Heb.  xi.  12. 
xxiii.  4         ...  and  confessed  that  they  were  strangers  and  pilgrims  on 

the  earth. — Heb.  xi.  13. 

(See  also  1  Chron.  xxix.  6  ;  Ps.  xxxix.  12.) 
XXV.  23        ...  it  was  said  unto  her,  The  elder  shall  serve  the  younger. 

— Eom.  ix.  12. 

Exodus. 
iii.  6  ...  have  ye  not  read  that  which  was  spoken  unto  you  by 

God,  saying,  I  am  the  God  of  Abraham,  and  the  God  of 
Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob  ? — Matt.  xxii.  31,  32. 
.  .  .  have  ye  not  read  in  the  book  of  Moses,  how  in  the  bush 
God  spake  unto  him,  saying,  I  ain  the  God  of  Abraham,  and 
the  God  of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob  ?— Mark  xii.  26. 
Now  that  the  dead  are  raised,  even  Moses  shewed  at  the 
bush,  when  he  calleth  the  Lord  the  God  of  Abraham,  and 
the  God  of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob. — Luke  xx.  37. 
.  .  .  the  voice  of  the  Lord  came  unto  him,  saying,  I  am  the 
God  of  thy  fathers,  the  God  of  Abraham,  and  the  God  of 
Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob. — Acts  vii.  31,  32. 
lii.  14         • .  .  .  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you,  Before  Abraham  was,  I 

AM. — John  viii.  58. 
ix.  16   .     .  For  the  scripture  saith  unto  Pharaoh,  Even  for  this  same 
purpose  have  I  raised  thee  up,  that  I  might  show  my 
power  in  thee,  and  that  my  name   might  be   declared 
throughout  all  the  earth. — Rom.  ix.  17. 
xii.  40       ...  the  law,  which  was  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  after  .  .  . 

—Gal.  iii.  17. 
xii.  46  .     .  For  these  things  were  done,  that  the  scripture  should  be 
fulfilled,  A  bone  of  him  shall  not  be  broken. — John  xix.  36. 
(See  Num.  ix.  12 ;  Ps.  xxxiv..  20,) 

*  In  Heb.  xi.  19  we  read  that  Abraham  received  Isaac  from  the  dead  in  a  figure. 
In  Gen.  xxii.  4  we  read  that  the  time  of  the  sacrifice  was  on  the  third  day  after  the 
departure,  when  Abraham  must  have  regarded  his  son  as  practically  dead.  This  is 
probably  one  of  the  passages  referred  to  in  the  declaration  that  Christ  should  rise 
the  third  day  according  to  the  scriptures. 

-  The  stars  of  the  heavens  may  possibly  refer  to  the  spiritual  posterity  of  Abraham, 
as  the  gand  refers  to  his  fleshly  posterity.    Compare  Dan.  xii.  3. 


518  APPENDIX  I. 

xiii.  12  ;  &  (As  it  is  written  in  the  law  of  the  Lord,  Every  male  that 
xxxiv.  19         openeth  the  womb  shall  be  called  holy  to  the  Lord;). — 

Luke  ii.  23. 
xvi.  4, 15  .  Our  fathers  did  eat  manna  in  the  desert ;  as  it  is  written, 
He  gave  them  bread  from  heaven  to  eat. — John  vi.  31. 
(See  also  Ps.  Ixxviii.  24.) 
xix.  12,  13   (For  they  could  not  endure  that  which  was  commanded. 
And  if  so  much  as  a  beast  touch  the  mountain,  it  shall  be 
stoned,  or  thrust  through  with  a  dart. — Heb,  xii.  20. 
XX.  2-7      .  See  under  Deut.  iv.  4,  5,  and  vi.  13. 

XX.  8-11       ...  and  (they)  rested  the  sabbath  day  according  to  the  com- 
mandment.— Luke  xxiii.  56.      (See  also  Deut.  v.  12,  13). 
XX.  12        .  For  Grod  commanded,  saying.  Honour  thy  father  and  mother. 
.  .  . — Matt.  XV.  4. 
For  Moses  said,  Honour  thy  father  and  thy  mother  ;  .  .  . — 

Mark  vii.  10. 
.  .  .  Honour  thy  father  and  mother. — Mark  x.  19. 
.  .  .  Honour  thy  father  and  thy  mother. — Luke  xviii.  20. 
Honour  thy  father  and  mother ;  which  is  the  first  command- 
ment with  promise ;  that  it  may  be  well  with  thee,  and 
thou  mayest  live  long  on  the  earth. — Ephes.  vi.  2,  3. 
(See  also  Deut.  v.  16.) 
XX.  13       .Ye  have  heard  that  it  was  said  by  them^  of  old  time,  Thou 
shalt  not  kill;  .  .   . — Matt.  v.  21. 
.  .  .  Thou  shalt  do  no  murder,  .  .  . — Matt,  xix,  18. 
...  Do  not  kill,  .  .  .— Mark  x.  19. 
...  Do  not  kill,  .  .  , — Luke  xviii.  20. 
.  .  .  Thou  shalt  not  kill.  .  .  . — Eom.  xiii.  9. 
For  he  that  said,  Do  not  commit  adultery,  said  also,  Do  not 
kill. — James  ii.  11.     (See  also  Deut.  v.  17.) 
XX.  14  .     .Ye  have  heard  that  it  was  said  by  them'  of  old  time.  Thou 
shalt  not  commit  adultery. — Matt.  v.  27. 
.  .  .  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery.  .  .  . — Matt.  xix.  18. 
Thou  knowest  the  commandments,  Do  not  commit  adultery. 

.  .  .— Markx.  19. 
Thou  knowest  the  commandments,  Do  not  commit  adultery. 

.  .  . — Luke  xviii.  20. 
Thou  that  sayest  a  man  should  not  commit  adultery,  dost 

thou  commit  adultery?  .  .  . — Rom.  ii.  22. 
For  this,  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery.  .  .  . — Eom.  xiii.  9. 
For  he  that  said.  Do  not  commit  adultery,  said  also,  Do  not 
kill. — James  ii.  11. 

(See  also  Deut.  v.  18.) 
XX.  15,  16    Thou  shalt  not  steal,  thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness. — 
Matt.  xix.  18. 

'  May  also  be  translated,  '  To  them,  &;c.' 


QUOTATIONS  EEOM  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.   519 


Do  not  steal,  Do  not  bear  false  witness,  Defraud  not  .  .  . 

—Mark  x.  19. 
Do  not  steal,  Do  not  bear  false  witness. — Luke  xviii.  20. 
thou  that  preachest  a  man  should  not  steal,  dost  thou  steal  ? 

— Rom.  ii.  21. 
.  .  .  Thou  shalt  not  steal,  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness. 
— Rom.  xiii.  9. 

(See  also  Deut.  v.  19.) 
XX.  17  .        ...  I  had  not  known  lust,  except  the  law  had  said,  Thou 
shalt  not  covet.  — Rom.  x'n.  7. 
,  .  .  Thou  shalt  not  covet ;  and  if  there  be  any  other  com- 
mandment. .  . — Rom.  xiii.  9. 

(See  also  Deut.  v.  21.) 
xsi.  17      .  For  God  commanded,  saying  ...  He  that  curseth  father 
or  mother,  let  him  die  the  death. — Matt.  xv.  4. 
Eor  Moses  said  .  .  .  Whoso  curseth  father  or  mother,  let 
him  die  the  death. — Mark  vii.  10. 
xxi.  24      .  Ye  have  heard  that  it  hath  been  said.  An  eye  for  an  eye, 
and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth. — Matt.  v.  38. 
(See  also  Lev.  xxiv.  20  ;  Deut.  xix.  21.) 
xxii.  28         ...  for  it  is  written.  Thou  shalt  not  speak  evil  of  the  ruler 

of  thy  people. — Acts  xxiii.  5. 
xxiv.  8         ...  he  took  the  blood  of  calves  and  of  goats,  with  water,  and 
scarlet  wool,  and  hyssop,  and  sprinkled  both  the  book,  and 
all  the  people,  saying.  This  is  the  blood  of  the  testament 
which  Grod  hath  enjoined  unto  you. — Heb.  ix.  19,  20. 
XXV.  40         ...  as  he  had  appointed,   speaking  unto  Moses,  that  he 
should  make  it  according  to  the  fashion  that  he  had  seen. — 
Acts  vii.  43. 
...  as  Moses  was  admonished  of  God  when  he  was  about  to 
make  the  tabernacle :  for,  See,  saith  he,  that  thou  make  all 
things  according  to  the  pattern  shewed  to  thee  in  the 
mount. — Heb.  viii.  5. 
xxxii.  1        ...  saying  imto  Aaron,  Make  us  gods  to  go  before  us  :  for 
as  for  this  Moses,  which  brought  us  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  we  wot  not  what  is  become  of  him. — Acts  vii.  40. 
xxxii.  6        ...  as  it  is  written.  The  people  sat  down  to  eat  and  drink, 

and  rose  up  to  play. — 1  Cor.  x.  7. 
xxxiii.  19     For  he  saith  to  Moses,  I  will  have  mercy  on  whom  I  will 
have  mercy,  and  I  will  have  compassion  on  whom  I  will 
have  compassion. — Rom.  ix.  15. 

Leviticus. 

xi.  44,  45  ;  .  .  .  because  it   is  written,  Be  ye  holy  5  for  I  am  holy. — 
xix.  2;  & XX.     lPet.i.  16. 
7,  26. 


520 


APPENDIX  I. 


xii.  6,  8  ,  And  when  the  days  of  her  purification  according  to  the  law 
of  Moses  were  accomplished  .  .  .  and  to  offer  a  sacrifice 
according  to  that  which  is  said  in  the  law  of  the  Lord,  A 
pair  of  turtledoves,  or  two  young  pigeons. — Luke  ii, 
22,  24. 
xviii.  5    ,     ...  this  do,  and  thou  shalt  live. — Luke  x.  28. 

Por  Moses  describeth  the  righteousness  which  is  of  the  law, 
that  the  man  which  doeth  those  things  shall  live  by  them. 
— Eom.  X.  5. 
And  the  law  is  not  of  faith :  but,  The  man  that  doeth  them 
shall  live  in  them. — Gral.  iii.  12. 
xix.  18  ...  and  thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself. — Matt, 
xix.  19. 

.  and  the  second  is  like  unto  it,  Thou  shalt  love  thy 
neighbour  as  thyself. — Matt.  xxii.  39. 

and  the  second  is  like,  namely  this.  Thou  shalt  love 
thy  neighbour  as  thyself. — Mark  xii.  31. 

.  Thou  shalt  love  .  ,  .  thy  neighbour  as  thyself. — Luke 
X.  27. 

.  and  if  there  he  any  other  commandment,  it  is  briefly 
comprehended  in  this  saying,   namely.  Thou  shalt  love 
thy  neighbour  as  thyself. — Eom.  xiii.  9. 
For  all  the  law  is  fulfilled  in  one  word,  even  in  this  :  Thou 

shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself. — Gal.  v.  14. 
If  ye  fulfil  the  royal  law  according  to  the  scripture,  Thou 
shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself,  ye  do  well.  .  .  . — 
James  ii.  8. 
xxvi.11,12  ...  as  God  hath  said,  I  will  dwell  in  them  and  walk  in 
t}iem\  and  I  will  be  their  God  and  they  shall  be  my 
people. — 2  Cor.  vi.  16. 

(See  also  Ezek.  xxxvii.  27.) 

Numbers. 
xiv.  28         For  it  is  written,  ^5 1  live,  saith  the  Lord  .  .  .  — Eom.  xiv.  11. 


Deutebonomt. 

iv.  24  For  our  God  is  a  consuming  fire. — Heb.  xii.  29. 

V.  6-21  ;  (See  under  Exodus  xx.') 

vi.  4,  5        Jesus  said  unto  him,  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with 

all  thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  mind. 

This  is  the  first  and  great  commandment. — Matt.  xxii. 

37,  38. 


•  By  combining  the  quotations  from  Dent.  vi.  4,  5,  with  those  from  Ex.  xx.  12-17, 
it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  Mosaic  Ten  Commandments,  with  the  exception  of  the 
f onrth,  are  regarded  by  the  New  Testament  as  miiversally  binding.  With  regard  to 
the  Sabbath,  see  under  Lord's  Day,  p.  194. 


QUOTATION'S  FKOM  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT.       521 


vi.  13 


X.  17 


xviii.  15 


xix.  15 


xxi.  23 


xxii.  24 


And  Jesus  answered  him,  The  first  of  all  the  commandments 
is,  Hear,  0  Israel ;  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord :  and 
thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and 
with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  mind,  and  with  all  thy 
strength :  this  is  the  first  commandment. — Mark  xii.  29,  30. 

And  he  answering  said,  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God 
with  all  thy  heart,  and  wath  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy 
strength,  and  with  all  thy  mind  ;  .  .  . — Luke  x.  27. 

...  for  it  is  written,  Thou  shalt  worship  the  Lord  thy  God, 
and  him  only  shalt  thou  serve. — Matt.  iv.  10. 

.  .  .  for  it  is  written.  Thou  shalt  worship  the  Lord  thy 
God,  and  him  only  shalt  thou  serve, — Luke  iv.  8. 

Jesus  said  unto  him.  It  is  written  again,  Thou  shalt  not 
tempt  the  Lord  thy  God. — Matt.  iv.  7. 

And  Jesus  answering  said  unto  him.  It  is  said,  Thou  shalt 
not  tempt  the  Lord  thy  God. — Luke  iv.  12. 

...  It  is  written,  Man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone,  but  by 
every  word  that  proceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  God. — 
Matt.  iv.  4. 

...  It  is  written.  That  man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone, 
but  by  every  word  of  God. — Luke  iv.  4. 

For  there  is  no  respect  of  persons  with  God. — Eom.  ii.  11. 
(See  2  Chron.  xix.  7.) 

.  .  .  neither  is  there  respect  of  persons  with  him. — Ephes. 
vi.  9. 

.  .  .  and  there  is  no  respect  of  persons. — Col.  iii.  25. 

For  Moses  truly  said  unto  the  fathers,  A  prophet  shall  the 
Lord  your  God  raise  up  unto  you  of  your  brethren,  like 
unto  me ;  him  shall  ye  hear  in  all  things  whatsoever  he 
shall  say  unto  you.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  every 
soul,  which  will  not  hear  that  Prophet,  shall  be  destroyed 
from  among  the  people. — Acts  iii.  22,  23. 

This  is  that  Moses,  which  said  unto  the  children  of  Israel,  A 
prophet  shall  the  Lord  your  God  raise  up  unto  you  of 
your  brethren,  like  unto  me;  him  shall  ye  hear, — Acts 
vii.  37. 

.  .  ,  that  in  the  mouth  of  two  or  three  witnesses  every  word 
may  be  established. — Matt,  xviii.  16. 

It  is  also  written  in  your  law,  that  the  testimony  of  two  men 
is  true. — John  viii.  17. 

...  in  the  mouth  of  two  or  tliree  witnesses  shall  every  word 
be  established. — 2  Cor.  xiii.  1. 

...  for  it  is  written.  Cursed  is  every  one  that  hangeth  on 
a  tree. — Gal.  iii.  13. 

Now  Moses  in  the  law  commanded  us,  that  such  should  be 
stoned.— John  viii.  5. 


522 


APPENDIX  I. 


xxiv.  1      .  It  hath  been  said,  Whosoever  shall  put  away  his  wife,  let 

him  give  her  a  writing  of  divorcement, — Matt.  v.  31. 
They  say  unto  him.  Why  did  Moses  then  command  to  give 

a  writing  of  divorcement,  and  to  put  her  away  ? — Matt. 

xix.  7. 
And  they  said,  Moses  suffered  to  write  a  bill  of  divorcement, 

and  to  put  her  away. — Mark  x.  4. 
XXV.  4  .     .  For  it  is  written  in  the  law  of  Moses,  Thou  shalt  not  muzzle 

the  mouth  of  the  ox  that  treadeth  out  the  corn. — 1  Cor 

ix.  9. 
For  the  scripture  saith.  Thou  shalt  not  muzzle  the  ox  that 

treadeth  out  the  corn. — 1  Tim.  v.  18. 
xxvii.  26    ....  for  it  is  written,  Cursed  is  every  one  that  eontinueth 

not  in  all  things  which  are  written  in  the  book  of  the  law 

to  do  them. — G-al.  iii.  10. 
xxix.  4         ...  according  as  it  is  written,  God  hath  given  them  the 

spirit  of  slumber,  eyes  that  they  should  not  see,  and  ears 

that  they  should  not  hear,  unto  this  day. — Rom.  xi.  8. 
XXX.  11-14  But  the  righteousness  which  is  of  faith  speaketh  on  this  wise, 

Say  not  in  thine  heart,  Who  shall  ascend  into  heaven  ? 

(that  is,  to  bring  Christ  down  fro?7i  above :)  >  or.  Who  shall 

descend  into  the  deep  ?  (that  is,  to  bring  up  Christ  again 

from  the  dead.)     But  what  saith  it  ?  The  word  is  nigh 

thee,  even  in  thy  mouth,  and  in  thy  heart :  that  is,  the 

word  of  faith,  which  we  preach ;  . .  . — Rom.  x.  6-8. 
xxxi.  6,  8  ...  for  he  hath  said,  I  will  never  leave  thee,  nor  forsake 

thee. — Heb.  xiii.  5. 

(See  also  Josh.  i.  5.) 
xxxii.  21      ...  First  Moses  saith,  I  will  provoke  you  to  jealousy  by 

them  that  are  no  people,  and  by  a  foolish  nation  I  will 

anger  you. — Rom.  x.  19. 
xxxii.  35      ...  for  it  is  written,  Vengeance  is  mine  ;  I  will  repay,  saith 

the  Lord. — Rom,  xii.  19. 
For  we  know  him  that  hath  said.  Vengeance  belongeth  unto 

me,  I  will  recompense,  saith  the  Lord ,  ,  , — Heb.  x.  30. 
xxxii,  36      ...  and  again,  The  Lord  shall  judge  His  people. — Heb. 

X.  30, 
xxxii.  43       ...  And  again  he  saith,    Rejoice,  ye  Grentiles,  with  his 

people. — Rom.  xv.  10. 


Joshua. 

xxiv.  32    .  Then  cometh  he  to  a  city  of  Samaria,  which  is  called  Sychar, 
near  to  the  parcel  of  ground  that  Jacob  gave  to  his  son 
Joseph. — John  iv.  5. 
.  .  .  and  (they)  were  carried  over  into  Sychem,  and  laid  in 


Possibly  referring  to  the  ascent  of  Moses  into  Sinai,  to  bring  the  Law  down. 


QUOTATIONS  FEOM  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT.       523 

the  sepulchre  that  Abraham  bought  for  a  sum  of  money  of 
the  sons  of  Emmor  the  father  of  Sychem. — Acts  vii.  16. 

Judges. 

xiii.  5  ...  and  he  came  and  dwelt  in  a  city  called  Nazareth  :  that 

it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  the  prophets, 

He  shall  be  called  a  Nazarene. — Matt.  ii.  23. 

(See  also  Is.  xi.  1,  and  under  Nazarene,  p.  207.) 

2  Samuel. 
vii.  14  ...  and  (I)  will  be  a  Father  unto  you,  and  ye  shall  be  my 

sons  and  daughters,   saith  the  Lord  Almighty. — 2  Cor. 
vi.  18. 
.  .  .  and  again,  I  will  be  to  him  a  Father,  and  he  shall  be 

to  me  a  son. — Heb.  i.  5. 
.  .  .  and  I  will  be  his  God,  and  he  shall  be  my  son.— Eev. 
xxi.  7. 

1  Kings. 
xix.  10,  14  .  .  .  "Wot  ye  not  what  the  scripture  saith  of  Elias?  how  he 
maketh  intercession  to  God  against  Israel,  saying,  Lord, 
they  have  killed  thy  prophets,  and  digged  down  thine 
altars  ;  and  I  am  left  alone,  and  they  seek  my  life. — Eom. 
xi.  2,  3. 
xix.  1 8  But  what  saith  the  answer  of  God  unto  him  ?  I  have 
reserved  to  myself  seven  thousand  men,  who  have  not 
bowed  the  knee  to  the  image  of  Baal. — Eom.  xi.  4. 

2  Chronicles. 

XX.  7  ...  and  he  was  called  the  friend  of  God. — James  ii.  23. 

(See  also  Isaiah  xli.  8.) 

Job. 

V.  13  ...  for  it  is  written,  He  taketh  the  wise  in  their  own 

craftiness. — 1  Cor.  iii.  19. 
xxxi.  8         And  herein  is  that  saying  true,  one  soweth,  and  amother 

reapeth. — John  iv.  37. 

Psalms. 

ii.  1,  2  ...  who  by  the  mouth  of  thy  servant  David  hast  said, 

"Why  did  the  heathen  rage,  and  the  people  imagine  vain 
things  ?  The  kings  of  the  earth  stood  up,  and  the  rulers 
were  gathered  together  against  the  Lord,  and  against  his 
Christ.— Acts  iv.  25,  26. 

ii.  7  ...  as  it  is  also  written  in  the  second  psalm,  Thou  art  my 

Son  ;  this  day  have  I  begotten  thee. — Acts  xiii.  33. 
For  unto  which  of  the  angels  said  he  at  any  time.  Thou 
art  my  Son,  this  day  have  I  begotten  thee  ? — Heb.  i.  5. 


524  APPENDIX   I. 

.  .  .  but  he  that  said  unto  him,  Thou  art  my  Son,  to-day 
have  I  begotten  thee  .  .  .  . — Heb.  v.  5. 

viii.  3  ...  Yea :    have   ye    never   read,    Out   of    the   mouth   of 

babes  and  sucklings  thou  hast  perfected  praise? — Matt, 
xxi.  16. 

viii.  5-8       .  .  .  when  he  saith  all  things  are  put  under  him,  it  is 
manifest  that  he  is  excepted  which  did  put  all  things 
under  him. — 1  Cor.  xv.  27. 
.  .  .  and  (he)  hath  put  all  things  under  his  feet. — Ephes. 

i.22. 
But  one  in  a  certain  place  testified,  saying,  What  is  man, 
that  thou  art  mindful  of  him?  or  the  son  of  man,  that  thou 
visitest  him  ?  Thou  madest  him  a  little  lower  than  the 
angels  ;  thou  crownedst  him  with  glory  and  honour,  and 
didst  set  him  over  the  works  of  thy  hands  :  thou  hast 
put  all  things  in  subjection  under  his  feet. — Heb.  ii, 
6-8. 

xiv.  1-3  ;     ...  as  it  is  written.  There  is  none  righteous,  no,  not  one  : 

cxl.  3 ;  &  V.  9  .  there  is  none  that  uuderstandeth,  there  is  none  that 
seeketh  after  God.  They  are  all  gone  out  of  the  way,  they 
are  together  become  unprofitable ;  there  is  none  that 
doeth  good,  no,  not  one.  Their  throat  is  an  open 
sepulchre  ;  with  their  tongues  they  have  used  deceit ;  the 
poison  of  asps  is  under  their  lips  ;  whose  mouth  is  full 
of  cursing  and  bitterness  :  their  feet  are  swift  to  shed 
blood  :  destruction  and  misery  are  in  their  ways  :  and  the 
way  of  peace  have  they  not  known  :  there  is  no  fear  of 
God  before  their  eyes. — Eom.  iii.  10-18. 
(See  also  Isaiah  lix,  7,  8.) 

xvi.  8-11  For  David  speaketh  concerning  him,  I  foresaw  the  Lord 
always  before  my  face,  for  he  is  on  my  right  hand,  that 
I  should  not  be  moved :  therefore  did  my  heart  rejoice, 
and  my  tongue  was  glad;  moreover  also  my  flesh  shall 
rest  in  hope :  because  thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  in 
hell,  neither  wilt  thou  suffer  thine  Holy  One  to  see  cor- 
ruption. Thou  hast  made  known  to  me  the  ways  of  life  ; 
thou  shalt  make  me  full  of  joy  with  thy  countenance. — 
Acts  ii.  25-28. 
Wherefore  he  saith  also  in  another  psalm,  Thou  shalt  not 
suffer  thine  Holy  One  to  see  corruption. — Acts  xiii.  35. 

xviii.  49  ...  as  it  is  written.  For  this  cause  I  will  confess  to  thee 
among  the  Gentiles,  and  sing  unto  thy  name. — Kom. 
XV.  9. 

(See  also  2  Sam.  xxii.  50.) 

xix.  4  .  .  But  I  say,  Have  they  not  heard  ?  Yes  verily,  their  sound 
went  into  all  the  earth,  and  their  words  unto  the  ends  of 
the  world. — Eom.  x.  18. 


QUOTATIONS  FROM   THE   OLD  TESTAMENT.       525 

xxii.  1  .  .  And  about  the  ninth  hour  Jesus  cried  with  a  loud  voice, 
saying,  Eli,  Eli,  lama  sabachthani?  that  is  to  say,  My 
God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me  ? — Matt, 
xxvii.  46. 
And  at  the  ninth  hour  Jesus  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  saying, 
Eloi,  Eloi,  lama  sabachthani  ?  which  is,  being  inter- 
preted. My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me  ? 
—Mark  xv.  34. 

xxii.  18  ....  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  the 
prophet.  They  parted  my  garments  among  them,  and  upon 
my  vesture  did  they  cast  lots. — Matt,  xxvii.  35. 
.  .  .  that  the  scripture  might  be  fulfilled,  which  saith,  They 
parted  my  raiment  among  them,  and  for  my  vesture  they 
did  cast  lots. — John  xix.  24. 

xxii.  28  .  For  the  earth  is  the  Lord's  and  the  fulness  thereof. — 1  Cor, 
X.  26. 

xxxii.  1,  2  Even  as  David  also  describeth  the  blessedness  of  the  man, 
unto  whom  God  imputeth  righteousness  without  works, 
saying,  Blessed  are  they  whose  iniquities  are  forgiven, 
and  whose  sins  are  covered.  Blessed  is  the  man  to 
whom  the  Lord  will  not  impute  sin. — Rom.  iv.  6-8. 

xxxiv.  12     For  he  that  will  love  life,  and  see  good  days,  let  him  refrain 

-16  his  tongue  from  evil,  and  his  lips  that  they  speak  no 

guile  :  let  him  eschew  evil,  and  do  good ;  let  him  seek 
peace,  and  ensue  it.  For  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  over 
the  righteous,  and  His  ears  are  open  unto  their  prayers  : 
but  the  face  of  the  Lord  is  against  them  that  do  evil. — 
1  Pet.  iii.  10-12. 

XXXV.  19  ...  but  this  cometh  to  pass,  that  the  word  might  be  ful- 
filled that  is  written  in  their  law.  They  hated  me  without 
a  cause. — John  xv.  25. 

xl.  6-8  .  Wlierefore  when  he  cometh  into  the  world,  he  saith, 
Sacrifice  and  offering  thou  wouldest  not,  but  a  body  hast 
thou  prepared  me  : '  in  burnt  offerings  and  sacrifices  for 
sin  thou  hast  had  no  pleasure.  Then  said  I,  Lo,  I  come 
(in  the  volume  of  the  book  it  is  written  of  me,)  to  do  thy 
will,  0  God.  Above  when  he  said.  Sacrifice  and  offering 
and  burnt  offerings  and  offering  for  sin  thou  wouldest 
not,  neither  hadst  pleasure  therein  ;  which  are  offered  by 
the  law ;  then  said  he,  Lo,  I  come  to  do  thy  will,  O 
God.— Heb.  x.  5-9. 

xli.  9  ...  but  that  the  sci'ipture  may  be  fulfilled,  He  that  eateth 


*  The  A.  V.  of  Ps.  xl.  6  has  here  '  mine  ears  hast  thou  opened.'  Either  the  Hebrew 
is  misunderstood  (as  many  think)  or  there  is  a  reference  to  the  state  of  servitude 
assumed  by  our  Lord  when  taking  a  human  body,  and  referred  to  as  involving  the 
perforation  of  the  ear  by  the  master  (Bxod.  xxi.  6  ;  Deut.  xv.  17). 


526  APPENDIX  I. 

bread  with  me  hath  lifted  up  his  heel  against  me. — John 
xiii.  18. 

xliv-.  22  As  it  is  written,  For  thy  sake  we  are  killed  all  the 
day  long;  we  are  accounted  as  sheep  for  the  slaughter. 
— Eom,  viii.  36. 

xlv.  6-9  .  .  .  But  unto  the  Son  he  saith,  Thy  throne,  0  Grod,  is  for 
ever  and  ever  :  a  sceptre  of  righteousness  is  the  sceptre  of 
thy  kingdom.  Thou  hast  loved  righteousness,  and  hated 
iniquity ;  therefore  God,  even  thy  God,  hath  anointed 
thee  with  the  oil  of  gladness  above  thy  fellows. — Heb. 
i.  8,  9. 

li.  4  ...  as  it  is  written.  That  thou  mightest  be  justified  in 

thy    sayings,    and    mightest    overcome   when   thou   art 
judged. — Kom.  iii.  4. 

Ixviii.  18  "Wherefore  he  saith,  When  he  ascended  up  on  high,,  he 
led  captivity  captive,  and  gave  gifts  unto  men.  —  Eph. 
iv.  8. 

Ixix.  9  And  his  disciples  remembered  that  it  was  written,  The  zeal 

of  thine  house  hath  eaten  me  up. — John  ii.  1 7. 
.  .  .  but,   as  it  is  written.   The  reproaches   of  them  that 
reproached  thee  fell  on  me. — Rom.  xv.  3. 

Ixix.  22,  23  And  David  saith.  Let  their  table  be  made  a  snare,  and  a 
trap,  and  a  stumblingblock,  and  a  recompense  unto  them : 
let  their  eyes  be  darkened,  that  they  may  not  see,  and 
bow  down  their  back  alway. — Rom.  xi,  9-10. 

Ixix.  25  Men  and  brethren,  this  scripture  must  needs  have  been 
fulfilled,  which  the  Holy  Ghost  by  the  mouth  of  David 
spake  before  concerning  Judas  .  .  .  For  it  is  written  .n 
the  book  of  Psalms,  Let  his  habitation  be  desolate,  and 
let  no  man  dwell  therein. — Acts  i.  16,  20. 
(See  also  Ps.  cix.  8.) 

Ixxviii.  2  ...  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  the 
prophet,  saying,  I  will  open  my  mouth  in  parables  ;I 
will  utter  things  which  have  been  kept  secret  from  the 
foundation  of  the  world. — Matt.  xiii.  35. 

Ixxxii.  6  ...  Is  it  not  written  in  your  law,  I  said,  Ye  are  gods  ?  If 
he  called  them  gods,  unto  whom  the  word  of  God  came 
and  the  scripture  cannot  be  broken :  .  .  .  . — John  x.  34. 

Ixxxix.  20  ...  to  whom  also  he  gave  testimony,  and  said,  I  have 
found  David,  the  son  of  Jesse  .  .  . — Acts  xiii.  22. 

Ixxxix.  36  ....  "We  have  heard  out  of  the  law  that  Christ  abideth 
for  ever  .  .  .  — John  xii.  34. 

xci.  11,  12   .  .  .  for  it  is  written.  He  shall  give  his  angels  charge  con- 
cerning thee  :  and  in  their  hands  they  shall  bear  thee  up, 
lest  at  any  time  thou  dash  thy  foot  against  a  stone. — • 
Matt.  iv.  6. 
...  for  it  is  written,  He  shall  give  his  angels  charge  over 


QUOTATIONS  FROM  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.       527 

thee  to  keep  thee ;  and  in  their  hands  they  shall  bear  thee 
up  lest  at  any  time  thou  dash  thy  foot  against  a  stone. — 
Luke  iv.  10,  11. 

xciv.  11  ...  and  again,  the  Lord  knoweth  the  thoughts  of  the  wise, 
that  they  are  vain. — 1  Cor.  iii.  20. 

xcv.  7-11  Wherefore  (as  the  Holy  Ghost  saith,  To  day  if  ye  will  hear 
his  voice,  harden  not  your  hearts,  as  in  the  provocation, 
in  the  day  of  temptation  in  the  wilderness:  when  your 
fathers  tempted  me,  proved  me,  and  saw  my  works  forty 
years.  Wherefore  I  was  grieved  with  that  generation, 
and  said.  They  do  alway  err  in  their  heart;  and  they 
have  not  known  my  ways.  So  I  sware  in  my  wrath, 
They  shall  not  enter  into  my  rest). — Heb.  iii.  7-11. 

xcvii.  7  And  again,  when  he  bringeth  in  the  first-begotten  into  the 
world,  he  saith,  And  let  all  the  angels  of  God  worship 
him. — Heb.  i.  6. 

cii.  25-27  And,  Thou,  Lord,  in  the  beginning  hast  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  earth  ;  and  the  heavens  are  the  works  of  thine 
hands  :  they  shall  perish ;  but  thou  remainest :  and  they 
all  shall  wax  old  as  doth  a  garment ;  and  as  a  vesture 
shalt  thou  fold  them  up,  and  they  shall  be  changed  :  but 
thou  art  the  same,  and  thy  years  shall  not  fail. — Heb. 
i.  10-12. 

civ.  4  ,  .  And  of  the  angels  he  saith.  Who  maketh  his  angels  spirits, 
and  his  ministers  a  flame  of  fire. — Heb.  i.  7- 

cix.  8  .  .  For  it  is  written  in  the  book  of  Psalms  ...  his  bishoprick 
let  another  take. — Acts  i.  20. 

ex.  1  How   then  doth   David  in  spirit  call    him  Lord,   saying. 

The  LoED  said  unto  my  Lord,  Sit  thou  on  my  right  hand, 
till  I  make  thine  enemies  thy  footstool  ? — Matt.  xxii.  43, 44. 
...  for  David  himself  said  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  The  Lord 
said   to    my  Lord,    Sit  thou  on  my  right   hand,  till  I 
make  thine  enemies  thy  footstool. — Mark  xii.  36. 
.  .  .  and  David  himself  saith  in  the  book  of  Psalms,  The 
Lord  said  unto  my  Lord,  Sit  thou  on  my  right  hand,  till 
I  make  thine  enemies  thy  footstool, — Luke  xx.  42,  43. 
.  .  .  but  he  {David)  saith  himself.  The  Lord  said  unto  my 
Lord,  Sit  thou  on  my  right  hand,  until  I  make  thy  foes 
thy  footstool. — Acts  ii.  34,  35, 

ex.  iv.  ...  as  he  saith  also  in  another  place.  Thou  art  a  priest  for 

ever  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec. — Heb.  v.  6. 
For  he  testifieth.  Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order 

of  Melchisedec. — Heb.  vii,  17. 
.  .  .  but  this  {goriest  was  made)  with  an  oath  by  him  that 
said  unto  him,  The  Lord  sware  and  will  not  repent,  Thou 
art  a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec. — 
Heb.  vii.  21. 


528 


APPENDIX  I. 


cxii.  9 


cxvi.  10 


cxvii.  1 


cxviii.    6 


cxviii.  22, 
23 


...  as  it  is  written,  He  hath  dispersed  ahroad,  he  hath 

given  to  the  poor :  his  righteousness  remaineth  for  ever. 

—2  Cor.  ix.  9. 
according  as  it  is  written,  I  believed,  and  therefore  have  I 

spoken ;  we  also  believe,  and  therefore  speak. — 2  Cor.iv.13. 
.  .  .  and  again.  Praise  the  Lord,  all  ye  Gentiles  ;  and  laud 

him,  all  ye  people. — Eom.  xv.  11. 
...  so  that  we  may  boldly  say.  The  Lord  is  my  helper,  and 

I  will  not  fear  what  man  shall  do  unto  me. — Heb.  xiii.  6. 
And  have   ye    not    read  this  scripture,  The  stone  which 

the  builders  rejected,  the  same  is  become  the  head  of  the 

corner  :  this  was  the  Lord's  doing,  and  it  is  marvellous  in 

our  eyes? — Mark  xii.  10,  11. 
What  is  this  then  that  is  written.  The  stone  which  the 

builders  rejected,  the  same  is  become  the  head  of  the 

corner? — Luke  xx.  17. 
.  .  .  but  unto  them  which  be  disobedient.  The  stone  which 

the  builders  disallowed,  the  same  is  made  the  head  of  the 

corner. — 1  Peter  ii.  7. 

Proverbs. 
iii,  11,  12     ...  and  ye  have  forgotten  the  exhortation  which  speaketh 

unto  you  as  unto  children.  My  son,  despise  not  thou  the 

chastening  of  the  Lord,  nor  faint  when  thou  art  rebuked 

of  him  ;  for  whom  the  Lord  loveth   he  chasteneth,  and 

scourgeth  every  son  whom  he  receiveth. — Heb.  xii.  5,  6. 
iii,  34  ...  wherefore  he  saith,  Grod  resisteth  the  proud,  but  giveth 

grace  unto  the  humble. — James  iv.  6. 
.  .  .  for  Grod  resisteth  the  proud,  and  giveth  grace  to  the 

humble. — 1  Peter  v.  5. 
xi,  31  ...  and  if  the  righteous  scarcely  be  saved,  where  shall  the 

ungodly  and  sinner  appear? — 1  Peter  iv.  18. 
XXV.  21,  22  Therefore  if  thine  enemy  hunger,  feed  him  ;  if  he  thirst, 

give  him  drink  ;  for  in  so  doing  thou  shall  heap  coals  of 

fire  on  his  head. — Kom.  xii.  20. 
xxvi.  11       But  it  is  happened  unto  them  according  to  the  true  proverb, 

The  dog  is  turned  to  his  own  vomit  again  .     .  . — 2  Peter 

ii.  22. 

Isaiah. 

vi.  9,  10  .  And  in  them  is  fulfilled  the  prophecy  of  Esaias,  which  saith, 
By  hearing  ye  shall  hear,  and  shall  not  understand  ;  and 
seeing  ye  shall  see,  and  shall  not  perceive  :  for  this  people's 
heart  is  waxed  gross,  and  their  ears  are  dull  of  hearing, 
and  their  eyes  they  have  closed ;  lest  at  any  time  they 
should  see  with  iheir  eyes,  and  hear  with  their  ears,  and 
should  understand  with  their  heart,  and  should  be  con- 
verted, and  I  should  heal  them. — Matt.  xiii.  14-15. 


QUOTATIONS  FKOM  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.   529 

.  .  .  that  seeing  they  may  see,  and  uot  perceive  ;  and  hearing 

they  may  hear,  and  not  understand',  lest  at  any  time  they 

should  be  converted,  and  their  sins  should  be  forgiven 

them.— Mark  iv.  12. 

.  .  .  that  seeing   they  might   not   see,    and  hearing   they 

might  not  understand. — Luke  viii.  10. 
Therefore  they  could  not  believe,  because  that  Esaias  said 
again.  He  hath  blinded  their  eyes,  and  hardened  their 
heart ;  that  they  should  not  see  with  their  eyes,  nor 
understand  with  their  heart,  and  be  converted,  and  I 
should  heal  them. — John  xii.  39,  40. 
.  .  .  Well  spake  the  Holy  Ghost  by  Esaias  the  prophet 
unto  our  fathers,  saying,  Go  unto  this  people,  and  say, 
Hearing  ye  shall  hear,  and  shall  not  understand  ;  and 
seeing  ye  shall  see,  and  not  perceive  ;  for  the  heart  of  this 
people  is  waxed  gross,  and  their  ears  are  dull  of  hearing, 
and  their  eyes  have  they  closed ;  lest  they  should  see 
with  their  eyes,  and  hear  with  their  ears,  and  understand 
with  their  heart,  and  should  be  converted,  and  I  should 
heal  them. —  Acts  xxviii.  25-27. 

vii.  14  Now  all  this  was  done,  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was 

spoken  of  the  Lord  by  the  prophet,  saying,  Behold,  a 
virgin  shall  be  with  child,  and  shall  bring  forth  a  son 
and  they  shall  call  his  name  Emmanuel  .  . — Matt.  i.  22.  23. 

viii.  14         ...  as  it  is  written.  Behold,  I  lay  in  Sion  a  stumbling-stone 
and  rock  of  offence  :  .  .  . — Eom.  ix.  33. 
.  .  .  and  a  stone  of  stumbling,  and  a  rock  of  offence,  even 
to  them  which  stumble  at  the  word.  .  .  . — 1  Pet.  ii.  8. 

viii.  14,18  .  .  .  and  again,  I  will  put  my  trust  in  him.  And  again, 
Behold  I  and  the  children  which  God  bath  given  me. — 
Heb.  ii.  13. 

ix.  1,  2  ...  that  it  mJght  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  Esaias 
the  prophet,  saying,'  The  land  of  Zabulon,  and  the  land 
of  Nephthalim,  by  the  way  of  the  sea,  beyond  Jordan, 
Galilee  of  the  Gentiles  ;  the  people  which  sat  in  darkness 
saw  great  light ;  and  to  them  which  sat  in  the  region 
and  shadow  of  death  light  is  sprung  up. — Matt.  iv. 
14-16. 

X.  22,  23  .  Esaias  also  crieth  concerning  Israel,  Though  the  number  of 
the  children  of  Israel  be  as  the  sand  of  the  sea,  a  remnant 
shall  be  saved :  for  he  will  finish  the  work,  and  cut  it 
short  in  righteousness :  because  a  short  work  will  the 
Lord  make  upon  the  earth.  —Eom.  ix.  27,  28. 

xi.  10  .     .  And  again,  Esaias  saith,  There  shall  be  a  root  of  Jesse,  and 

'  A  more  satisfactory  translation  of  Is.  ix.  1,2  is  given  by  Mr.  Gough  :  '  As  the 
former  time  debased  the  land  of  Zabulon  and  the  land  of  Naphtali,  so  the  latter  time  • 
shall  make  it  glorious.    The  way  of  tne  sea,  &c.' 

M  M 


530 


APPENDIX  I. 


XXV.  8 


xxvin. 
12 


xxviii.  16 


he  that  shall  rise  to  reign  over  the  G-entiles ;  in  him  shall 
the  Gentiles  trust. — Eom.  xv.  12. 
.  then  shall  be  brought  to  pass  the  saying  that  is  written, 
Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory. — 1  Cor.  xv.  54. 
11,  ...  In  the  law  it  is  written,  With  men  of  other  tongues  and 
other  lips  will  I  speak  unto  this  people  ;  and  yet  for  all 
that  will  they  not  hear  me,  saith  the  Lord. —  1  Cor. 
xiv.  21. 

.  as  it  is  written  .  .  .  whosoever  believeth  on  him  shall 
not  be  ashamed. — Eom.  ix.  33. 

.  For  the  scripture  saith,  Whosoever  believeth  on  him 
shall  not  be  ashamed. — Rom.  x.  11. 

.  Wherefore  also  it  is  contained  in  the  scripture.  Behold, 
I  lay  in  Sion  a  chief  corner  stone,  elect,  precious  :  and  he 
that  believeth  on  him  shall  not  be  confounded. — 1  Pet.  ii.  6. 

xxix.  10  ...  according  as  it  is  written,  G-od  hath  given  them  the 
spirit  of  slumber  .  .  . — Rom.  xi.  8. 

xxix.  13.  ,  Ye  hypocrites,  well  did  Esaias  prophesyof  you,  saying,  This 
people  draweth  nigh  unto  me  with  their  mouth,  and 
honoureth  me  with  their  lips  ;  but  their  heart  is  far  from 
me.  But  in  vain  do  they  worship  me,  teaching  for 
doctrines  the  commandments  of  men. — Matt.  xv.  7-9. 
.  .  .  Well  hath  Esaias  prophesied  of  you  hypocrites,  as  it  is 
written.  This  people  honoureth  me  with  their  lips,  but 
their  heart  is  far  from  me.  Howbeit  in  vain  do  they 
worship  me,  teaching /or  doctrines  the  commandments  of 
men. — Mark  vii.  6,  7. 

xxix.  14  .  For  it  is  written,  I  will  destroy  the  wisdom  of  the  wise, 
and  will  bring  to  nothing  the  understanding  of  the 
prudent. — 1  Cor.  i.  19. 

xl.  3-5  .  For  this  is  he  that  was  spoken  of  by  the  prophet  Esaias, 
saying,  The  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness.  Prepare 
ye  the  way  of  the  Lord,  make  his  paths  straight. — Matt. 
iii.  3. 
...  as  it  is  written  in  the  prophets  ,  .  .  The  voice  of  one 
crying  in  the  wilderness.  Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the 
Lord,  make  his  paths  straight. — Mark  i.  2,  3. 
...  as  it  is  written  in  the  book  of  the  words  of  Esaias  the 
prophet,  saying.  The  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness. 
Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord,  make  his  paths  straight. 
Every  valley  shall  be  filled,  and  every  mountain  and  hill 
shall  be  brought  low  ;  and  the  crooked  shall  be  made 
straight,  and  the  rough  ways  shall  he  made  smooth ;  and 
all  flesh  shall  see  the  salvation  of  God. — Luke  iii.  4-6. 
He  (John)  said,  I  mn  the  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Make  straight  the  way  of  the  Lord,  as  said  the 
prophet  Esaias. — John  i.  23. 


QUOTATIONS  FEOM  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.       531 

xl.  G-8  .  For  all  flesh  is  as  grass,  and  all  the  glory  of  man  as  the 
flower  of  grass.  The  grass  withereth,  and  the  flower 
thereof  falleth  away :  but  the  word  of  the  Lord  endureth 
for  ever  .  .  .—1  Pet.  i.  24,  25. 
xl.  13  ....  for  who  hath  known  the  mind  of  the  Lord?  or  who 
hath  been  his  counsellor  ?  .  .  .  . — Eom.  xi.  34. 
For  who  hath  known  the  mind  of  the  Lord,  that  he  may 
instruct  Him? — 1  Cor.  ii.  16. 

xlii.  1-4  .  .  .  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by 
Esaias  the  prophet,  saying.  Behold  my  servant  whom  I 
hare  chosen ;  my  beloved,  in  whom  my  soul  is  well 
pleased :  I  will  put  my  spirit  upon  him,  and  he  shall 
shew  judgment  to  the  Grentiles.  He  shall  not 
strive  nor  cry  :  neither  shall  any  man  hear  his  voice  in 
the  streets.  A  bruised  reed  shall  he  not  break,  and 
smoking  flax  shall  he  not  quench,  till  he  send  forth 
judgment  unto  victory.  And  in  his  name  shall  the 
Grentiles  trust. — Matt.  xii.  17-21. 

xlv.  23  .  For  it  is  written,  As  I  live,  saith  the  Lord,  every  knee  shall 
bow  to  me,  and  every  tongue  shall  confess  to  God. — 
Eom.  xiv.  11. 

xlix.  6  .  .  For  so  hath  the  Lord  commanded  us,  saying,  I  have  set 
thee  to  be  a  light  of  the  Gentiles,  that  thou  shouldest 
be  for  salvation  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth. — Acts 
xiii.  47. 

xlix.  8  .  For  he  saith,  I  have  heard  thee  in  a  time  accepted,  and  in 
the  day  of  salvation  have  I  succoured  thee  :  behold,  now 
is  the  accepted  time ;  behold,  now  is  the  day  of  salvation.— 
2  Cor.  vi.  2. 

Hi.  5  .  .  For  the  name  of  God  is  blasphemed  among  the  Gentiles 
through  you,  as  it  is  written. — Eom.  ii.  24. 

lii,  6,  7  .  .  •  as  it  is  written.  How  beautiful  are  the  feet  of  them  that 
preach  the  gospel  of  peace,  and  bring  glad  tidings  of  good 
things! — Eom.  x.  15. 

lii.  1 1  .  Wherefore  come  out  from  among  them,  and  be  ye  separate, 
saith  the  Lord,  and  touch  not  the  unclean  thing ;  and  I 
will  receive  you  .  .  .  . — 2  Cor.  vi.  17. 

lii.  15  ...  but  as  it  is  written.  To  whom  He  was  not  spoken  of. 

they  shall  see  ;  and  they  that  have  not  heard  shall  under- 
stand.— Eom.  XV.  21. 

liii.  1  ...  that  the  saying  of  Esaias  the  prophet  might  be  fulfilled, 

which  he  spake,  Lord,  who  hath  believed  our  report  ?  and 
to  whom  hath  the  arm  of  the  Lord  been  revealed  ? — 
John  xii.  38. 
But  they  have  not  all  obeyed  the  gospel :  for  Esaias  saith, 
Lord,  who  hath  believed  our  report? — Eom.  x.  16. 

liii.  4  ...  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  Esaias, 

M  JI  2 


532 


APPENDIX  I. 


liii.  5, 
liii.  7, 


liii.  12 

liv.  1 

Iv.  3 

Ivi.  7 

Ivii.  19 
lix.  20, 

b.i.  1.2 


21 


Ixiv.  4 


Ixv.  1,2 


the  prophet,   saying,  Himself  took  our   infirmities,  and 
bare  our  sicknesses. — Matt.  viii.  17. 

...  by  whoso  stripes  ye  were  healed.  For  ye  were  as  sheep 
going  astray  .  .  . — 1  Pet.  ii.  24,  25. 

The  place  of  the  scripture  which  he  read  was  this.  He  was 
led  as  a  sheep  to  the  slaughter ;  and  like  a  lamb  dumb 
before  his  shearer,  so  opened  he  not  his  mouth :  in  his 
humiliation  his  judgment  was  taken  away :  and  who  shall 
declare  his  generation?  for  his  life  is  taken  from  the 
earth.— Acts  viii.  32,  33. 

And  the  scripture  was  fulfilled,  which  saith.  And  he  was 
numbered  with  the  transgressors.— Mark  xv.  28. 

For  I  say  unto  you,  that  this  that  is  written  must  yet  be 
accomplished  in  me.  And  he  was  reckoned  among  the 
transgressors  .  .  . — Luke  xxii.  37. 

.  .  .  For  it  is  written.  Rejoice,  thou  barren  that  bearest 
not;  break  forth  and  cry,  thou  that  travaiiest  not:  for  the 
desolate  hath  many  more  children  than  she  which  hath  an 
husband. — Gal.  iv.  27. 

.  .  He  said  on  this  wise,  I  will  give  you  the  sure  mercies 
of  David. — Acts  xiii.  34. 
.  It  is  written,  My  house  shall  be  called  the  house  of 

prayer — Matt.  xxi.  13. 

.  Is  it  not   written.    My   house    shall   be  called  of  all 
nations  the  house  of  prayer? — Mark  xi.  17. 
.  It  is  written,  My  house  is  the  house  of  prayer  .  .  . — 
Luke  xix.  46. 

.  and  came  and  preached  peace  to  you  which  were  afar 
off,  and  to  them  that  were  nigh. — Ephes.  ii.  17. 

And  so  all  Israel  shall  be  saved:  as  it  is  written.  There 
shall  come  out  of  Sion  the  Deliverer,  and  shall  turn  away 
ungodliness  from  Jacob;  for  this  is  my  covenant  unto 
them,  when  I  shall  take  away  their  sins. — Eom.  xi.  26,  27. 

And  there  was  delivered  unto  him  the  book  of  the  prophet 
Esaias.  And  when  he  had  opened  the  book,  he  found  the 
place  where  it  was  written.  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is 
upon  me,  because  he  hath  anointed  me  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  the  poor ;  he  hath  sent  me  to  heal  the  broken- 
hearted, to  preach  deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  re- 
covering of  sight  to  the  blind,  to  set  at  liberty  them  that 
are  bruised,  to  preach  the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord. — 
Luke  iv.  17-19. 

.  .  .  But  as  it  is  written,  Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard, 
neither  have  entered  into  the  heart  of  man,  the  things 
which  God  hath  prepared  for  them  that  love  him. — 
1  Cor.  ii.  9. 

But  Esaias  is  very  bold,  and  saith,  I  was  found  of  them  that 


QUOTATIONS  FEOM  TEE   OLD   TESTAMENT.       533 

sought  me  not ;  I  was  made  manifest  unto  them  that 
asked  not  after  me.  But  to  Israel  he  saith,  All  day- 
long I  have  stretched  forth  my  hands  unto  a  disobedient 
and  gainsaying  people. — Rom.  x.  20,  21. 

Ixvi.  1,2  .  Howbeit  the  Most  High  dwelleth  not  in  temples  made  with 
hands ;  as  saith  the  prophet,  Heaven  u  my  throne,  and 
earth  is  my  footstool :  what  house  will  ye  build  me  ?  saith 
the  L'ord :  or  what  is  the  place  of  my  rest  ?  Hath  not 
my  hand  made  all  these  things? — Acts  vii.  48-50, 

Lxvi.  24  ....  it  is  better  for  thee  to  enter  into  life  maimed,  than 
having  two  hands  to  go  into  hell,  into  the  fire  that  never 
shall  be  quenched,  where  their  worm  dieth  not,  and  the 
fire  is  not  quenched  ...  to  be  cast  into  hell,  into  the  fire 
that  never  shall  be  quenched ;  where  their  worm  dieth 
not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched  ...  to  be  cast  into  hell 
fire :  where  their  worm  dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not 
quenched. — Mark  ix.  43-48. 

Jebemiah. 

ix.  24  ...  that,  according  as  it  is  written.  He  that  glorieth,  let 

him  glory  in  the  Lord. —  1  Cor.  i.  31. 

xxxi.  15  .  Then  was  fulfilled  that  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremy  the 
prophet,  saying,  In  Eama  was  there  a  voice  heard,  la- 
mentation, and  weeping,  and  great  mourning,  Rachel 
weeping  for  her  children,  and  would  not  be  comforted, 
because  they  are  not. — Matt.  ii.  17,  18. 

xxxi.  31-      For   finding  fault  with  them,  he  saith.  Behold,  the  days 

34  come,  saith  the  Lord,  when  I  will  make  a  new  covenant 

with  the  house  of  Israel  and  with  the  house  of  Judah :  not 
according  to  the  covenant  that  I  made  with  their  fathers 
in  the  day  when  I  took  them  by  the  hand  to  lead  them 
out  of  the  land  of  Egypt ;  because  they  continued  not  in 
my  covenant,  and  I  regarded  them  not,  saith  the  Lord. 
For  this  is  the  covenant  that  I  will  make  with  the  house 
of  Israel  after  those  days,  saith  the  Lord  ;  I  will  put  my 
laws  into  their  mind,  and  write  them  in  their  hearts  :  and 
I  will  be  to  them  a  God,  and  they  shall  be  to  me  a  people  : 
and  they  shall  not  teach  every  man  his  neighbour,  and 
every  man  his  brother,  saying,  Know  the  Lord :  for  all 
shall  know  me,  from  the  least  to  the  greatest.  For  I  will 
be  merciful  to  their  unrightpousness,  and  their  sins  and 
their  iniquities  will  I  remember  no  more. — Heb.  viii. 
8-12. 
Whereof  the  Holy  Ghost  also  is  a  witness  to  us  :  for  after 
that  he  had  said  before,  this  is  the  covenant  that  I  will 
make  with  them  after  those  days,  saith  the  Lord,  I  will 
put  my  laws  into  their  hearts,  and  in  their  minds  will  I 


534  APPENDIX  I. 

write  them  ;  and  their  sins  and  iniquities  will  I  remember 
no  more. — Heb.  x.  15-17. 

Daniel, 

ix.  27 ;  xi.  .  When  ye  therefore  shall  see  the  abomination  of  desolation, 

31 ;  xii.  11        spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  prophet,  stand  in  the  holy  place, 

(whoso  readeth  let  him  understand  :)  .  .  . — Matt.  xxiv.  15. 

But  when  ye  shall  see  the  abomination  of  desolation,  spoken 

of  by  Daniel  the  prophet,  standing  where  it  ought  not, 

(let  him  that  readeth  understand,)   .   .    . — Mark  xiii.  14. 

HOSEA. 

i.  10     .     .  As  he  saith  also  in  Osee  .  .  .  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that 

in  the  place  whore  it  was  said  unto  them,  Ye  are  not  my 

people  ;  there  shall  they  be  called  the  children  of  the  living 

G-od.— Rom.  ix.  25,  26. 
ii,  23  ...  As  He  saith  also  in  Osee,  I  will  call  them  my  people, 

which  were  not  my  people  ;  and  her  beloved,  which  was 

not  beloved. — Eom.  ix.  25. 
vi.  6  But  go  ye  and  learn  what  that  meaneth,  I  will  have  mercy, 

and  not  sacrifice  .  .  . — Matt.  ix.  13. 
But  if  ye  had  known  what  this  meaneth,  I  will  have  mercy, 

and  not.  sacrifice  .  .  . — Matt.  xii.  7. 
xi.  1.  ...  that  it   might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  of  the 

Lord  by  the  prophet,  saying,  Out  of  Egypt  have  I  called 

my  son. — Matt.  ii.  15. 

JOEX. 

ii.  28-32  .  .  .  But  this  is  that  which  was  spoken  by  the  prophet 
Joel ;  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  last  days,  saith 
God,  I  will  pour  out  of  my  spirit  upon  all  flesh ;  and  your 
sons  and  your  daughters  shall  prophesy,  and  your  young 
men  shall  see  visions,  and  your  old  men  shall  dream 
dreams  :  and  on  my  servants  and  on  my  handmaidens 
I  will  pour  out  in  those  days  of  my  Spirit ;  and  they  shall 
prophesy  :  and  I  will  shew  wonders  in  heaven  above,  and 
signs  in  the  earth  beneath;  blood,  and  fire,  and  vapour  of 
smoke :  the  sun  shall  be  turned  into  darkness,  and  the 
moon  into  blood,  before  that  great  and  notable  day  of  the 
Lord  come :  and  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  whosoever 
shall  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall  be  saved. — 
Acts  ii.  16-21. 

.  .  .  For  whosoever  shall  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord 
shall  be  saved. — Rom.  x.  13. 

...  as  it  is  written  in  the  book  of  the  prophets,  0  ye  house 
of  Israel,  have  ye  offered  to  me  slain  beasts  and  sacrifices 
by  the  s_pace  of  forty  years  in  the  wilderness  ?  Yea,  ye 


QUOTATIONS  FEOM  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT.       535 

took  up  the  tabernacle  of  Moloch,  and  the  star  of  your 
god  liemphan,  figures  which  ye  made  to  worship  them  : 
and  I  will  carry  you  away  beyond  Babylon.' — Acts  vii. 
42-43. 

Amos. 
IX.  II,  12  And  to  this  agree  the  words  of  the  prophets;  as  it  is 
written,  After  this  I  will  return,  and  will  build  again  the 
tabernacle  of  David,  which  is  fallen  down  ;  and  I  will 
build  again  the  ruins  thereof,  and  I  will  set  it  up  :  that 
the  residue  of  men  might  seek  after  the  Lord,  and  all  the 
Gentiles,  upon  whom  my  name  is  called,  saith  the  Lord, 
who  doeth  all  these  tilings. — Acts  xv.  15-17. 

MiCAH. 

V.  2  ...  for  thus  it  is  written  by  the  prophet,  And  thou  Beth- 

lehem, in  the  land  of  Juda,  art  not  the  least  among  the 
princes  of  Juda :  for  out  of  thee  shall  come  a  Grovernor, 
that  shall  rule  my  people  Israel. — Matt.  ii.  5-6. 

Habakkuk. 
i.  5  .  .  Beware  therefore,  lest  that  come  upon  you,  which  is  spoken 
of  in  the  prophets  ;  Behold,  ye  despisers,  and  wonder,  and 
perish :  for  I  work  a  work  in  your  days,  a  work  which 
ye  shall  in  no  wise  believe,  though  a  man  declare  it  unto 
you. — Acts  xiii.  40,  41. 
ii.  3  For  yet  a  little  while,  and  he  that  shall  come  will  come, 

and  will  not  tarry. — Heb.  x.  37. 
li.  4  ...  as  it  is  written,  The  just  shall  live  by  faith.— Eom. 

i.  17. 
.  .  .  for.  The  just  shall  live  by  faith.  — Gal.  iii.  11, 
Now  the  just  shall  live  by  faith,  but  xi'any  man  draw  back, 
my  soul  shall  have  no  pleasure  in  him. — Heb.  x.  38. 

Haggai. 

ii.  6  ...  "Whose  voice  then  shook  the  earth :  but  now  he  hath 

promised,  sapng,  Yet  once  more  I  shake  not  the  earth 
only,  but  also  heaven. — Heb.  xii.  26. 

Zechariah. 

iii.  2  ...  Yet  Michael  the  archangel,  when  contending  with  the 

devil  he  disputed  about  the  body  of  Moses  .  .  .  said,  The 
Lord  rebuke  thee. — Jude  9. 

ix.  9  .  .  All  this  was  done,  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was 
spoken  by  the  prophet,  saying,  Tell  ye  the  daughter  of  Sion, 
Behold  thy  king  cometh  unto  thee,  maek,  and  sitting  upon 
an  ass,  and  a  colt  the  foal  of  an  ass. — Matt.  xxi.  4,  5. 

'  See  under  Stephen. 


536  APPENDIX  I. 

.  .  .  as  it  is  written,  Pear  not,  daiightcr  of  Sion  :  behold,  thy 
King  comoth,  sitting  on  an  ass's  colt. — John  xii.  14,  15. 

xi.  12,  13  Then  was  fulfilled  that  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremy 
the  prophet,'  saying,  And  they  took  the  thirty  pieces  of 
silver,  the  price  of  hira  that  was  vahied,  whom  they  of 
the  children  of  Israel  did  value ;  and  gave  them  for  the 
potter's  field,  as  the  Lord  appointed  me. — Matt,  xxvii. 
9,  10. 

xii.  10  ...  and  again  another  scripture  saith,  They  shall  look  on 
him  whom  they  pierced.— John  xix.  37. 

xiii.  7  ...  for  it  is  written,  I  will  smite  the  shepherd,  and  the 

sheep   of  the   flock   shall   be   scattered  abroad. — Matt, 
xxvi.  31. 
...  for  it  is  written,  I  will  smite  the  shepherd,  and  the 
sheep  shall  be  scattered.— Mark  xiv.  27. 

Malachi. 

2,  3  ...  as  it  is  written,  Jacob  have  I  loved,  but  Esau  have 

I  hated. — Eom.  ix.  13. 
.  .  .  Por  this  is  he  of  whom  it  is  written.  Behold,  I  send 

my  messenger  before  thy  face,  which  shall  prepare  thy 

way  before  thee. — Matt.  xi.  10. 
...  as  it  is  written  in  the  prophets,  Behold,  I  send  my 

messenger  before  thy  face,  which  shall  prepare  thy  way 

before  thee. — Mark  i.  2. 
iii.  1     .     .  This  is  he,  of  whom  it  is  written.  Behold,  I  send  my  mes- 
senger before  thy  face,  which  shall  prepare  thy  way  before 

thee. — Luke  vii.  27. 


QUOTATIONS  FBOM  DOUBTFUL  PLACES. 

And  he  came  and  dwelt  in  a  city  called  Nazareth :  that  it 
might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  the  prophets,  He 
shall  be  called  a  Nazarene.- — Matt.  ii.  23. 

Ye  have  heard  that  it  was  said  by  tbem^  of  old  time,  Thou 
shalt  not  kill ;  and  whosoever  shall  kill  shall  be  in  danger 
of  the  judgment. — Matt.  v.  21. 

Again,  ye  have  heard  that  it  hath  been  said  by  them  ^  of 
old  time,  Thou  shalt  not  forswear  thyself,  but  shalt  per- 
form unto  the  Lord  thine  oaths  .  .  . — Matt.  v.  33. 

'  Pee  under  Jeremiah.  =  ggg  ^m^er  Nazarene,  p.  207. 

^  More  probably  '  to  them,'  in  wMch  case  these  are  references  to  the  sixth  and 
ninth  commandments. 


QUOTATIONS  FROM  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT.       537 

Ye  have  heard  that  it  hath  been  said,'  Thou  shalt  love  thy 

neighbour,  and  hato  thine  enemy, — Matt.  v.  43. 
The  Son  of  man  goeth  as  it  is  written  ^  of  him  .  .  . — Matt. 

xxvi.  24. 
The  Son  of  man  indeed  goeth  as  it  is  vrritten-  of  hira  .  .  . — 

Mark  xiv.  21. 
And  truly  the  Son  of  man  goeth,  as  it  was  determined  ^  .  .  , 

— Luke  xxii.  22. 
He  that  believeth  on  me,  as  the  scripture  hath  said,^  out  of 

his  belly  shall  flow  rivers  of  living  water. — John  vii.  38. 
.  .  .  We  have  heard  out  of  the  law  ■*  that  Christ  abideth  for 

ever  .  .  . — John  xii.  34. 
For  as  yet  they  knew  not  the  scripture,^  that  he  must  rise 

again  from  the  dead. — John  xx.  9. 
Wherefore  he''  saith.  Awake  thou  that  sleepest,  and  arise 

from    the    dead,    and    Christ    shall   give   thee   light. — 

Ephes.  V.  14. 
For  the  Scripture^  saith The  labourer  is  worthy  of 

his  reward. — 1  Tim.  v.  18. 
And  so  terrible  was  the  sight,  that  Moses  said,  I  exceedingly 

fear  and  quake. ^ — Heb.  xii.  21. 
Do  ye  think  that  the  scripture^  saith  in  vain,  The  spirit  that 

dwelleth  in  us  lusteth  to  envy? — James  iv.  5. 

'  Most  probably  from  Lev.  xix.  18,  with  a  Eabbinical  gloss. 

^  Probablj'  referring  to  the  general  prophecies  respecting  Judas.  See  Ps.  xii.  9  ; 
Ixix.  25 ;  cix.  8. 

^  No  particular  scripture  can  be  adduced.  But  reference  may  be  made  to  Is. 
xliv.  3  ;  Iv.  1 ;  Mii.  1  ;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  25  ;  Zech.  xiv.  8. 

*  They  might  have  been  alluding  to  Ps.  Ix-xxix.  36. 

^  Referring  to  the  general  prophecies  of  Christ's  resurrection,  and  not  to  any  par- 
ticular text. 

®  But  the  margin  says  '  it,'  i.e.  'the  light,'  mentioned  in  ver.  13. 

'  I.e.  our  Lord's  recorded  words  in  Matt.  x.  10  ;  Luke  x.  7. 

®  See  imder  Stephen. 

'  If  we  read,  with  some,  '  Do  ye  think  that  the  Scripture  speaks  in  vain  ?  Doth 
the  Spirit  within  us  (i.  e.  the  Holy  Spirit;  lust  to  envy  ? '  the  difBculty  is  removed. 
The  tenth  commandment  sufficiently  meets  the  former  of  these  two  enquiries. 


538 


APPENDIX  II. 


II. 


GREEK   AND  HEBREW   WRITING. 


With  the  view  of  assisting  persons  unacquainted  with  the  original  lan- 
guages of  the  Scriptures  to  use  the  foregoing  volume  more  advantageously, 
a  short  account  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  modes  of  writing  is  here 
appended. 

1.  Greek. 

Greek  is  written  from  left  to  right,  and  the  alphabet  is  composed  of 
vowels  and  consonants,  as  in  English. 


The  Greek  Alphabet. 


Letter 

Name 

Prouunciation 

A  a 

alpha 

a  in  mat 

B  a 

beta 

b 

! 

r  7 

gamma 

g  hard,  77  are  pronounced  7ig  as 

in  angel     \ 

A   S 

delta 

d 

i 

E    e 

epsilon 

e  short  as  in  let 

z  C 

zeta 

z 

H     7, 

eta 

e  long  as  in  prepay 

@  Sr  ov  0 

theta 

th 

I    { 

iota 

i  either  long  or  short 

1 

K     K 

kappa 

k 

A    X 

lambda 

I 

M  IX 

mu 

m 

N   V 

nu 

n 

H  ^• 

ksi 

X 

O  0 

omicron 

0  short  as  in  pot 

1 

n  TT 

pi 

p 

p  p 

rho 

r 

2     <T^ 

Sigma 

s 

T     T 

tau 

t 

T    i; 

upsilon 

u  either  long  or  short 

*     0 

phi 

ph  or/ 

X   X 

chi 

ch  or  k 

^r    ^ 

psi 

ps 

n  CO 

omega 

0  long  as  m  note. 

cr  at  the  end  of  a  word  is  written  s. 


GKEEK  AND  HEBREW  WRITING.  539 

The  diphthongs. 

at  and  ct  are  pronounced  as  i      in  like 
€v  and  -qv         ,,  „         u     „  duty 

av  „  ,,         au    „  nautical 

01  „  „         oy     „  boy 

ov  „  „         ow    „  trowser 

VI  „  „        whi  „  white 

The  accents  and  breathings. 

The  accents  of  Greek  words  do  not  interfere  with  their  pronunciation, 
but  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  have  what  is  called  a  breathing 
marked  over  the  vowel,  and  words  beginning  with  a  diphthong  have  a 
breathing  marked  over  the  second  vowel  of  the  diphthong.  These 
breathings  are  two : 

'    the  soft  breathing,  indicates  that  the  vowel  is  not  aspirated. 
Thus,  ovos  —  onos,  avTos=autos. 

'    the  hard  breathing,  indicates  that  the  vowel  is  aspirated.     Thus, 
6Sos=:hodos,  auTos  —  hautos. 

Example  of  Beading. 

iriaros  6    \oyos  Kai    ■naar)s  airoSoxvs  a|ios  oti  Xpiaros  'Itjcous    iiXdev 
pistos  ho  logos  kai  pases  apodokes  axioshoti  Christos  lesous  elthen 

els  Tov  Kocr/j-ov    afxaprwKovs  (xcocrai.      1  Tim.  i.  15. 
eis  ton  kosmon  hamartolous  sosai. 

2.  Hebre-w. 

1.  Hebrew  is  written  from  right  to  left ;  thus  the  word  Nergal  would 
be  written  (omitting  the  vowels)  1  g  r  n. 

2.  The  alphabet  consists  of  consonants  and  silent  letters  only.  Thus, 
the  words,  Long  live  the  king,  would  be  -v^ritten  in  Hebrew, 

gnk    ht    vl     gnl 

3.  The  vowels  are  represented  by  little  marks  placed  above,  below,  or 
in  the  middle  of  the  consonants. 

4.  To  show  that  a  consonant  is  pronounced  conjointly  with  the  suc- 
ceeding or  preceding  syllable,  two  dots  (:)  called  Sheva  are  placed 
under  the  unvowelled  consonant.     Thus,  blow,  drain,  compel. 

5.  Several  consonants  are  ordinarily  pronounced  with  an  aspirate. 
Thus  2  =  bh.  To  remove  the  aspirate,  a  dot  called  dagesh  is  placed  in 
the  letter.  Thus  2  =  6.  Dagesh  is  also  used  to  double  letters  in  the 
middle  of  a  word. 


540 


APPENDIX  II. 

6.  Alphabet. 


Letter 

Name 

Power 

^? 

aleph 

silent 

n  2 

beth 

V  without  dagesh,  b  with 

3  :i 

gimel 

gh  withovit  dagesh,  g  hard  with 

"I  "n 

daleth 

dh  without  dagesh,  d  with 

n 

hay 

h  as  in  he 

1 

vaw 

w  ovv 

T 

zam 

z 

n 

cheth 

ch  guttural,  as  in  German 

13 

teth 

t 

1 

yod 

y  in  yes 

2,3* 

caph 

ch  without  dagesh,  k  with 

h 

lamed 

I 

K 

mem 

m 

r 

nun 

n 

D 

samech 

s 

y 

am 

silent 

2  2* 

pee 

ph  or/  without  dagesh,  p  with 

^* 

tsadde 

ts 

P 

koph 

k 

"1 

resh 

r 

^ 

shin 

sh 

'^ 

sm 

s 

n  n 

tau 

th  without  dagesh,  t  with. 

The  letters  marked  with  asterisks,  when  occurring  at  the  end  of 
word,  are  thus  written,  ^,  Q,  |,  5j,  Y' 


7. 

The  vowels,      (a)  5  Long. 

Name 

Form 

Position 

Power 

kamets 

- 

under  the  cons.,  as  3  ba 

a  in  father 

tsere 

under,  as  5  gd 

a  in  ^a^e 

chirik 

>  or  r 

under,  as  '•2  bee 

?:  in  machine 

holem 

i  or  - 

above,  as,  '^^  lo,  or  i  o 

0  in  %c» 

1 

shoorek 

•I 

in  the  middle,  as  .i")  sAm 

00  in  iooi! 

GEEEK  AND  HEBEEW   WEITING. 
(b)  5  Short 


541 


Name 

Form 

Position 

Power          1 

pathak 

- 

under,  as  •^  da 

a  in  what 

segol 

under,  as  *n  de 

e  in  set 

short 
chirik 

• 

under,  as  "1  hi 

i  in  'pin 

kamets 
cbataph 

t:  or  T 

under,  as  t5  o,  2  ho 

0  in  son 

kibbuts 

••. 

under,  as  3  hu 

u  in  bull 

Note.  The  pronunciation  is  given  according  to  the  pronunciation  of 
the  Portuguese  and  Spanish  Jews  ;  the  Grerman  and  Polish  Jews  pro- 
nounce the  vowels  somewhat  differently. 

Example  of  Reading. 

nX    D^n^K    5^*12    rp^^J^n?      b'rasheeth  baara  elol.eem  ath 

♦  f"^'^         n^il         D^Dt^'n      hashshamaiyeem  wath  haarets ; 

■in^l     -inn     nnsn     fl^ni.      wehaarets  hay'tha  thohoo  wabhohoo 

Dinn  ^5S~^y         "=]^'ni      wechoshek  al-p'nay  th'hom 

riDn^P         Cn?^         n-ni.      werooach  eloheem  m'rachefeth 

D^?2n    \3i)  vy      al-p'nay  hamaiyeem. 

Gen.  i.  1,2. 


EEEATA. 

Page  98,  for  Burial  read  Ascension. 

In  Section  V.  Core  has  been  omitted,  but  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  section, 
on  p.  513. 


*«*  The  author  will  feel  exceedingly  obliged  if  any  persons  who  may  find  errors 
of  reference  or  statement  will  kindly  communicate  with  him. 


>.'■ 


t. 


::^ 


*>. .-. 


'i^ 


